Endosulfan
Encyclopedia
Endosulfan is an off-patent organochlorine insecticide
and acaricide that is being phased out globally. Endosulfan became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation
, and role as an endocrine disruptor
. Because of its threats to human health and the environment, a global ban on the manufacture and use of endosulfan was negotiated under the Stockholm Convention
in April 2011. The ban will take effect in mid 2012, with certain uses exempted for 5 additional years. More than 80 countries, including the European Union
, Australia and New Zealand, several West African nations, the United States, Brazil and Canada had already banned it or announced phase outs by the time the Stockholm Convention ban was agreed upon. It is still used extensively in India, China, and few other countries. It is produced by Makhteshim Agan
and several manufacturers in India and China.
s, aphids, leafhopper
s, Colorado potato beetle
s and cabbage worm
s. Due to its unique mode of action, it is useful in resistance management; however, as it is non-specific, it can negatively impact populations of beneficial insects. It is, however, considered to be moderately toxic to honey bees, and it is less toxic to bees than organophosphate
insecticides.
estimated world wide annual production to be about 9,000 metric tonnes (t) in the early 1980s. From 1980–89, worldwide consumption averaged 10,500 t per year, and for the 1990s use increased to 12,800 t per year.
Endosulfan' is a derivative of hexachlorocyclopentadiene
and is chemically similar to aldrin
, chlordane
, and heptachlor
. Specifically, it is produced by the Diels-Alder reaction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene with cis-butene-1,4-diol and subsequent reaction of the adduct with thionyl chloride
. Technical endosulfan is a 7:3 mixture of stereoisomers, designated α and β. α- and β-endosulfan are conformational isomers arising from the pyramidal stereochemistry of sulfur. α-Endosulfan is the more thermodynamically stable of the two, thus β-endosulfan irreversibly converts to the α form, although the conversion is slow.
—a synthetic substance that imitates or enhances the effect of estrogen
s—and it can act as an endocrine disruptor
, causing reproductive and developmental damage in both animals and humans. Whether endosulfan can cause cancer
is debated. With regard to consumers intake of endosulfan from residues on food, the Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
has concluded that long-term exposure from food is unlikely to present a public health concern, but short term exposure can exceed acute reference doses.
to both insects and mammals, including humans. The US EPA classifies it as Category I: "Highly Acutely Toxic" based on a LD50 value of 30 mg/kg for female rats
, while the World Health Organization classifies it as Class II "Moderately Hazardous" based on a rat LD50 of 80 mg/kg. It is a GABA-gated chloride channel
antagonist
, and a Ca2+, Mg2+ ATPase
inhibitor
. Both of these enzymes are involved in the transfer of nerve impulses. Symptoms of acute poisoning include hyperactivity, tremors, convulsions, lack of coordination, staggering, difficulty breathing, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, and in severe cases, unconsciousness. Doses as low as 35 mg/kg have been documented to cause death in humans, and many cases of sub-lethal poisoning have resulted in permanent brain damage. Farm workers with chronic
endosulfan exposure are at risk of rashes and skin irritation.
EPA's acute reference dose
for dietary exposure to endosulfan is 0.015 mg/kg for adults and 0.0015 mg/kg for children. For chronic dietary expsoure, the EPA references doses are 0.006 mg/(kg·day) and 0.0006 mg/(kg·day) for adults and children, respectively.
consider endosulfan to be a potential endocrine disruptor. Numerous in vitro
studies have documented its potential to disrupt hormones and animal studies have demonstrated its reproductive and developmental toxicity, especially among males. A number of studies have documented that it acts as an anti-androgen
in animals.. Endosulfan has shown to affect crustacean molt-cycle which is an important biological and endocrine-controlled physiological process essential for the crustacean growth and reproduction. . Environmentally relevant doses of endosulfan equal to the EPA's safe dose of 0.006 mg/kg/day have been found to affect gene expression
in female rats similarly to the effects of estrogen. It is not known whether endosulfan is a human teratogen (an agent that causes birth defects), though it has significant teratogenic effects in laboratory rat
s. A 2009 assessment concluded that endocrine disruption occurs only at endosulfan doses that cause neurotoxicity.
, India have linked endosulfan exposure to delays in sexual maturity
among boys. Endosulfan was the only pesticide applied to cashew
plantations in the villages for 20 years and had contaminated the village environment. The researchers compared the villagers to a control group of boys from a demographically similar village that lacked a history of endosulfan pollution. Relative to the control group, the exposed boys had high levels of endosulfan in their bodies, lower levels of testosterone
, and delays in reaching sexual maturity. Birth defects of the male reproductive system including cryptorchidism
were also more prevalent in the study group. The researchers concluded that "our study results suggest that endosulfan exposure in male children may delay sexual maturity and interfere with sex hormone synthesis." Increased incidences of cryptorchidism have been observed in other studies of endosulfan exposed populations.
A 2007 study by the California Department of Public Health found that women who lived near farm fields sprayed with endosulfan and the related organochloride pesticide dicofol
during the first eight weeks of pregnancy are several times more likely to give birth to children with autism
. This is the first study to look for an association between endosulfan and autism, and additional study is needed to confirm the connection. A 2009 assessment concluded that epidemiology and rodent studies that suggest male reproductive and autism effects are open to other interpretations, and that developmental or reproductive toxicity occurs only at endosulfan doses that cause neurotoxicity.
, or other agencies. There are no epidemiological studies linking exposure to endosulfan specifically to cancer in humans, but in vitro assays have shown that endosulfan can promote proliferation of human breast cancer
cells. Evidence of carcinogenicity in animals is mixed.
, i.e. it can travel long distances from where it is used. Thus, it occurs in many environmental compartments. For example, a 2008 report by the National Park Service
found that endosulfan commonly contaminates air, water, plants and fish of national park
s in the U.S. Most of these parks are far from areas where endosulfan is used. Endosulfan has been found in remote locations such as the Arctic Ocean as well as in the antarctic atmosphere. The pesticide has also been detected in dust from the Sahara Desert collected in the Caribbean
after being blown across the Atlantic Ocean. It has been shown that the compound is one of the most abundant organochlorine pesticides in the global atmosphere.
