Epistles (Plato)
Encyclopedia
The Epistles of Plato
are a series of thirteen letters
traditionally included in the Platonic corpus. Their authenticity
has been the subject of some dispute, and scholarly consensus has shifted back and forth over time. They were "generally accepted as genuine until modern times"; but by the close of the Nineteenth Century, many believed that none of the letters were actually written by Plato. Now every letter except the First
, has some defenders of its authenticity. The Twelfth
is also widely regarded as a forgery
, and the Fifth
and Ninth
have fewer supporters than the others.
are the Seventh and the Eighth, on the supposition that these were open letter
s and therefore less likely to be the result of invention or forgery
. This is not so much because of a presumption in favor of an open letter's authenticity as because of a presumption against that of a private letter: the preservation of the former is unsurprising, while the preservation, dissemination, and eventual publication of the latter requires some sort of explanation according to some. Nevertheless, even the Seventh Letter has recently been argued to be spurious by prominent scholars, such as Malcolm Schofield, Myles Burnyeat
, and Julia Annas
. George Boas
argues that all of the Letters, including the Seventh, are spurious, a conclusion accepted also, and more recently, by Terence Irwin
. On the other hand Grote, Raeder, Novotny, Harward, and Bluck reject only the First
; and Bentley accepted all of them.
The other letters enjoy varying levels of acceptance among scholars: The Sixth, Third, and Eleventh have the greatest support of the remaining letters, followed by the Fourth, Tenth
, Thirteenth, and Second Letter
; fewer scholars consider the Fifth
, Ninth
, and Twelfth
to be genuine, while almost none dispute that the First
is spurious.
s, and does not appear to follow any discernible principle. L. A. Post, in his edition of the Thirteen Epistles of Plato, presented them in the order in which he thought they were written: Thirteenth, Second
, Eleventh, Tenth
, Fourth, Third, Seventh, Eighth, and Sixth (the four letters universally recognized as spurious are placed following these nine).
The addressees of the Epistles fall into three main categories. Four are addressed to Dionysius II of Syracuse
(i, ii, iii, xiii), four to Dionysius' uncle Dion and his associates (iv, vii, viii, x), and five to various others (the Fifth to Perdiccas III of Macedon
; the Sixth to Hermias of Atarneus
, Erastus, and Coriscus; the Tenth to Aristodorus; the Eleventh to Laodamas; and the Ninth and Twelfth to Archytas
).
, and is almost certainly a forgery
. In it, Plato
supposedly complains of his rude dismissal by Dionysius and predicts an evil end for him. It is interesting mainly for the number of quotations from the tragic poets which it preserves.
in response to a supposed complaint he lodged against Plato
and his associates that they were slandering him. The letter disclaims any responsibility for these slanders and further denies that they are even occurring. It then counsels Dionysius that a concern for his reputation after his death should incline him to repair his relationship with Plato, since the interactions of political men with the wise is a topic of constant discussion. From this subject, the letter turns to a deliberately enigmatic discussion of "the First," in which Plato warns Dionysius to never write these doctrines down and to burn this letter upon committing its contents to memory. The Second Letter is the source of the oft-cited remark that "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new (καλός καί νέος)."
R. G. Bury argues that the Second Letter is almost certainly inauthentic, based primarily upon conflicts between it and Plato's Seventh Letter and Bury's own conclusion that its tone and content are decidedly un-Platonic. He considers it to be by the same author as the Sixth Letter.
, complaining of two slanders aimed at Plato
, viz. that he had prevented Dionysius II from transforming his tyranny
into a monarchy
and that Plato was to blame for all the misadministration in Syracuse. The letter responds by recounting Plato's activities in Syracuse, and has the flavor of an open letter
.
Bury suggests that the Third Letter, if authentic, was probably written after Plato's third visit to Syracuse in 360 BCE, and probably after Dion's seizure of power in 357 BCE. He finds the tone to be anachronistic, however, remarks that the parallels to both the Apology of Socrates
and the Seventh Letter argue against its authenticity.
. It encourages Dion in his political efforts, but admonishes him not to forget about the importance of virtue. Bury finds the mixture of flattery and reproof in the letter to be at odds with Plato
's friendlier relationship with Dion, even granting that it may be an open letter
, and notes conflicts with the Seventh Letter that militate against its authenticity.
, and councels him to listen to the advice of one Euphraeus
. It then proceeds to defend Plato
's abstinence from politics
. Most scholars doubt its authenticity.
