Encryption
Encyclopedia
In cryptography
, encryption is the process of transforming information
(referred to as plaintext
) using an algorithm
(called a cipher
) to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key
. The result of the process is encrypted information (in cryptography, referred to as ciphertext
). In many contexts, the word encryption also implicitly refers to the reverse process, decryption (e.g. “software for encryption
” can typically also perform decryption), to make the encrypted information readable again (i.e. to make it unencrypted).
Encryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. Encryption is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the Computer Security Institute
reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage. Encryption can be used to protect data "at rest", such as files on computers and storage devices (e.g. USB flash drives). In recent years there have been numerous reports of confidential data such as customers' personal records being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives. Encrypting such files at rest helps protect them should physical security measures fail. Digital rights management
systems which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against reverse engineering
(see also copy protection
) are another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.
Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via networks
(e.g. the Internet
, e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphone
s, wireless intercom
systems, Bluetooth
devices and bank automatic teller machines. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years. Encrypting data in transit also helps to secure it as it is often difficult to physically secure all access to networks.
Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code
(MAC) or a digital signature
. Standards and cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single slip-up in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See, e.g., traffic analysis
, TEMPEST
, or Trojan horse
.
One of the earliest public key encryption applications was called Pretty Good Privacy
(PGP). It was written in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann
and was purchased by Symantec
in 2010.
Digital signature and encryption must be applied at message creation time (i.e. on the same device it has been composed) to avoid tampering. Otherwise any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper it.
Cryptography
Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties...
, encryption is the process of transforming information
Information
Information in its most restricted technical sense is a message or collection of messages that consists of an ordered sequence of symbols, or it is the meaning that can be interpreted from such a message or collection of messages. Information can be recorded or transmitted. It can be recorded as...
(referred to as plaintext
Plaintext
In cryptography, plaintext is information a sender wishes to transmit to a receiver. Cleartext is often used as a synonym. Before the computer era, plaintext most commonly meant message text in the language of the communicating parties....
) using an algorithm
Algorithm
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for calculating a function. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning...
(called a cipher
Cipher
In cryptography, a cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption — a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is encipherment. In non-technical usage, a “cipher” is the same thing as a “code”; however, the concepts...
) to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key
Key (cryptography)
In cryptography, a key is a piece of information that determines the functional output of a cryptographic algorithm or cipher. Without a key, the algorithm would produce no useful result. In encryption, a key specifies the particular transformation of plaintext into ciphertext, or vice versa...
. The result of the process is encrypted information (in cryptography, referred to as ciphertext
Ciphertext
In cryptography, ciphertext is the result of encryption performed on plaintext using an algorithm, called a cipher. Ciphertext is also known as encrypted or encoded information because it contains a form of the original plaintext that is unreadable by a human or computer without the proper cipher...
). In many contexts, the word encryption also implicitly refers to the reverse process, decryption (e.g. “software for encryption
Encryption software
Encryption software is software whose main task is encryption and decryption of data, usually in the form of files on hard drives and removable media, email messages, or in the form of packets sent over computer networks.-Security:...
” can typically also perform decryption), to make the encrypted information readable again (i.e. to make it unencrypted).
Encryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. Encryption is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the Computer Security Institute
Computer Security Institute
The Computer Security Institute is a professional membership organization serving practitioners of information, network, and computer-enabled physical security, from the level of system administrator to the chief information security officer. It was founded in 1974.CSI conducts two conferences per...
reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage. Encryption can be used to protect data "at rest", such as files on computers and storage devices (e.g. USB flash drives). In recent years there have been numerous reports of confidential data such as customers' personal records being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives. Encrypting such files at rest helps protect them should physical security measures fail. Digital rights management
Digital rights management
Digital rights management is a class of access control technologies that are used by hardware manufacturers, publishers, copyright holders and individuals with the intent to limit the use of digital content and devices after sale. DRM is any technology that inhibits uses of digital content that...
systems which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against reverse engineering
Reverse engineering
Reverse engineering is the process of discovering the technological principles of a device, object, or system through analysis of its structure, function, and operation...
(see also copy protection
Copy protection
Copy protection, also known as content protection, copy obstruction, copy prevention and copy restriction, refer to techniques used for preventing the reproduction of software, films, music, and other media, usually for copyright reasons.- Terminology :Media corporations have always used the term...
) are another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.
Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via networks
Computer network
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information....
(e.g. the Internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
, e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphone
Wireless microphone
A wireless microphone, as the name implies, is a microphone without a physical cable connecting it directly to the sound recording or amplifying equipment with which it is associated...
s, wireless intercom
Wireless intercom
A wireless intercom is a telecommunications device that enables voice communication without the need to run copper wires between intercom stations. A wired intercom system may incorporate wireless elements....
systems, Bluetooth
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks with high levels of security...
devices and bank automatic teller machines. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years. Encrypting data in transit also helps to secure it as it is often difficult to physically secure all access to networks.
Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code
Message authentication code
In cryptography, a message authentication code is a short piece of information used to authenticate a message.A MAC algorithm, sometimes called a keyed hash function, accepts as input a secret key and an arbitrary-length message to be authenticated, and outputs a MAC...
(MAC) or a digital signature
Digital signature
A digital signature or digital signature scheme is a mathematical scheme for demonstrating the authenticity of a digital message or document. A valid digital signature gives a recipient reason to believe that the message was created by a known sender, and that it was not altered in transit...
. Standards and cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single slip-up in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See, e.g., traffic analysis
Traffic analysis
Traffic analysis is the process of intercepting and examining messages in order to deduce information from patterns in communication. It can be performed even when the messages are encrypted and cannot be decrypted. In general, the greater the number of messages observed, or even intercepted and...
, TEMPEST
TEMPEST
TEMPEST is a codename referring to investigations and studies of compromising emission . Compromising emanations are defined as unintentional intelligence-bearing signals which, if intercepted and analyzed, may disclose the information transmitted, received, handled, or otherwise processed by any...
, or Trojan horse
Trojan horse (computing)
A Trojan horse, or Trojan, is software that appears to perform a desirable function for the user prior to run or install, but steals information or harms the system. The term is derived from the Trojan Horse story in Greek mythology.-Malware:A destructive program that masquerades as a benign...
.
One of the earliest public key encryption applications was called Pretty Good Privacy
Pretty Good Privacy
Pretty Good Privacy is a data encryption and decryption computer program that provides cryptographic privacy and authentication for data communication. PGP is often used for signing, encrypting and decrypting texts, E-mails, files, directories and whole disk partitions to increase the security...
(PGP). It was written in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann
Phil Zimmermann
Philip R. "Phil" Zimmermann Jr. is the creator of Pretty Good Privacy , the most widely used email encryption software in the world. He is also known for his work in VoIP encryption protocols, notably ZRTP and Zfone....
and was purchased by Symantec
Symantec
Symantec Corporation is the largest maker of security software for computers. The company is headquartered in Mountain View, California, and is a Fortune 500 company and a member of the S&P 500 stock market index.-History:...
in 2010.
Digital signature and encryption must be applied at message creation time (i.e. on the same device it has been composed) to avoid tampering. Otherwise any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper it.
See also
- Brute-force attack
- CipherCipherIn cryptography, a cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption — a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is encipherment. In non-technical usage, a “cipher” is the same thing as a “code”; however, the concepts...
- Cold boot attackCold boot attackIn cryptography, a cold boot attack is a type of side channel attack in which an attacker with physical access to a computer is able to retrieve encryption keys from a running operating system after using a cold reboot to restart the machine from a completely "off" state...
- CryptographyCryptographyCryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties...
- Cyberspace Electronic Security ActCyberspace Electronic Security ActThe Cyberspace Electronic Security Act of 1999 is a bill proposed by the Clinton administration during the 106th United States Congress that enables the government to harvest keys used in encryption. The Cyberspace Electronic Security Act gives law enforcement the ability to gain access to...
(in the US) - Disk encryptionDisk encryptionDisk encryption is a special case of data at rest protection when the storage media is a sector-addressable device . This article presents cryptographic aspects of the problem...
- Encryption softwareEncryption softwareEncryption software is software whose main task is encryption and decryption of data, usually in the form of files on hard drives and removable media, email messages, or in the form of packets sent over computer networks.-Security:...
- Famous ciphertexts
- KeyKey (cryptography)In cryptography, a key is a piece of information that determines the functional output of a cryptographic algorithm or cipher. Without a key, the algorithm would produce no useful result. In encryption, a key specifies the particular transformation of plaintext into ciphertext, or vice versa...
- Key managementKey managementKey management is the provisions made in a cryptography system design that are related to generation, exchange, storage, safeguarding, use, vetting, and replacement of keys. It includes cryptographic protocol design, key servers, user procedures, and other relevant protocols.Key management concerns...
- Rip van Winkle cipherRip van Winkle cipherIn cryptography, the Rip van Winkle cipher is a provably secure cipher with a finite key, assuming the attacker has only finite storage.The cipher requires a broadcaster publicly transmitting a series of random numbers....
- Secure Network CommunicationsSecure Network CommunicationsSecure Network Communications is a software layer in the SAP system architecture that enables the use of stronger authentication, encryption and single sign-on mechanism. SAP provides SNC for server to server communications only...
- Secure USB drive
- Security and Freedom Through Encryption ActSecurity and Freedom Through Encryption ActThe Security and Freedom Through Encryption Act was approved in 1999 by the US Congress to affirm the rights of United States persons to use and sell encryption and to relax export controls on encryption. -Overview:* Freedom to use encryption....
- Television encryptionTelevision encryptionTelevision encryption, often referred to as "scrambling", is encryption used to control access to pay television services, usually cable or satellite television services.-History:...