The compound breaks down into endosulfan sulfate and endosulfan diol, both of which have structures similar to the parent compound and, according to the EPA, "are also of toxicological concern…The estimated half-lives for the combined toxic residues (endosulfan plus endosulfan sulfate) [range] from roughly 9 months to 6 years." The EPA concluded that, "[b]ased on environmental fate laboratory studies, terrestrial field dissipation studies, available models, monitoring studies, and published literature, it can be concluded that endosulfan is a very persistent chemical which may stay in the environment for lengthy periods of time, particularly in acid media." The EPA also concluded that "[e]ndosulfan has relatively high potential to bioaccumulate in fish." It is also toxic to amphibians: low levels have been found to kill tadpole
s.
In 2009, the committee of scientific experts of the Stockholm Convention concluded that "endosulfan is likely, as a result of long range environmental transport, to lead to significant adverse human health and environmental effects such that global action is warranted." In May 2011, the Stockholm Convention committee approved the recommendation for elimination of production and use of Endosulfan and its isomers worldwide. This is, however, subject to certain exemptions. Overall, this will lead to Endosulfan's elimination from the global markets.
In 2001, in Kerala
, India, endosulfan spraying became suspect when linked to a series of abnormalities noted in local children. Initially endosulfan was banned, yet under pressure from the pesticide industry this ban was largely revoked. The situation there has been called "next in magnitude only to the Bhopal gas tragedy
."
The pesticide as banned in the State when A.K. Antony was Chief Minister following a report by the National Institute of Occupational Health. The report had then stated that Endosulfan was behind the dreadful state of farmers and children in Kasaragod.
In 2006, in Kerala, compensation of Rs 50,000 was paid to the next kin of each of 135 people who were identified as having died as a result of endosulfan use. Chief Minister V. S. Achuthanandan
also gave an assurance to people affected by poisoning, "that the government would chalk out a plan to take care of treatment, food and other needs of the affected persons and that its promise of rehabilitation of victims would be honoured." He had repeatedly persuaded the prime minister Manmohan Singh
and the central government to bring nationwide ban on Endosulfan.
India's Second largest political party BJP Vice President Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi also demanded the banning of Endosulphan http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UOAEJqtHaLY.India is strongly opposed to adding endosulfan to the Rotterdam
and Stockholm Convention
s. BJP demands ban on endosulfan " BJP is with the people who are suffering due to the ill-effects of the pesticide in Kasaragod district," senior BJP leader and Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha Sushma Swaraj said
Madhya Pradesh
, whose capital saw the world’s worst industrial disaster in 1984, made a common cause with Kerala Chief Minister on seeking a ban on endosulfan.Writing separate letters to the Kerala CM and Union Agriculture Minister Sharad Pawar, MP’s Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare Minister Ramkrishna Kusmaria said he fully supports the crusade against toxic chemicals. “MP understands the dire consequences of manmade disaster,” Kusmaria said in his letter to Achuthanandan, while referring to the Bhopal gas tragedy that took thousands of lives.
Karnataka
Government also banned the use of endosulfan, an insecticide, with immediate effect. Briefing presspersons after the State Cabinet meeting, Minister for Higher Education V.S. Acharya said the Cabinet discussed the harmful effects of endosulfan on the health of farmers and people living in rural areas. The government will now invoke the provisions of the Insecticides Act, 1968 (a Central act) and write a letter to the Union Government about the ban. Minister for Energy, and Food and Civil Supplies Shobha Karandlaje, who has been spearheading a movement seeking a ban on endosulfan, said, “I am grateful to Chief Minister B.S. Yeddyurappa and members of the Cabinet for approving the ban.
Rajendra Singh Rana has written a letter to Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh
demanding the withdrawal of the National Institute of Occupational Health
(NIOH) study on Endosulfan titled “Report Of The Investigation Of Unusual Illness” allegedly produced by the Endosulfan exposure in Padre village of Kasargode
district in north Kerala
. In his statement Mr. Rana said "The NIOH report is flawed. I'm in complete agreement with what the workers have to say on this. In fact, I have already made representation to the Prime Minister and concerned Union Ministers of health and environment demanding immediate withdrawal of the report," as reported by The Economic Times
and Outlook India
Mrs. Vibhavari Dave, local leader and Member of Legislative Assembly
(MLA), from Bhavnagar, Gujarat voiced her concerns on the impact of ban of Endosulfan on families and workers of Bhavnagar. She was a part of the delegation with Bhavnagar MP, Rajendra Singh Rana, which submitted a memorandum to the district collector’s office to withdraw the NIOH report calling for ban of Endosulfan.
The Pollution Control Board of the Government of Kerala, prohibited the use of Endosulfan in the state of Kerala on 10 November 2010. On February 18, 2011, the Karnataka
Government followed suit and suspended the use of Endosulfan for a period of 60 days in the state. Indian Union Minister of Agriculture Sharad Pawar
has ruled out implementing a similar ban at the national level despite the fact that endosulfan has banned in 63 countries including European Union, Australia and New Zealand.
The Government of Gujarat
had initiated a study in response to the workers rally in Bhavnagar
and representations made by Sishuvihar, an NGO based in Ahmadabad
. The committee constituted for the study also included former Dy.Director of NIOH, Ahmadabad. The committee noted that the WHO
, FAO
, IARC
and US EPA have indicated that endosulfan is not carcinogenic, not teratogenic, not mutagenic and not genotoxic
. The highlight of this report is the farmer exposure study based on analysis of their blood reports for residues of endosulfan and the absence of any residues. This corroborates the lack of residues in worker exposure studies.