, tyrant of Atarneus
, and to Erastus and Coriscus, two pupils of Plato
residing in Scepsis (a town near Atarneus), advising them to become friends. The letter claims that Plato never met Hermias, contrary to the account given of the latter's life by Strabo
; contains a number of parallels to the Second Letter
concerning the value of combining wisdom with power, the utility of referring disputes to its author, and the importance of reading and re-reading it; and concludes that all three addresses should publicly swear an oath to strange deities, and to do so half-jestingly. For these reasons, Bury concludes that Sixth Letter is inauthentic and shares its author with the Second Letter.
, and contains a defense of Plato
's political activities in Syracuse as well as a long digression concerning the nature of philosophy
, the theory of the forms
, and the problems inherent to teaching. It also espouses the so called "unwritten doctrine" of Plato which urges that nothing of importance should be committed to writing.
, had been driven out by Hipparinus
. It councels compromise between the parties of Dion and Dionysius the Younger
, the former favoring democracy
, the latter, tyranny
. The compromise would be a monarchy
limited by laws.
. Bury describes it as "a colourless and commonplace effusion which we would not willingly ascribe to Plato, and which no correspondent of his would be likely to preserve." Despite the fact that Cicero
attests to its having been written by Plato
, most scholars consider it a literary forgery
.
in simply moral
terms, without any reference to intellectual
qualities, is foreign enough to Plato
's treatment for Bury to declare the letter a forgery
. In any event, it consists of a bare three sentences, covering nine lines in the Stephanus pagination
.
. It refers to someone named Socrates, though the reference in the letter to the advanced age of Plato
means that it cannot be the Socrates
who is famous from the dialogues. Bury would allow the authenticity of the letter, were it not for the fact that it claims that this Socrates cannot travel on account of having been enervated by a case of strangury
.
. It is only slightly longer than the Tenth Letter
(four sentences, covering 12 lines in the Stephanus pagination
), and considered to be spurious. It thanks Archytas for sending Plato
some treatises, which it then goes on to praise effusively. Diogenes Laertius
preserves this letter in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers
, as well as the letter from Archytas which presumably occasioned the Twelfth Letter; this letter points to the treatises having been those of Ocellos of Lucania
, a Pythagorean
. Because the writings which are attributed to Ocellos are forgeries
from the First Century BCE, the Twelfth Letter is probably also a forgery, and by the same forger, intended to stamp the treatises with Plato's authority.
, and appears to be private in character. The portrait of Plato
offered here is in sharp contrast to that the disinterested and somewhat aloof philosopher of the Seventh Letter, leading Bury to doubt its authenticity.
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
are a series of thirteen letters
Epistle
An epistle is a writing directed or sent to a person or group of people, usually an elegant and formal didactic letter. The epistle genre of letter-writing was common in ancient Egypt as part of the scribal-school writing curriculum. The letters in the New Testament from Apostles to Christians...
traditionally included in the Platonic corpus. Their authenticity
Authentication
Authentication is the act of confirming the truth of an attribute of a datum or entity...
has been the subject of some dispute, and scholarly consensus has shifted back and forth over time. They were "generally accepted as genuine until modern times"; but by the close of the Nineteenth Century, many believed that none of the letters were actually written by Plato. Now every letter except the First
First Letter (Plato)
The First Letter of Plato, also called Epistle I or Letter I, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though it is universally considered a forgery. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III...
, has some defenders of its authenticity. The Twelfth
Twelfth Letter (Plato)
The Twelfth Letter of Plato, also known as Epistle XII or Letter XII, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though it is almost certainly a literary forgery. Of all the Epistles, it is the only one that is followed by an explicit denial of its authenticity in the manuscripts. In the...
is also widely regarded as a forgery
Literary forgery
Literary forgery refers to writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or a purported memoir presented as genuine.- History :The common, or popularly known, instance of literary forgery may involve for example the work of a...
, and the Fifth
Fifth Letter (Plato)
The Fifth Letter of Plato, also called Epistle V or Letter V, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato. It falls among those Epistles of Plato that have nothing to do with Sicilian politics and the intrigues between Dion and his nephew, Dionysius the Younger, tyrant of Syracuse. In the...
and Ninth
Ninth Letter (Plato)
The Ninth Letter of Plato, also called Epistle IX or Letter IX, is an epistle that is traditionally ascribed to Plato. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III. 357d–358b....
have fewer supporters than the others.
