Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan
Encyclopedia
The Eastern Military High Command of the Pakistan Armed Forces was a field
-level military command headed by an appointed senior 3-star
officer
, who was designated the Unified Commander of the Eastern Military High Command. After the partition of India
by Great Britain
, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was divided into two territories separated by 1000 miles (1,609.3 km) (prior to the independence of Bangladesh
in 1971). Most of the Pakistan armed forces were stationed in West Pakistan; the role of the Pakistan armed forces in East Pakistan
was to hold out until Pakistan defeated India in the west (in case of war). The Pakistan armed forces created the Eastern Military High Command, with one unified commander of the Pakistan armed forces responsible for the command. The armed forces (particularly the Pakistan Army), had drawn up a plan to defend Dhaka
by concentrating all their forces along the Dhaka Bowl (the area surrounded by the rivers Jamuna, Padma
and Meghna). After Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight
and Operation Barisal
to curb the Awami League-led political movement in March 1971 (leading to the creation of Mukti Bahini
and insurgency throughout Bangladesh), General Niazi (last unified commander of the Eastern Military High Command) revised the existing plan according to the Pakistan's premier General Headquarters (GHQ) directive (which emphasized the need to prevent the Mukti Bahini from occupying any area of the province and to fight for every inch of territory). HQ expected the Indians to occupy a large area of the province, transfer the Mukti Bahini and Bengali refugees there and recognize the Bangladesh government in exile – turning the insurgency into an international diplomatic issue. General Niazi (and his deputy unified commander, Vice-Admiral Mohammad Shariff) designated 10 cities (Jessore, Jhenaidah, Bogra
, Rangpur
, Jamalpur
, Mymensingh
, Sylhet
, Comilla
and Chittagong
) on major communication hubs as "fortress towns" and placed the bulk of his troops near the Indian border. The final plan called for the armed forces to delay Indian attacks at the border and then gradually fall back to the fortress towns. From the fortresses, part of the surviving force was to take up positions near Dhaka and hold out until India was defeated in the west; Pakistani forces in the fortress towns would delay the bulk of the Indian forces and prevent them from concentrating on Dhaka.
inherited six infantry divisions and an armored brigade after independence in 1947 from the British Indian Army
, deploying most of their armed assets in West Pakistan
. East Pakistan
had one infantry brigade in 1948, which was made up of two infantry battalion
s, the 1st East Bengal Regiment
and the 1/14 or 3/8 Punjab Regiment
. Between them, the two battalions boasted five rifle companies (a battalion normally had five companies). This weak brigade – under the command of Brigadier
Ayub Khan (local rank Major General – GOC 14 Division) – and a number of East Pakistan Rifles wings were tasked with defending East Pakistan during the Kashmir War of 1947
. The Pakistan Air Force
and Navy
had little presence in East Pakistan at that time. The reasons for placing more than 90 percent of the armed might in West Pakistan
were:
now contained two infantry brigades, with the 53rd Brigade stationed at Comilla
and the 107th Brigade deployed in Jessore by 1963. In 1964, the 23rd Brigade was created in Dhaka. This under-strength division comprised three infantry brigades, with no armor and supported by 10 EPR wings, 12 F-86 Saber planes and three gunboats, rode out the 1965 war in the east. The Air Forces had bombed each other's bases with the PAF emerging on top, while the BSF ad EPR had skirmished along the border; although India had one infantry division and one armored brigade posted near East Pakistan, the armies never clashed in the east.
, a person destined for infamy in Bangladesh, became Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army
in 1966, he initiated a series of reforms to revamp the combat capability of the Pakistan army. The Army HQ in East Pakistan was upgraded to a corps-level HQ (initially designated as the III corps), but the number of divisions in the East was kept unchanged (although the 57th Infantry Brigade was formed in Dhaka, while the 23rd Brigade was sent to Rangpur
. In 1970, the 29th Cavalry was deployed in Rangpur
from Rawalpindi
, but East Pakistan was not given any corps artillery or armored units. The Pakistan Eastern Military High Command was established in 1962; in 1969, the Chief Martial Law Administrator
of the country, General Yahya Khan
, sent Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan
as Martial Law Administrator
of East Pakistan. Syed Mohammad Ahsan
, when Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Navy, had established the naval forces in East Pakistan; the naval presence was tripled in East Pakistan with more officers from West Pakistan deployed in the region. Admiral Ahsan officially served as third unified commander of the Eastern Military High Command. The Chief of the General Staff, Major General Yakob Khan
, decided to run a series of exercises in East Pakistan to formulate an integrated battle plan for the province in 1967. Dubbed “Operation X-Sunderbans-1”, it was run by (then) Colonel Rao Farman Ali
under the command of Major General Muzaffar Hussain (GOC 14th Division); the conclusions of this exercise formed the basis for the Pakistani operational plan in 1971.