The Supreme Court passed interim order on May 13, 2011 and banned the production, distribution and use of endosulfan in India because the pesticide has debilitating effects on humans and the environment. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) welcomed this order and called it a ‘resounding defeat’ for the pesticide industry which has been promoting this deadly toxin. A 2001 study by CSE had established the linkages between the aerial spraying of the pesticide and the growing health disorders in Kasaragod. Over the years, other studies have confirmed these findings, and the health hazards associated with endosulfan are now widely known and accepted.
effective January 2009 after a concerted campaign by environmental groups and the Green Party
.
, a ferry that sank off the waters of Romblon
(Sibuyan Island
), Philippines during a storm in June 2008. Search, rescue, and salvage efforts were suspended when the endosulfan shipment was discovered, and blood samples from divers at the scene were sent to Malaysia for analysis. The Department of Health of the Philippines has temporarily banned the consumption of fish caught in the area. Endosulfan is classified as a "Severe Marine Pollutant" by the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code.
In the United States, endosulfan is only registered for agricultural use, and these uses are being phased out. It has been used extensively on cotton
, potatoes, tomatoes, and apples according to the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). The EPA estimates that of endosulfan were used annually from 1987 to 1997. The US exported more than of endosulfan from 2001–2003, mostly to Latin America, but production and export has since stopped.
In California, endosulfan contamination from the San Joaquin Valley
has been implicated in the extirpation
of the mountain yellow-legged frog
from parts of the nearby Sierra Nevada Mountains. In Florida, levels of contamination the Everglades
and Biscayne Bay
are high enough to pose a threat to some aquatic organisms.
In 2007, the EPA announced it was rereviewing the safety of endosulfan. The following year, Pesticide Action Network and NRDC petitioned the EPA to ban endosulfan, and a coalition of environmental and labor groups sued the EPA seeking to overturn its 2002 decision to not ban endosulfan. In June 2010, the EPA announced it was negotiating a phaseout of all uses with the sole U.S. manufacturer, Makhteshim Agan
and a complete ban on the compound.
An official statement by Makhteshim Agan
of North America
(MANA) states that "From a scientific standpoint, MANA continues to disagree fundamentally with EPA's conclusions regarding endosulfan and believes that key uses are still eligible for re-registration." The statement adds, "However, given the fact that the endosulfan market is quite small and the cost of developing and submitting additional data high, we have decided to voluntarily negotiate an agreement with EPA that provides growers with an adequate time frame to find alternatives for the damaging insect pests currently controlled by endosulfan,"
banned endosulfan October 12, 2010 with a two year phase-out for stock of endosulfan containing products. Australia had, in 2008, announced endosulfan would not be banned. Citing New Zealand's ban, the Australian Greens
called for "zero tolerance" of endosulfan residue on food.
Insecticide
An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind...
and acaricide that is being phased out globally. Endosulfan became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost...
, and role as an endocrine disruptor
Endocrine disruptor
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with endocrine in animals, including humans. These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders...
. Because of its threats to human health and the environment, a global ban on the manufacture and use of endosulfan was negotiated under the Stockholm Convention
Stockholm Convention
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants .- History :...
in April 2011. The ban will take effect in mid 2012, with certain uses exempted for 5 additional years. More than 80 countries, including the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
, Australia and New Zealand, several West African nations, the United States, Brazil and Canada had already banned it or announced phase outs by the time the Stockholm Convention ban was agreed upon. It is still used extensively in India, China, and few other countries. It is produced by Makhteshim Agan
Makhteshim Agan
Makhteshim Agan Industries Ltd is the world’s leading manufacturer and distributor of branded off-patent pesticides. Makhteshim-Agan is the world's seventh largest company in the global agrochemical sector with an approximately 5% market share for off-patent proprietary and branded products...
and several manufacturers in India and China.
Uses
Endosulfan has been used in agriculture around the world to control insect pests including whiteflyWhitefly
The whiteflies, comprising only the family Aleyrodidae, are small hemipterans. More than 1550 species have been described. Whiteflies typically feed on the underside of plant leaves.-Agricultural threat:...
s, aphids, leafhopper
Leafhopper
Leafhopper is a common name applied to any species from the family Cicadellidae. Leafhoppers, colloquially known as hoppers, are minute plant-feeding insects in the superfamily Membracoidea in the order Hemiptera...
s, Colorado potato beetle
Colorado potato beetle
The Colorado potato beetle , also known as the Colorado beetle, the ten-striped spearman, the ten-lined potato beetle or the potato bug, is an important pest of potato crops. It is approximately 10 mm long, with a bright yellow/orange body and five bold brown stripes along the length of each...
s and cabbage worm
Cabbage worm
The term cabbage worm is primarily used for any of four kinds of lepidopteran whose larvae feed on cabbages and other cole crops. Host plants include broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, collards, kale, mustard greens, turnip greens, radishes, turnips, rutabagas and kohlrabi...
s. Due to its unique mode of action, it is useful in resistance management; however, as it is non-specific, it can negatively impact populations of beneficial insects. It is, however, considered to be moderately toxic to honey bees, and it is less toxic to bees than organophosphate
Organophosphate
An organophosphate is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are probably the most pervasive organophosphorus compounds. Many of the most important biochemicals are organophosphates, including DNA and RNA as well as many cofactors that are essential for life...
insecticides.
Production
The World Health OrganizationWorld Health Organization
The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...
estimated world wide annual production to be about 9,000 metric tonnes (t) in the early 1980s. From 1980–89, worldwide consumption averaged 10,500 t per year, and for the 1990s use increased to 12,800 t per year.
Endosulfan' is a derivative of hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene is an organochlorine compound that is a precursor to several pesticides. This colourless liquid is an inexpensive reactive diene. Many of its derivatives proved to be highly controversial, as studies showed them to be persistent organic pollutants. Collectively, the...
and is chemically similar to aldrin
Aldrin
Aldrin is an organochlorine insecticide that was widely used until the 1970s, when it was banned in most countries. It is a colourless solid. Before the ban, it was heavily used as a pesticide to treat seed and soil...