Authenticity
The two letters that are most commonly claimed to have actually been written by PlatoPlato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
are the Seventh and the Eighth, on the supposition that these were open letter
Open letter
An open letter is a letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience, or a letter intended for an individual, but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally....
s and therefore less likely to be the result of invention or forgery
Forgery
Forgery is the process of making, adapting, or imitating objects, statistics, or documents with the intent to deceive. Copies, studio replicas, and reproductions are not considered forgeries, though they may later become forgeries through knowing and willful misrepresentations. Forging money or...
. This is not so much because of a presumption in favor of an open letter's authenticity as because of a presumption against that of a private letter: the preservation of the former is unsurprising, while the preservation, dissemination, and eventual publication of the latter requires some sort of explanation according to some. Nevertheless, even the Seventh Letter has recently been argued to be spurious by prominent scholars, such as Malcolm Schofield, Myles Burnyeat
Myles Burnyeat
Myles Fredric Burnyeat CBE FBA is an English classicist and philosopher.-Life:Educated at Bryanston School and King’s College, Cambridge, Burnyeat was a student of Bernard Williams at University College London....
, and Julia Annas
Julia Annas
Julia Elizabeth Annas is a British American philosopher. She is Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona.-Biography:...
. George Boas
George Boas
George Boas was a Professor of Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University.He received his education at Brown University, obtaining both a BA and MA in Philosophy there, after which he studied...
argues that all of the Letters, including the Seventh, are spurious, a conclusion accepted also, and more recently, by Terence Irwin
Terence Irwin
Terence Irwin is a scholar and philosopher specializing in ancient Greek philosophy and the history of ethics Terence Irwin (born 21 April 1947, in Enniskillen, Northern Ireland) is a scholar and philosopher specializing in ancient Greek philosophy and the history of ethics Terence Irwin (born 21...
. On the other hand Grote, Raeder, Novotny, Harward, and Bluck reject only the First
First Letter (Plato)
The First Letter of Plato, also called Epistle I or Letter I, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though it is universally considered a forgery. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III...
; and Bentley accepted all of them.
The other letters enjoy varying levels of acceptance among scholars: The Sixth, Third, and Eleventh have the greatest support of the remaining letters, followed by the Fourth, Tenth
Tenth Letter (Plato)
The Tenth Letter of Plato, also known as Epistle X or Letter X, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato. It is the shortest of the so-called Epistles of Plato, comprising two or three sentences aside from the salutation, and spanning a single letter in the Stephanus pagination .Few...
, Thirteenth, and Second Letter
Second Letter (Plato)
The Second Letter of Plato, also called Epistle II or Letter II, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though some scholars consider it a forgery. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III...
; fewer scholars consider the Fifth
Fifth Letter (Plato)
The Fifth Letter of Plato, also called Epistle V or Letter V, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato. It falls among those Epistles of Plato that have nothing to do with Sicilian politics and the intrigues between Dion and his nephew, Dionysius the Younger, tyrant of Syracuse. In the...
, Ninth
Ninth Letter (Plato)
The Ninth Letter of Plato, also called Epistle IX or Letter IX, is an epistle that is traditionally ascribed to Plato. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III. 357d–358b....
, and Twelfth
Twelfth Letter (Plato)
The Twelfth Letter of Plato, also known as Epistle XII or Letter XII, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though it is almost certainly a literary forgery. Of all the Epistles, it is the only one that is followed by an explicit denial of its authenticity in the manuscripts. In the...
to be genuine, while almost none dispute that the First
First Letter (Plato)
The First Letter of Plato, also called Epistle I or Letter I, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though it is universally considered a forgery. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III...
is spurious.
Structure of the Epistles
The numbering of each letter is due solely to their placement in traditional manuscriptManuscript
A manuscript or handwrite is written information that has been manually created by someone or some people, such as a hand-written letter, as opposed to being printed or reproduced some other way...
s, and does not appear to follow any discernible principle. L. A. Post, in his edition of the Thirteen Epistles of Plato, presented them in the order in which he thought they were written: Thirteenth, Second
Second Letter (Plato)
The Second Letter of Plato, also called Epistle II or Letter II, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though some scholars consider it a forgery. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III...
, Eleventh, Tenth
Tenth Letter (Plato)
The Tenth Letter of Plato, also known as Epistle X or Letter X, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato. It is the shortest of the so-called Epistles of Plato, comprising two or three sentences aside from the salutation, and spanning a single letter in the Stephanus pagination .Few...