Instead of defending every inch of the land, survival of the armed forces was given top priority and the defence of Dhaka was the ultimate objective. Instead of deploying along the 2600 miles (4,184.3 km)-long Indian border, three lines of deployment were chosen:
The Pakistani planners were aware of the possible negative political implications among the Bengali population of abandoning forward areas and concentrating the army around the Dhaka Bowl to maximize the defensive potential and achieve better coordination; however, it failed to come up with an alternative solution. The planners recommended taking advantage of the poor state of infrastructure and natural obstacles to the fullest.
In brief, the plan was:
Pakistani forces stationed in Sylhet
(surrounded by Indian territory from three sides is extremely difficult to defend) and Chittagong
would look after their own affairs. The planners did not devise a plan where East Pakistan forces would fight a self-sustained, independent action and defend the province on its own.
The conclusions were submitted to GHQ in Rawalpindi, but no major alteration of the original plan took place at this time.
impasse. General Tikka Khan's staff at the Eastern Military High Command headquarters was the first to present their assessment of the civil and military situation to Yahya Khan and the army and air force's top generals accompanying him, and Vice-Admiral Ahsan persuaded General Yahya Khan at the meeting. During this meeting, Admiral Ahsan brief ran counter to the cut-and-dried solutions of West Pakistan representatives and civil servants. The Pakistan Air Force
's Brigadier-General Mitty Masud stressed the importance of a political solution rather than military action. General Masud backed Admiral Ahsan, as he believed that an autonomous East Pakistan was preferable to the certainty of military defeat if India decided to intervene. General Yahya Khan rejected Masud's arguments.
Before the start of military operations a final high-level meeting was held (chaired by General Yahya Khan) at the General Headquarters (GHQ), where the participants were unanimously in favor of the military operation (despite the calls from Admiral Ahsan and General Masud for a political settlement). One of the bases of the replacement was Admiral Ahsan's resignation; he opposed any military actions in the East Pakistan, and was determined to find political solutions rather than military. The GHQ generals in the army and air force (and the navy admirals) were determined to curb the political movement with violence and military might. Admiral Ahsan went to East Pakistan, later returning to West Pakistan. General Yaqub Khan temporarily assumed control of the province in place of Admiral Ahsan; he was replaced by Lt. General Tikka Khan on his refusal to support military action against civilians. Once Operation Searchlight and Operation Barisal launched, Admiral Ahsan resigned from his position as Unified Commander and Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan, retiring from the Navy in protest. In his place, Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff assumed the Eastern Naval Command. Air Commodore Mitty Masud
was also replaced by the inexperienced officer Air Commodore Enamul Haque. Masud resigned from the air force due to his apparent opposition to Operations Searchlight and Barisal. Lt. General Tikka Khan
(Chief Martial Law Administrator and Commander of Pakistan Armed forces in East Pakistan) ordered the formulation and implementation of Operation Searchlight
after receiving approval from Pakistan Army GHQ.
Major General Khadim Hussain Raja (GOC 14th Division) and Maj. Gen. Rao Farman Ali devised the scheme for Operation Searchlight
in March 1971 (to curb the Awami League-led non-cooperation movement through military action) within 10 days of launching the scheme. Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff, commander of the Pakistan Navy in the region, ran violent naval operations that contributed to the insurgency. The Pakistan armed forces had no reserves to meet any unforeseen events, and success depended heavily on reinforcements from West Pakistan. There was no contingency plan for any Indian military action – the main reason Generals Yakub (GOC East Pakistan), Khadim and Farman had opposed launching the operation. Pakistani forces occupied Bangladesh, and Gen. Gul Hassan )then Chief of General Staff of the Pakistan army and no admirer of Gen. Niazi – GOC East Pakistan from April 11, 1971 – expressed satisfaction with the situation.
was made second-in-command of the Eastern Military High Command.