, chlordane
Chlordane
Chlordane, or chlordan, is an organochlorine compound that was used as a pesticide. This white solid was sold in the U.S. until 1983 as an insecticide for crops like corn and citrus and on lawns and domestic gardens.-Production and uses:...
, and heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor is an organochlorine compound that was used as an insecticide. Usually sold as a white or tan powder, heptachlor is one of the cyclodiene insecticides. In 1962, Rachel Carson's Silent Spring questioned the safety of heptachlor and other chlorinated insecticides. Due to its highly...
. Specifically, it is produced by the Diels-Alder reaction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene with cis-butene-1,4-diol and subsequent reaction of the adduct with thionyl chloride
Thionyl chloride
Thionyl chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula SOCl2. It is a reactive chemical reagent used in chlorination reactions. It is a colorless, distillable liquid at room temperature and pressure that decomposes above 140 °C. Thionyl chloride is sometimes confused with sulfuryl...
. Technical endosulfan is a 7:3 mixture of stereoisomers, designated α and β. α- and β-endosulfan are conformational isomers arising from the pyramidal stereochemistry of sulfur. α-Endosulfan is the more thermodynamically stable of the two, thus β-endosulfan irreversibly converts to the α form, although the conversion is slow.
History of commercialization and regulation
- Early 1950s: Endosulfan was developed.
- 1954: Hoechst AGHoechst AGHoechst AG was a German chemicals then life-sciences company that became Aventis Deutschland after its merger with France's Rhône-Poulenc S.A. in 1999...
(now Bayer CropScience) won USDAUnited States Department of AgricultureThe United States Department of Agriculture is the United States federal executive department responsible for developing and executing U.S. federal government policy on farming, agriculture, and food...
approval for the use of endosulfan in the United States. - 2000: Home and garden use in the United States was terminated by agreement with the EPAUnited States Environmental Protection AgencyThe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
. - 2002: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that endosulfan registration should be cancelled, and the EPA determined that endosulfan residues on food and in water pose unacceptable risks. The agency allowed endosulfan to stay on the US market, but imposed restrictions on its agricultural uses.
- 2007: International steps were taken to restrict the use and trade of endosulfan. It is recommended for inclusion in the Rotterdam ConventionRotterdam ConventionThe Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, more commonly known simply as the ', is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals...
on Prior Informed Consent, and the European UnionEuropean UnionThe European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
proposed inclusion in the list of chemicals banned under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsStockholm ConventionStockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants .- History :...
. Such inclusion would ban all use and manufacture of endosulfan globally. Meanwhile, the Canadian government announced that endosulfan was under consideration for phase-out, and Bayer CropScience voluntarily pulled its endosulfan products from the U.S. market but continues to sell the products elsewhere. - 2008: In February, environmental, consumer, and farm labor groups including the Natural Resources Defense CouncilNatural Resources Defense CouncilThe Natural Resources Defense Council is a New York City-based, non-profit, non-partisan international environmental advocacy group, with offices in Washington DC, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Beijing...
, Organic Consumers AssociationOrganic Consumers AssociationThe Organic Consumers Association is a consumer protection and organic agriculture advocacy group based in Finland, Minnesota. It was formed in 1998 in the wake of the mass backlash by organic consumers against the U.S. Department of Agriculture's controversial proposed regulations for organic food...
, and the United Farm WorkersUnited Farm WorkersThe United Farm Workers of America is a labor union created from the merging of two groups, the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee led by Filipino organizer Larry Itliong, and the National Farm Workers Association led by César Chávez...
called on the U.S. EPA to ban endosulfan. In May, coalitions of scientists, environmental groups, and arctic tribes asked the EPA to cancel endosulfan, and in July a coalition of environmental and workers groups filed a lawsuit against the EPA challenging its 2002 decision to not ban it. In October, the Review Committee of the Stockholm ConventionStockholm ConventionStockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants .- History :...
moved endosulfan along in the procedure for listing under the treaty, while India blocked its addition to the Rotterdam ConventionRotterdam ConventionThe Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, more commonly known simply as the ', is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals...
. - 2009: The Stockholm Convention's Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC) agreed that endosulfan is a persistent organic pollutant and that "global action is warranted", setting the stage of a global ban. New Zealand banned endosulfan.
- 2010: The POPRC nominated endosulfan to be added to the Stockholm Convention at the Conference of Parties (COP) in April 2011, which would result in a global ban. The EPA announced that the registration of endosulfan in the U.S. will be cancelled Australia banned the use of the chemical.
- 2011: The Supreme Court on Friday banned manufacture, sale and use of toxic pesticide endosulfan in India. The apex court said the ban would remain effective for 8 weeks during which an expert committee headed by DG, ICMR, will give an interim report to the court about the harmful effect of the widely used pesticide.
- 2011: the Argentinian Service for Sanity and Agroalimentary Quality (SENASA) decided on August 8 that the import of Endosulfan into the South American country will be banned from July 1st, 2012 and its commercialization and use from July 1st, 2013. In the meantime, a reduced quantity can be imported and sold.
Health effects
Endosulfan is one of the most toxic pesticides on the market today, responsible for many fatal pesticide poisoning incidents around the world. Endosulfan is also a xenoestrogenXenoestrogen
Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. They are widely used industrial compounds such as PCB, BPA and Phthalates, that have estrogenic effects on a living organism even though they differ chemically from the naturally occurring estrogenic substances internally produced by...
—a synthetic substance that imitates or enhances the effect of estrogen
Estrogen
Estrogens , oestrogens , or œstrogens, are a group of compounds named for their importance in the estrous cycle of humans and other animals. They are the primary female sex hormones. Natural estrogens are steroid hormones, while some synthetic ones are non-steroidal...
s—and it can act as an endocrine disruptor
Endocrine disruptor
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with endocrine in animals, including humans. These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders...