, Fourth, Third, Seventh, Eighth, and Sixth (the four letters universally recognized as spurious are placed following these nine).
The addressees of the Epistles fall into three main categories. Four are addressed to Dionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC....
(i, ii, iii, xiii), four to Dionysius' uncle Dion and his associates (iv, vii, viii, x), and five to various others (the Fifth to Perdiccas III of Macedon
Perdiccas III of Macedon
Perdiccas III was king of Macedonia from 368 to 359 BC, succeeding his brother Alexander II.Son of Amyntas III and Eurydice, he was underage when Alexander II was killed by Ptolemy of Aloros, who then ruled as regent. In 365, Perdiccas killed Ptolemy and assumed government.Of the reign of...
; the Sixth to Hermias of Atarneus
Hermias of Atarneus
Hermias of Atarneus , who lived in Atarneus, was Aristotle's father-in-law.The first mention of Hermias is as a slave to Eubulus, a Bithynian banker who ruled Atarneus. Hermias eventually won his freedom and inherited the rule of Atarneus...
, Erastus, and Coriscus; the Tenth to Aristodorus; the Eleventh to Laodamas; and the Ninth and Twelfth to Archytas
Archytas
Archytas was an Ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and strategist. He was a scientist of the Pythagorean school and famous for being the reputed founder of mathematical mechanics, as well as a good friend of Plato....
).
First Letter
The First Letter is addressed to Dionysius II of SyracuseDionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC....
, and is almost certainly a forgery
Literary forgery
Literary forgery refers to writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or a purported memoir presented as genuine.- History :The common, or popularly known, instance of literary forgery may involve for example the work of a...
. In it, Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
supposedly complains of his rude dismissal by Dionysius and predicts an evil end for him. It is interesting mainly for the number of quotations from the tragic poets which it preserves.
Second Letter
The Second Letter is addressed to Dionysius II of SyracuseDionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC....
in response to a supposed complaint he lodged against Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
and his associates that they were slandering him. The letter disclaims any responsibility for these slanders and further denies that they are even occurring. It then counsels Dionysius that a concern for his reputation after his death should incline him to repair his relationship with Plato, since the interactions of political men with the wise is a topic of constant discussion. From this subject, the letter turns to a deliberately enigmatic discussion of "the First," in which Plato warns Dionysius to never write these doctrines down and to burn this letter upon committing its contents to memory. The Second Letter is the source of the oft-cited remark that "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new (καλός καί νέος)."
R. G. Bury argues that the Second Letter is almost certainly inauthentic, based primarily upon conflicts between it and Plato's Seventh Letter and Bury's own conclusion that its tone and content are decidedly un-Platonic. He considers it to be by the same author as the Sixth Letter.
Third Letter
The Third Letter is addressed to Dionysius II of SyracuseDionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC....
, complaining of two slanders aimed at Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
, viz. that he had prevented Dionysius II from transforming his tyranny
Tyrant
A tyrant was originally one who illegally seized and controlled a governmental power in a polis. Tyrants were a group of individuals who took over many Greek poleis during the uprising of the middle classes in the sixth and seventh centuries BC, ousting the aristocratic governments.Plato and...
into a monarchy
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
and that Plato was to blame for all the misadministration in Syracuse. The letter responds by recounting Plato's activities in Syracuse, and has the flavor of an open letter
Open letter
An open letter is a letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience, or a letter intended for an individual, but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally....
.
Bury suggests that the Third Letter, if authentic, was probably written after Plato's third visit to Syracuse in 360 BCE, and probably after Dion's seizure of power in 357 BCE. He finds the tone to be anachronistic, however, remarks that the parallels to both the Apology of Socrates
Apology (Plato)
The Apology of Socrates is Plato's version of the speech given by Socrates as he unsuccessfully defended himself in 399 BC against the charges of "corrupting the young, and by not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daimonia that are novel"...
and the Seventh Letter argue against its authenticity.
Fourth Letter
The Fourth Letter is addressed to Dion, the uncle and (by this time) ouster of Dionysius II of SyracuseDionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC....
. It encourages Dion in his political efforts, but admonishes him not to forget about the importance of virtue. Bury finds the mixture of flattery and reproof in the letter to be at odds with Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
's friendlier relationship with Dion, even granting that it may be an open letter
Open letter
An open letter is a letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience, or a letter intended for an individual, but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally....
, and notes conflicts with the Seventh Letter that militate against its authenticity.