. The Eastern Command moved 9th Division HQ (CO Maj. Gen. Shawkat Riza) to Jessore, putting the 107th (CO Brig. Makhdum Hayat, HQ Jessore) and the 57th (CO Brig. Jahanzab Arbab, HQ Jhenida) under this division. The 16th Division (CO Maj. Gen. Nazar Hussain Shah) HQ moved to Bogra, which now included the 23rd (CO Brig. Abdullah Malik, HQ Rangpur), the 205th (HQ Bogra) and the 34th (HQ Nator) Brigades. The 14th Division (CO Maj. Gen. Rahim) HQ remained at Dhaka, with its brigades at Mymensingh (27th), Sylhet (313th) and Comilla (117th). The 97th Independent Brigade was formed in Chittagong, while the 53rd Brigade was moved to Dhaka as a command reserve.
Gen. Niazi added the following to the plan:
No war games were conducted to factor in the new directives, or specific plans drawn up to attain these objectives. The revised plan was sent to Rawalpindi and approved in August 1971. During June and July, Mukti Bahini regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot
and sent 2,000–5,000 guerrillas across the border (the unsuccessful "Monsoon Offensive").
infiltration and counter it through ambush, artillery shelling and minefields along the 2700 kilometres (1,677.7 mi) border with India. Gen. Niazi claimed to have suggested the following measures to Gen. Hamid (COS Pakistan Army) during his visit in June:
The Indian military at this time was vulnerable, with its main formations posted away from the East Pakistan border. Col. Z.A. Khan (commander of the Special Services Group
in East Pakistan) also advocated aggressive action against select Indian targets. General Hamid ruled out any provocations that might provoke Indian retaliation, while outlining the main objective of the Eastern Command: to keep the insurgency under control and prevent the formation of a Bangladesh government inside the province. Gen. Niazi remained convinced that his scheme would have forced India to concede terms, but at least one Pakistani source labels his proposal “sheer folly”.
The main plan remained unchanged until September 1971: Pakistani units were to fight a series of defensive battles before deploying to defend the Dhaka Bowl, but every inch of the province would not be defended. The Pakistan army occupied all the towns and fortified 90 of the 370 BoPs (half of the BoPs were destroyed by Indian shell fire by July 1971 to facilitate Mukti Bahini infiltration) and deployed close to the border to halt Mukti Bahini activity.
It was decided to keep part of the reserves to the north of the Ravi River and part to the south. The plan called for the formations near the border to seize favorable lodgement areas, to screen the main attack of the army. In September 1971 the plan was updated to include:
Aside from these formations, Pakistan also had two independent artillery and two infantry brigade groups deployed on the border. The initial Pakistani plan was to launch diversionary attacks along the whole Indian border to keep Indian reserve forces away from the main target areas, then attack the Poonch and Chhamb sectors and drive back the Indian forces while an infantry brigade (supported by an armored regiment) pushed into Rajastan towards Ramgarh. Once India had committed her reserves, II Corps would assemble south of the Sutlej (near Bahawalpur) and move east into India, swinging northeast towards Bhatinda and Ludhiana. Then IV Corps would push towards the Indian Punjab. Given that India had a slight edge in forces, Pakistani armored units and the Pakistan Air Force
needed to gain the upper hand quickly to ensure this plan succeeded.
The overall objective of the Pakistani ground assault was to capture enough Indian territory in the west to ensure a favorable bargaining position with India (should the Pakistani Eastern Command fail to repel the Indian attack on Bangladesh), and by forcing India to commit forces in the west and triggering the withdrawal of Indian forces from the east. From October 1971 onwards, Pakistani units began to take up positions along the border.