, causing reproductive and developmental damage in both animals and humans. Whether endosulfan can cause cancer
Carcinogen
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes...
is debated. With regard to consumers intake of endosulfan from residues on food, the Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
Food and Agriculture Organization
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is a specialised agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and...
has concluded that long-term exposure from food is unlikely to present a public health concern, but short term exposure can exceed acute reference doses.
Toxicity
Endosulfan is acutely neurotoxicNeurotoxin
A neurotoxin is a toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells , usually by interacting with membrane proteins such as ion channels. Some sources are more general, and define the effect of neurotoxins as occurring at nerve tissue...
to both insects and mammals, including humans. The US EPA classifies it as Category I: "Highly Acutely Toxic" based on a LD50 value of 30 mg/kg for female rats
RATS
RATS may refer to:* RATS , Regression Analysis of Time Series, a statistical package* Rough Auditing Tool for Security, a computer program...
, while the World Health Organization classifies it as Class II "Moderately Hazardous" based on a rat LD50 of 80 mg/kg. It is a GABA-gated chloride channel
GABA receptor
The GABA receptors are a class of receptors that respond to the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid , the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate central nervous system...
antagonist
Receptor antagonist
A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor, but blocks or dampens agonist-mediated responses...
, and a Ca2+, Mg2+ ATPase
ATPase
ATPases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the decomposition of adenosine triphosphate into adenosine diphosphate and a free phosphate ion. This dephosphorylation reaction releases energy, which the enzyme harnesses to drive other chemical reactions that would not otherwise occur...
inhibitor
Enzyme inhibitor
An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to enzymes and decreases their activity. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors. They are also used as herbicides and pesticides...
. Both of these enzymes are involved in the transfer of nerve impulses. Symptoms of acute poisoning include hyperactivity, tremors, convulsions, lack of coordination, staggering, difficulty breathing, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, and in severe cases, unconsciousness. Doses as low as 35 mg/kg have been documented to cause death in humans, and many cases of sub-lethal poisoning have resulted in permanent brain damage. Farm workers with chronic
Habit (psychology)
Habits are routines of behavior that are repeated regularly and tend to occur subconsciously. Habitual behavior often goes unnoticed in persons exhibiting it, because a person does not need to engage in self-analysis when undertaking routine tasks...
endosulfan exposure are at risk of rashes and skin irritation.
EPA's acute reference dose
Reference dose
A reference dose is the United States Environmental Protection Agency's maximum acceptable oral dose of a toxic substance. Reference doses are most commonly determined for pesticides...
for dietary exposure to endosulfan is 0.015 mg/kg for adults and 0.0015 mg/kg for children. For chronic dietary expsoure, the EPA references doses are 0.006 mg/(kg·day) and 0.0006 mg/(kg·day) for adults and children, respectively.
Endocrine disruption
Theo Colborn, an expert on endocrine disruption, lists endosulfan as a known endocrine disruptor, and both the EPA and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease RegistryAgency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry is a federal public health agency within the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The agency focuses on minimizing human health risks associated with exposure to hazardous substances...
consider endosulfan to be a potential endocrine disruptor. Numerous in vitro
In vitro
In vitro refers to studies in experimental biology that are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological context in order to permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis than can be done with whole organisms. Colloquially, these experiments...
studies have documented its potential to disrupt hormones and animal studies have demonstrated its reproductive and developmental toxicity, especially among males. A number of studies have documented that it acts as an anti-androgen
Androgen
Androgen, also called androgenic hormone or testoid, is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors...
in animals.. Endosulfan has shown to affect crustacean molt-cycle which is an important biological and endocrine-controlled physiological process essential for the crustacean growth and reproduction. . Environmentally relevant doses of endosulfan equal to the EPA's safe dose of 0.006 mg/kg/day have been found to affect gene expression
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
in female rats similarly to the effects of estrogen. It is not known whether endosulfan is a human teratogen (an agent that causes birth defects), though it has significant teratogenic effects in laboratory rat
Laboratory rat
A laboratory rat is a rat of the species Rattus norvegicus which is bred and kept for scientific research. Laboratory rats have served as an important animal model for research in psychology, medicine, and other fields.- Origins :...
s. A 2009 assessment concluded that endocrine disruption occurs only at endosulfan doses that cause neurotoxicity.
Reproductive and developmental effects
Several studies have documented that endosulfan can also affect human development. Researchers studying children from many villages in Kasargod District, KeralaKerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
, India have linked endosulfan exposure to delays in sexual maturity
Puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of reproduction, as initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy...
among boys. Endosulfan was the only pesticide applied to cashew
Cashew
The cashew is a tree in the family Anacardiaceae. Its English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree, caju, which in turn derives from the indigenous Tupi name, acajú. It is now widely grown in tropical climates for its cashew nuts and cashew apples.-Etymology:The...
plantations in the villages for 20 years and had contaminated the village environment. The researchers compared the villagers to a control group of boys from a demographically similar village that lacked a history of endosulfan pollution. Relative to the control group, the exposed boys had high levels of endosulfan in their bodies, lower levels of testosterone
Testosterone
Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group and is found in mammals, reptiles, birds, and other vertebrates. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testes of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands...
, and delays in reaching sexual maturity. Birth defects of the male reproductive system including cryptorchidism
Cryptorchidism
Cryptorchidism is the absence of one or both testes from the scrotum. It is the most common birth defect regarding male genitalia. In unique cases, cryptorchidism can develop later in life, often as late as young adulthood. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at...
were also more prevalent in the study group. The researchers concluded that "our study results suggest that endosulfan exposure in male children may delay sexual maturity and interfere with sex hormone synthesis." Increased incidences of cryptorchidism have been observed in other studies of endosulfan exposed populations.
A 2007 study by the California Department of Public Health found that women who lived near farm fields sprayed with endosulfan and the related organochloride pesticide dicofol
Dicofol
Dicofol is an organochlorine pesticide that is chemically related to DDT. Dicofol is a miticide that is very effective against red spider mite....
during the first eight weeks of pregnancy are several times more likely to give birth to children with autism
Autism
Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. These signs all begin before a child is three years old. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their...