Fifth Letter
The Fifth Letter is addressed to Perdiccas III of MacedonPerdiccas III of Macedon
Perdiccas III was king of Macedonia from 368 to 359 BC, succeeding his brother Alexander II.Son of Amyntas III and Eurydice, he was underage when Alexander II was killed by Ptolemy of Aloros, who then ruled as regent. In 365, Perdiccas killed Ptolemy and assumed government.Of the reign of...
, and councels him to listen to the advice of one Euphraeus
Euphraeus
Euphraeus was a philosopher and student of Plato from the town of Oreus in northern Euboea. He appears to have been active in politics in addition to his speculative studies, being first an adviser to Perdiccas III of Macedon and then an opponent of Philip II and his supporters in Oreus...
. It then proceeds to defend Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
's abstinence from politics
Politics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
. Most scholars doubt its authenticity.
Sixth Letter
The Sixth Letter is addressed to HermiasHermias of Atarneus
Hermias of Atarneus , who lived in Atarneus, was Aristotle's father-in-law.The first mention of Hermias is as a slave to Eubulus, a Bithynian banker who ruled Atarneus. Hermias eventually won his freedom and inherited the rule of Atarneus...
, tyrant of Atarneus
Atarneus
Atarneus was an ancient city in the region of Aeolis, Asia Minor. It lies on the mainland opposite the island of Lesbos, northeast of the town of Dikili in modern-day Turkey....
, and to Erastus and Coriscus, two pupils of Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
residing in Scepsis (a town near Atarneus), advising them to become friends. The letter claims that Plato never met Hermias, contrary to the account given of the latter's life by Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
; contains a number of parallels to the Second Letter
Second Letter (Plato)
The Second Letter of Plato, also called Epistle II or Letter II, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato, though some scholars consider it a forgery. In the Stephanus pagination, it spans III...
concerning the value of combining wisdom with power, the utility of referring disputes to its author, and the importance of reading and re-reading it; and concludes that all three addresses should publicly swear an oath to strange deities, and to do so half-jestingly. For these reasons, Bury concludes that Sixth Letter is inauthentic and shares its author with the Second Letter.
Seventh Letter
The Seventh Letter is addressed to the associates and companions of Dion, most likely after his assassination in 353 BCE. It is the longest of the Epistles and considered to be the most important. It is most likely an open letterOpen letter
An open letter is a letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience, or a letter intended for an individual, but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally....
, and contains a defense of Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
's political activities in Syracuse as well as a long digression concerning the nature of philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, the theory of the forms
Theory of Forms
Plato's theory of Forms or theory of Ideas asserts that non-material abstract forms , and not the material world of change known to us through sensation, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. When used in this sense, the word form is often capitalized...
, and the problems inherent to teaching. It also espouses the so called "unwritten doctrine" of Plato which urges that nothing of importance should be committed to writing.
Eighth Letter
The Eighth Letter is addressed to the associates and companions of Dion, and was probably written some months after the Seventh Letter but before Dion's assassin, CallippusCallippus
Callippus or Calippus was a Greek astronomer and mathematician.Callippus was born at Cyzicus, and studied under Eudoxus of Cnidus at the Academy of Plato. He also worked with Aristotle at the Lyceum, which means that he was active in Athens prior to Aristotle's death in 322...
, had been driven out by Hipparinus
Hipparinus
Hipparinus can refer to:* Hipparinus, the father of Dion and father-in-law and advisor of Dionysius the Elder.* Hipparinus, tyrant of Syracuse from 352-351 BCE and a son of Dionysius the Elder.* Hipparinus, the son of Dion....
. It councels compromise between the parties of Dion and Dionysius the Younger
Dionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC....
, the former favoring democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
, the latter, tyranny
Tyrant
A tyrant was originally one who illegally seized and controlled a governmental power in a polis. Tyrants were a group of individuals who took over many Greek poleis during the uprising of the middle classes in the sixth and seventh centuries BC, ousting the aristocratic governments.Plato and...
. The compromise would be a monarchy
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
limited by laws.
Ninth Letter
The Ninth Letter is addressed to ArchytasArchytas
Archytas was an Ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and strategist. He was a scientist of the Pythagorean school and famous for being the reputed founder of mathematical mechanics, as well as a good friend of Plato....
. Bury describes it as "a colourless and commonplace effusion which we would not willingly ascribe to Plato, and which no correspondent of his would be likely to preserve." Despite the fact that Cicero
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
attests to its having been written by Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
, most scholars consider it a literary forgery
Literary forgery
Literary forgery refers to writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or a purported memoir presented as genuine.- History :The common, or popularly known, instance of literary forgery may involve for example the work of a...