A. Rahim Khan) needed to achieve air superiority on the western front. In 1971 it had 17 front-line squadrons facing 26 Indian front-line squadrons (OC Air Chief Marshal
Pratap C. Lal, CO West Air Marshal M.M Engineer), while India deployed 12 squadrons (CO East Air Marshal H.C. Dewan) in the east (against one PAF squadron – CO Air Commodore
Enamul Huq) and had another seven squadrons deployed elsewhere. PAF planners were aware that once India neutralized the lone PAF squadron in East Pakistan, it would be free to concentrate more aircraft in the west after deploying units to negate any Chinese moves. The PAF devised Operation Chengiz Khan
to launch preemptive strikes on the IAF and neutralize its advantage at the onset of the war.
Muzaffar Hasan
(Fleet CO: Rear Admiral
MAK Lodhi), with one cruiser
, three frigate
s, five destroyer
s, four submarines and several gunboats, faced the Indian Western Fleet (OC Admiral S.M. Nanda; Fleet CO: Rear Admiral E.C. “Chandy” Kuruvila) consisting of one cruiser, eight frigates, one destroyer, two submarines and several patrol and missile boats in 1971. The Pakistan Navy had no aggressive plans except sending the Ghazi
to the Bay of Bengal to sink the Indian aircraft carrier INS Vikrant. On the eastern front, only one destroyer was active with seven gunboats; therefore, it was impossible to conduct operations in the deep Bay of Bengal.
Besides the above, the planners also had to factor in the status of the Pakistani forces in the province, logistical challenges presented by their deployment and the state of communications.
According to one estimate, the Eastern Command needed at least 250,000 personnel; it barely had 150,000 (50,000 regular soldiers) by November 1971. To fill the manpower gap, the East Pakistan Civil Armed Force (EPCAF) (17 planes and approximately 23,000 personnel) and Razakar
s (40,000 members, against a target of 100,0000) were raised after June 1971. The armed police (11,000 members) was also reorganized and bolstered with 5,000 West Pakistani personnel. Therefore, the army was only fit for “Police action”.
According to General Niazi, he had requested the following from GHQ in June 1971:
The Pakistan GHQ had to weigh every request to resupply, reequip and reinforce the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan against the need of the West Pakistani forces, and did not have enough reserves of manpower and equipment for a long conflict. The Eastern Command only deemed one of the three divisions fit for conventional warfare. Seven West Pakistan Ranger wings, five Mujahid battalions and a wing of Khyber Rifles, Tochi and Thal Scouts were sent to East Pakistan by November 1971. Five infantry battalions were sent from West Pakistan in November. Al Badr and Al Shams units contributed another 5,000 men each.
was moved to Akhaura, while two battalions from the brigade were detached to form the 93rd Brigade in Mymensingh. Similarly, the 313th Brigade was moved from Sylhet
to Maulavi Bazar and a battalion from the 313th was kept at Sylhet to form the nucleus of the 202nd ad hoc Brigade. The 14th Division (which covered both the Dhaka Bowl and the Eastern Sector except Chittagong) was given responsibility for the Eastern Sector only, and the 36th ad hoc Division (containing only the 93rd Brigade) was created to defend the Dhaka Bowl. Similarly, the 314th (for Khulna
) and the Rajshahi ad hoc Brigades were created and deployed in September. In mid-November, the 39th ad hoc Division was created to defend the Comilla
and Noakhali districts from the 14th Division units deployed in those areas; the 14th was tasked to defend the Sylhet
and Brahmanbaria areas only. The 91st ad hoc Brigade was created to defend the Ramgarh area north of Chittagong as part of the 39th Division in November. The ad hoc formations lacked the staff and equipment of regular formations.
flotillas and increasing the number of helicopter
s in the province (none of which happened). Instead, the C-130 planes (which had played a crucial role during Operation Searchlight) were withdrawn from the province, diminishing the airlift capacity of the Pakistani forces further. The Mukti Bahini had sabotaged 231 bridges and 122 rail lines by November 1971 (thus diminishing transport capacity to 10 percent of normal), and complicated the delivery of the daily minimum 600 tons of supplies to the army units.
The Eastern Command staff kept the plan unchanged after the review; Pakistani troop deployments were not altered after the July appraisal. Pakistani units were kept at the border with the intention to withdraw them towards Dhaka after a series of defensive battles. The Eastern Command completed a final revision of the plan in October 1971, after both generals (Gul Hassan and Hamid) had visited the province.