. This is the first study to look for an association between endosulfan and autism, and additional study is needed to confirm the connection. A 2009 assessment concluded that epidemiology and rodent studies that suggest male reproductive and autism effects are open to other interpretations, and that developmental or reproductive toxicity occurs only at endosulfan doses that cause neurotoxicity.
Endosulfan and cancer
Endosulfan is not listed as known, probable, or possible carcinogen by the EPA, IARCInternational Agency for Research on Cancer
The International Agency for Research on Cancer is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organisation of the United Nations....
, or other agencies. There are no epidemiological studies linking exposure to endosulfan specifically to cancer in humans, but in vitro assays have shown that endosulfan can promote proliferation of human breast cancer
Breast cancer
Breast cancer is cancer originating from breast tissue, most commonly from the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Cancers originating from ducts are known as ductal carcinomas; those originating from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas...
cells. Evidence of carcinogenicity in animals is mixed.
Environmental fate
Endosulfan is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. The chemcial is semi-volatile and persistent to degradation processes in the environment. Endosulfan is subject to long range atmospheric transportGlobal distillation
Global distillation or the grasshopper effect is the geochemical process by which certain chemicals, most notably persistent organic pollutants , are transported from warmer to colder regions of the Earth, particularly the Poles and mountain tops...
, i.e. it can travel long distances from where it is used. Thus, it occurs in many environmental compartments. For example, a 2008 report by the National Park Service
National Park Service
The National Park Service is the U.S. federal agency that manages all national parks, many national monuments, and other conservation and historical properties with various title designations...
found that endosulfan commonly contaminates air, water, plants and fish of national park
National park
A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual nations designate their own national parks differently A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or...
s in the U.S. Most of these parks are far from areas where endosulfan is used. Endosulfan has been found in remote locations such as the Arctic Ocean as well as in the antarctic atmosphere. The pesticide has also been detected in dust from the Sahara Desert collected in the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
after being blown across the Atlantic Ocean. It has been shown that the compound is one of the most abundant organochlorine pesticides in the global atmosphere.
The compound breaks down into endosulfan sulfate and endosulfan diol, both of which have structures similar to the parent compound and, according to the EPA, "are also of toxicological concern…The estimated half-lives for the combined toxic residues (endosulfan plus endosulfan sulfate) [range] from roughly 9 months to 6 years." The EPA concluded that, "[b]ased on environmental fate laboratory studies, terrestrial field dissipation studies, available models, monitoring studies, and published literature, it can be concluded that endosulfan is a very persistent chemical which may stay in the environment for lengthy periods of time, particularly in acid media." The EPA also concluded that "[e]ndosulfan has relatively high potential to bioaccumulate in fish." It is also toxic to amphibians: low levels have been found to kill tadpole
Tadpole
A tadpole or polliwog is the wholly aquatic larval stage in the life cycle of an amphibian, particularly that of a frog or toad.- Appellation :...
s.
In 2009, the committee of scientific experts of the Stockholm Convention concluded that "endosulfan is likely, as a result of long range environmental transport, to lead to significant adverse human health and environmental effects such that global action is warranted." In May 2011, the Stockholm Convention committee approved the recommendation for elimination of production and use of Endosulfan and its isomers worldwide. This is, however, subject to certain exemptions. Overall, this will lead to Endosulfan's elimination from the global markets.
India
INDIA strictly banned the production and use of Endosulfan in the country by an important and long waiting court order in May 13, 2011. India was the world's largest user of endosulfan, and a major producer with three companies—Excel Crop Care, Hindustan Insecticides Ltd, and Coromandal Fertilizers—producing 4,500 tonnes annually for domestic use and another 4,000 tonnes for export.In 2001, in Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
, India, endosulfan spraying became suspect when linked to a series of abnormalities noted in local children. Initially endosulfan was banned, yet under pressure from the pesticide industry this ban was largely revoked. The situation there has been called "next in magnitude only to the Bhopal gas tragedy
Bhopal disaster
The Bhopal disaster also known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy was a gas leak incident in India, considered one of the world's worst industrial catastrophes. It occurred on the night of December 2–3, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India...
."
The pesticide as banned in the State when A.K. Antony was Chief Minister following a report by the National Institute of Occupational Health. The report had then stated that Endosulfan was behind the dreadful state of farmers and children in Kasaragod.
In 2006, in Kerala, compensation of Rs 50,000 was paid to the next kin of each of 135 people who were identified as having died as a result of endosulfan use. Chief Minister V. S. Achuthanandan
V. S. Achuthanandan
Velikkakathu Sankaran Achuthanandan is an Indian politician and a former Chief Minister of the state of Kerala. He had been a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of India since 1985, and until July 2009, when he was reverted to the Central Committee of the party owing to his...
also gave an assurance to people affected by poisoning, "that the government would chalk out a plan to take care of treatment, food and other needs of the affected persons and that its promise of rehabilitation of victims would be honoured." He had repeatedly persuaded the prime minister Manmohan Singh
Manmohan Singh
Manmohan Singh is the 13th and current Prime Minister of India. He is the only Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term. A Sikh, he is the first non-Hindu to occupy the office. Singh is also the 7th Prime Minister belonging to the Indian...
and the central government to bring nationwide ban on Endosulfan.
India's Second largest political party BJP Vice President Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi also demanded the banning of Endosulphan http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UOAEJqtHaLY.India is strongly opposed to adding endosulfan to the Rotterdam
Rotterdam Convention
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, more commonly known simply as the ', is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals...
and Stockholm Convention
Stockholm Convention
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants .- History :...
s. BJP demands ban on endosulfan " BJP is with the people who are suffering due to the ill-effects of the pesticide in Kasaragod district," senior BJP leader and Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha Sushma Swaraj said
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh , often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and Indore is the largest city....