.
Tenth Letter
The Tenth Letter is addressed to an otherwise unknown Aristodorus, who is praised for having remained loyal to Dion, presumably during the latter's exile. The treatment of philosophyPhilosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
in simply moral
Morality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
terms, without any reference to intellectual
Intellectual
An intellectual is a person who uses intelligence and critical or analytical reasoning in either a professional or a personal capacity.- Terminology and endeavours :"Intellectual" can denote four types of persons:...
qualities, is foreign enough to Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
's treatment for Bury to declare the letter a forgery
Literary forgery
Literary forgery refers to writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or a purported memoir presented as genuine.- History :The common, or popularly known, instance of literary forgery may involve for example the work of a...
. In any event, it consists of a bare three sentences, covering nine lines in the Stephanus pagination
Stephanus pagination
Stephanus pagination is the system of reference and organization used in modern editions and translations of Plato . Plato's works are divided into numbers, and each number will be divided into equal sections a, b, c, d and e...
.
Eleventh Letter
The Eleventh Letter is addressed to one Laodamas, who apparently requested assistance in drawing up laws for a new colonyColony
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception....
. It refers to someone named Socrates, though the reference in the letter to the advanced age of Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
means that it cannot be the Socrates
Socrates
Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
who is famous from the dialogues. Bury would allow the authenticity of the letter, were it not for the fact that it claims that this Socrates cannot travel on account of having been enervated by a case of strangury
Strangury
Strangury is the symptom of painful, frequent urination of small volumes that are expelled slowly only by straining and despite a severe sense of urgency, usually with the residual feeling of incomplete emptying. These 'drops' of urine are 'squeezed out' in what sufferers describe as painful...
.
Twelfth Letter
The Twelfth Letter is addressed to ArchytasArchytas
Archytas was an Ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and strategist. He was a scientist of the Pythagorean school and famous for being the reputed founder of mathematical mechanics, as well as a good friend of Plato....
. It is only slightly longer than the Tenth Letter
Tenth Letter (Plato)
The Tenth Letter of Plato, also known as Epistle X or Letter X, is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato. It is the shortest of the so-called Epistles of Plato, comprising two or three sentences aside from the salutation, and spanning a single letter in the Stephanus pagination .Few...
(four sentences, covering 12 lines in the Stephanus pagination
Stephanus pagination
Stephanus pagination is the system of reference and organization used in modern editions and translations of Plato . Plato's works are divided into numbers, and each number will be divided into equal sections a, b, c, d and e...
), and considered to be spurious. It thanks Archytas for sending Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
some treatises, which it then goes on to praise effusively. Diogenes Laertius
Diogenes Laertius
Diogenes Laertius was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is known about his life, but his surviving Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is one of the principal surviving sources for the history of Greek philosophy.-Life:Nothing is definitively known about his life...
preserves this letter in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers
Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers
Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is a biography of the Greek philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, written in Greek, perhaps in the first half of the third century AD.-Overview:...
, as well as the letter from Archytas which presumably occasioned the Twelfth Letter; this letter points to the treatises having been those of Ocellos of Lucania
Ocellus Lucanus
Ocellus Lucanus, a Pythagorean philosopher, born in Lucania in the 5th century BC, was perhaps a pupil of Pythagoras himself.Stobaeus Ocellus Lucanus, a Pythagorean philosopher, born in Lucania in the 5th century BC, was perhaps a pupil of Pythagoras himself.Stobaeus Ocellus Lucanus, a Pythagorean...
, a Pythagorean
Pythagoreanism
Pythagoreanism was the system of esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans, who were considerably influenced by mathematics. Pythagoreanism originated in the 5th century BCE and greatly influenced Platonism...
. Because the writings which are attributed to Ocellos are forgeries
Literary forgery
Literary forgery refers to writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or a purported memoir presented as genuine.- History :The common, or popularly known, instance of literary forgery may involve for example the work of a...
from the First Century BCE, the Twelfth Letter is probably also a forgery, and by the same forger, intended to stamp the treatises with Plato's authority.
Thirteenth Letter
The Thirteenth Letter is addressed to Dionysius II of SyracuseDionysius II of Syracuse
Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC....
, and appears to be private in character. The portrait of Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
offered here is in sharp contrast to that the disinterested and somewhat aloof philosopher of the Seventh Letter, leading Bury to doubt its authenticity.