The fortress concept was adopted; the planners decided on a single defensive deployment of troops on the border, which went against the troop deployments advocated by earlier plans. This was done to stick to the GHQ order of not surrendering any territory to the Mukti Bahini. When devising troop deployments, the planners mixed political considerations with strategic ones and envisioned a forward-leaning defense in depth:
, Rangpur
, Comilla
and Bhairab Bazar (these were located on communication hubs), Jamalpur
and Mymensingh
(defending the northern perimeter of the Dhaka bowl), and Sylhet
and Chittagong
(independent defense areas). There were four lines of defense:
Having chosen the defense concept and defensive lines, the Pakistan Eastern Command outlined its course of action:
The divisional commanders were authorised to make plans for limited counterattacks in Indian territory to aid in their defensive objectives (one of which was to maintain control of the main roads leading into the territory).
Northern Sector: This area is to the north of the Padma and west of the Jamuna River, encompassing the Rajhshahi, Pabna
, Bogra
, Rangpur
and Dinajpur
districts. Pakistani planners were undecided on whether the Indian attack would come from the Siliguri Corridor south towards Bogura or on the Hili–Chilimari axis (from southwest to northeast) to cut the area in two. The division was deployed to counter both possibilities.
The 16th Infantry Division (CO Maj. Gen. Nazar Hussain Shah, HQ Bogra, then Nator) defended this area. It had the 29th Cavalry, two artillery regiments and a heavy mortar battery (the 117th Independent Mortar Battery), in addition to three infantry brigades: the 23rd (CO Brig. S.A. Ansari, HQ Rangpur), the 205th (CO Brig. Tajammul Hosain Malik, HQ Bogra) and the 34th (Brig. Mir Abdul Nayeem, HQ Nator). The general plan of defense was:
Western Sector: This area (south of the Padma and east of the Meghna) contained the Khulna
, Jessore, Kushtia, Faridpur
, Barisal and Patuakhali districts and was defended by the 9th Division (CO Maj. Gen. Ansari) made up of two infantry brigades: the 107th (CO Brig. Makhdum Hayat, HQ Jessore), covering the border from Jibannagar to the Sunderbans to the south, and the 57th (CO Brig. Manzoor Ahmed, HQ Jhenida), which covered the border from Jibannagar to the Padma in the north. Two artillery regiments, a heavy mortar battery (the 211th) and a squadron of tanks were also part of the division. Pakistani planners assumed three likely axes of advance from the Indian army:
The 107th Brigade (the 12th Punjab, the 15th and 22nd FF Battalions) was tasked with guarding the Benapol axis. This brigade was reinforced with the 38th FF in November, while the Third Independent Tank Squadron was destroyed at Garibpur
on November 22. In addition, the 55th Field Artillery Regiment and the heavy mortar battery was attached to the brigade and the 12th and 21st Punjab Battalions were deployed near its operational area.
The 57th Brigade (the 18th Punjab and 29th Baloch) was deployed to cover the Darshana and Meherpur areas. The 49th Field Artillery regiment was attached to this brigade, and the 50th Punjab reinforced the unit in November. To defend the Hardinge Bridge, a tank squadron was placed under the Eastern Command control near Kushtia.
In September an ad hoc brigade – the 314th (CO Col. Fazle Hamid, one Mujahib battalion and five companies each from EPCAF and Razakars) was created to defend the city of Khulna
.
The 57th and 107th Brigades were to defend the border, then fall back to Jhenida and Jessore and prevent the Indians from crossing the Jessore–Jhenida road (which runs almost parallel to the border). The brigades also had the option to fall back across the Madhumati
River (which formed part of the Dhaka outer defense line) and defend the area between Faridpur
, Kamarkhali and Goalanda
.