, whose capital saw the world’s worst industrial disaster in 1984, made a common cause with Kerala Chief Minister on seeking a ban on endosulfan.Writing separate letters to the Kerala CM and Union Agriculture Minister Sharad Pawar, MP’s Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare Minister Ramkrishna Kusmaria said he fully supports the crusade against toxic chemicals. “MP understands the dire consequences of manmade disaster,” Kusmaria said in his letter to Achuthanandan, while referring to the Bhopal gas tragedy that took thousands of lives.
Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
Government also banned the use of endosulfan, an insecticide, with immediate effect. Briefing presspersons after the State Cabinet meeting, Minister for Higher Education V.S. Acharya said the Cabinet discussed the harmful effects of endosulfan on the health of farmers and people living in rural areas. The government will now invoke the provisions of the Insecticides Act, 1968 (a Central act) and write a letter to the Union Government about the ban. Minister for Energy, and Food and Civil Supplies Shobha Karandlaje, who has been spearheading a movement seeking a ban on endosulfan, said, “I am grateful to Chief Minister B.S. Yeddyurappa and members of the Cabinet for approving the ban.
Rajendra Singh Rana has written a letter to Prime Minister
Prime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
Manmohan Singh
Manmohan Singh
Manmohan Singh is the 13th and current Prime Minister of India. He is the only Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term. A Sikh, he is the first non-Hindu to occupy the office. Singh is also the 7th Prime Minister belonging to the Indian...
demanding the withdrawal of the National Institute of Occupational Health
National Institute of Occupational Health
National Institute of Occupational Health , also known as Statens arbeidsmiljøinstitutt or STAMI is a government body organised by the Norwegian Ministry of Labour and Social Inclusion. The institute deals with a range of health areas, with staff with competence in medicine, physiology, chemistry,...
(NIOH) study on Endosulfan titled “Report Of The Investigation Of Unusual Illness” allegedly produced by the Endosulfan exposure in Padre village of Kasargode
Kasaragod district
Kasaragod District is one of the districts of the Indian state of Kerala. Kasaragod District was organised as a separate district on 24 May 1984...
district in north Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
. In his statement Mr. Rana said "The NIOH report is flawed. I'm in complete agreement with what the workers have to say on this. In fact, I have already made representation to the Prime Minister and concerned Union Ministers of health and environment demanding immediate withdrawal of the report," as reported by The Economic Times
The Economic Times
The Economic Times is an English-language Indian daily newspaper published by the Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd.. The Economic Times was started in 1961. It is the most popular and widely read financial daily in India, read by more than 8 lakh people...
and Outlook India
Mrs. Vibhavari Dave, local leader and Member of Legislative Assembly
Member of Legislative Assembly
A Member of Legislative Assembly, or MLA, is a representative elected by the voters of an electoral district to the Legislature of a State in the Indian system of government...
(MLA), from Bhavnagar, Gujarat voiced her concerns on the impact of ban of Endosulfan on families and workers of Bhavnagar. She was a part of the delegation with Bhavnagar MP, Rajendra Singh Rana, which submitted a memorandum to the district collector’s office to withdraw the NIOH report calling for ban of Endosulfan.
The Pollution Control Board of the Government of Kerala, prohibited the use of Endosulfan in the state of Kerala on 10 November 2010. On February 18, 2011, the Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
Government followed suit and suspended the use of Endosulfan for a period of 60 days in the state. Indian Union Minister of Agriculture Sharad Pawar
Sharad Pawar
Sharadchandra Govindrao Pawar , popularly known as SAHEB , is the president of the Nationalist Congress Party which he founded in 1999, after separating from the Indian National Congress...
has ruled out implementing a similar ban at the national level despite the fact that endosulfan has banned in 63 countries including European Union, Australia and New Zealand.
The Government of Gujarat
Government of Gujarat
The Government of Gujarat also known as the State Government of Gujarat, or locally as State Government, is the supreme governing authority of the Indian state of Gujarat and its 26 districts...
had initiated a study in response to the workers rally in Bhavnagar
Bhavnagar
-Topography:Bhavnagar is a coastal city in the eastern coast of Saurashtra, also known as Kathiawar, located at . It has an average elevation of 24 metres . It occupies area of 53.30 km². General slope dips in the northeasterly direction at the apex of Gulf of Khambhat...
and representations made by Sishuvihar, an NGO based in Ahmadabad
Ahmadabad
Ahmadabad may refer to:Afghanistan* Ahmad Abad, Afghanistan, a place in AfghanistanAzerbaijan*Əhmədabad, Goranboy, Azerbaijan*Əhmədabad, Sabirabad, Azerbaijan*Əhmədabad, Tovuz, AzerbaijanIndia* Ahmedabad , a major city in India...
. The committee constituted for the study also included former Dy.Director of NIOH, Ahmadabad. The committee noted that the WHO
Who
Who may refer to:* Who , an English-language pronoun* who , a Unix command* Who?, one of the Five Ws in journalism- Art and entertainment :* Who? , a 1958 novel by Algis Budrys...
, FAO
Fão
Fão is a town in Esposende Municipality in Portugal....
, IARC
International Agency for Research on Cancer
The International Agency for Research on Cancer is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organisation of the United Nations....
and US EPA have indicated that endosulfan is not carcinogenic, not teratogenic, not mutagenic and not genotoxic
Genotoxic
In genetics, genotoxicity describes a deleterious action on a cell's genetic material affecting its integrity. This includes both certain chemical compounds and certain types of radiation....
. The highlight of this report is the farmer exposure study based on analysis of their blood reports for residues of endosulfan and the absence of any residues. This corroborates the lack of residues in worker exposure studies.
The Supreme Court passed interim order on May 13, 2011 and banned the production, distribution and use of endosulfan in India because the pesticide has debilitating effects on humans and the environment. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) welcomed this order and called it a ‘resounding defeat’ for the pesticide industry which has been promoting this deadly toxin. A 2001 study by CSE had established the linkages between the aerial spraying of the pesticide and the growing health disorders in Kasaragod. Over the years, other studies have confirmed these findings, and the health hazards associated with endosulfan are now widely known and accepted.
New Zealand
Endosulfan was banned in New Zealand by the Environmental Risk Management AuthorityEnvironmental Risk Management Authority
The Environmental Risk Management Authority is a New Zealand government agency which controls the introduction of hazardous substances and new organisms....
effective January 2009 after a concerted campaign by environmental groups and the Green Party
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand
The Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand is a political party that has seats in the New Zealand parliament. It focuses firstly on environmentalism, arguing that all other aspects of humanity will cease to be of concern if there is no environment to sustain it...
.
Philippines
A shipment of about 10 tonnes of endosulfan was illegally stowed on the ill-fated MV Princess of the StarsMV Princess of the Stars
MV Princess of the Stars was a ferry owned by Filipino shipping company Sulpicio Lines that capsized off the coast of San Fernando, Romblon at the height of Typhoon Fengshen on June 21, 2008...
, a ferry that sank off the waters of Romblon
Romblon
Romblon is an island province of the Philippines located in the MIMAROPA region. It lies south of Marinduque and Quezon, east of Mindoro, north of Aklan and Capiz, and west of Masbate. Its capital is also named Romblon....
(Sibuyan Island
Sibuyan Island
Sibuyan is a crescent-shaped island of Romblon Province, Philippines. It has an area of 445 km². The island has two prominent peaks, Mount Guiting-Guiting with a height of 2,058 m and Mount Nailog with a height of 789 m...
), Philippines during a storm in June 2008. Search, rescue, and salvage efforts were suspended when the endosulfan shipment was discovered, and blood samples from divers at the scene were sent to Malaysia for analysis. The Department of Health of the Philippines has temporarily banned the consumption of fish caught in the area. Endosulfan is classified as a "Severe Marine Pollutant" by the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code.
United States
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
, potatoes, tomatoes, and apples according to the Environmental Protection Agency
United States Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
(EPA). The EPA estimates that of endosulfan were used annually from 1987 to 1997. The US exported more than of endosulfan from 2001–2003, mostly to Latin America, but production and export has since stopped.
In California, endosulfan contamination from the San Joaquin Valley
San Joaquin Valley
The San Joaquin Valley is the area of the Central Valley of California that lies south of the Sacramento – San Joaquin River Delta in Stockton...
has been implicated in the extirpation
Local extinction
Local extinction, also known as extirpation, is the condition of a species which ceases to exist in the chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere...
of the mountain yellow-legged frog
Mountain Yellow-legged Frog
The Mountain yellow-legged frog lives in a diverse array of water sources within the Sierra Nevada mountains of the western United States. They prefer mountain creeks and lakes, particularly sunny riverbanks, meadow streams, isolated pools, and lake borders...
from parts of the nearby Sierra Nevada Mountains. In Florida, levels of contamination the Everglades
Everglades
The Everglades are subtropical wetlands in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida, comprising the southern half of a large watershed. The system begins near Orlando with the Kissimmee River, which discharges into the vast but shallow Lake Okeechobee...
and Biscayne Bay
Biscayne Bay
Biscayne Bay is a lagoon that is approximately 35 miles long and up to 8 miles wide located on the Atlantic coast of South Florida, United States. It is usually divided for purposes of discussion and analysis into three parts: North Bay, Central Bay, and South Bay. Its area is...
are high enough to pose a threat to some aquatic organisms.
In 2007, the EPA announced it was rereviewing the safety of endosulfan. The following year, Pesticide Action Network and NRDC petitioned the EPA to ban endosulfan, and a coalition of environmental and labor groups sued the EPA seeking to overturn its 2002 decision to not ban endosulfan. In June 2010, the EPA announced it was negotiating a phaseout of all uses with the sole U.S. manufacturer, Makhteshim Agan
Makhteshim Agan
Makhteshim Agan Industries Ltd is the world’s leading manufacturer and distributor of branded off-patent pesticides. Makhteshim-Agan is the world's seventh largest company in the global agrochemical sector with an approximately 5% market share for off-patent proprietary and branded products...
and a complete ban on the compound.
An official statement by Makhteshim Agan
Makhteshim Agan
Makhteshim Agan Industries Ltd is the world’s leading manufacturer and distributor of branded off-patent pesticides. Makhteshim-Agan is the world's seventh largest company in the global agrochemical sector with an approximately 5% market share for off-patent proprietary and branded products...
of North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
(MANA) states that "From a scientific standpoint, MANA continues to disagree fundamentally with EPA's conclusions regarding endosulfan and believes that key uses are still eligible for re-registration." The statement adds, "However, given the fact that the endosulfan market is quite small and the cost of developing and submitting additional data high, we have decided to voluntarily negotiate an agreement with EPA that provides growers with an adequate time frame to find alternatives for the damaging insect pests currently controlled by endosulfan,"
Australia
AustraliaAustralia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
banned endosulfan October 12, 2010 with a two year phase-out for stock of endosulfan containing products. Australia had, in 2008, announced endosulfan would not be banned. Citing New Zealand's ban, the Australian Greens
Australian Greens
The Australian Greens, commonly known as The Greens, is an Australian green political party.The party was formed in 1992; however, its origins can be traced to the early environmental movement in Australia and the formation of the United Tasmania Group , the first Green party in the world, which...
called for "zero tolerance" of endosulfan residue on food.
Taiwan
US apples with endosulfan are now allowed to be exported to Taiwan although the ROC government denied any U.S. pressure on it.External links
- 2009 Environmental Justice Foundation report detailing impacts of Endosulfan, highlighting why it should be banned globally
- Resources on Endosulfan, India Environment Portal
- Pesticideinfo.org: Endosulfan
- Levels of endosulfan residues on food in the U.S.
- Endosulphan Victims in Kerala
- Protect Endosufan Network — Information about endosulfan from Protect Endosufan Network.
- State of endosulfan, Down To Earth
- Interim report on endosulfan submitted by expert committee to the Supreme Court of India, Aug 4, 2011