Dhaka Bowl: Pakistani planners anticipated a brigade size attack on the Kamalpur – Sherpur – Jamalpur
axis, and another along the Haluaghat – Mymensingh
axis. They deemed this area impassable because of the hilly terrain on the Indian side and the Modhupur Jungle and Brahmaputra River to the north of Dhaka. The 27th Brigade initially was posted at Mymensingh, and the 53rd was in Dhaka. However, when the 27th Brigade was sent to Brahmanbaria, the 93rd Brigade (CO Brig. Abdul Qadir Khan, HQ Mymensingh) was created from units of the 27th Brigade, and the 36th ad hoc Division (CO Maj. Gen. Mohammad Jamshed Khan, HQ Dhaka) was created to replace the 14th Division. The order of battle of the 36th ad hoc Division was:
Eastern Sector: This sector included the Chittagong, Noakhali, Comilla and Sylhet districts. The anticipated lines of advance were:
while the 60th and 61st Ranger Wings were posted at Ramgarh and Cox's Bazar
, respectively.
These suggestions were incorporated in the plan without change. From September onwards Pakistani forces had begun to fortify positions with concrete bunkers, anti-tank ditches, land mines and barbed wires. Spiked bamboo was also used, and some areas were flooded to hinder enemy movements. Engineering battalions were sent to construct fortified positions, although some of the strong points and fortresses (especially those inside the Dhaka outer-defense line) remained incomplete.
to request two more divisions as reinforcements (as well as all the heavy equipment left behind by the 9th and 16th Divisions for East Pakistan). The GHQ promised to send 8 infantry battalions and an engineer battalion; only five battalions were sent to East Pakistan because the GHQ probably could not spare anything else. The first two units (the 38th FF and 50th Punjab) were given to the 9th Division. The next three battalions were split up and sent as reinforcements to various areas, as needed. The last three battalions were to replace the 53rd Brigade as command reserves in Dhaka
, but never arrived from West Pakistan. At the meeting, the Eastern Command was told to continue its “political mission” (i.e. prevent territory from falling into Mukti Bahini hands), although by this time 5000 square miles (12,949.9 km²) of territory had fallen into their hands. Gen Niazi claims this order was never withdrawn, and Gen. Hassan suggested that Gen. Hamid never altered the plan Gen. Niazi had submitted in October (including the deployment of troops near the border). The GHQ never commented on the deployment plan, while others claim the Eastern Command failed to readjust its deployments despite advice from GHQ.
Gen Niazi split the 14th Division and transferred the 117th Brigade to the newly-created 39th ad hoc Division (CO Maj. Gen. Rahim, HQ Chandpur), which also included the 53rd (CO Brig. Aslam Niazi, HQ Feni
) and the 91st ad hoc Brigade (CO Brig. Mian Taskeen Uddin, HQ Chittagong). The deployment of the troops was:
Field army
A Field Army, or Area Army, usually referred to simply as an Army, is a term used by many national military forces for a military formation superior to a corps and beneath an army group....
-level military command headed by an appointed senior 3-star
3 star rank
An officer of three-star rank is a very senior commander in many of the armed services holding a rank described by the NATO code of OF-8. The term is also used by some armed forces which are not NATO members...
officer
Officer (armed forces)
An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. Commissioned officers derive authority directly from a sovereign power and, as such, hold a commission charging them with the duties and responsibilities of a specific office or position...
, who was designated the Unified Commander of the Eastern Military High Command. After the partition of India
Partition of India
The Partition of India was the partition of British India on the basis of religious demographics that led to the creation of the sovereign states of the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India on 14 and 15...
by Great Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was divided into two territories separated by 1000 miles (1,609.3 km) (prior to the independence of Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Bangladesh , officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma to the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south...
in 1971). Most of the Pakistan armed forces were stationed in West Pakistan; the role of the Pakistan armed forces in East Pakistan
East Pakistan
East Pakistan was a provincial state of Pakistan established in 14 August 1947. The provincial state existed until its declaration of independence on 26 March 1971 as the independent nation of Bangladesh. Pakistan recognized the new nation on 16 December 1971. East Pakistan was created from Bengal...
was to hold out until Pakistan defeated India in the west (in case of war). The Pakistan armed forces created the Eastern Military High Command, with one unified commander of the Pakistan armed forces responsible for the command. The armed forces (particularly the Pakistan Army), had drawn up a plan to defend Dhaka
Dhaka
Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka Division. Dhaka is a megacity and one of the major cities of South Asia. Located on the banks of the Buriganga River, Dhaka, along with its metropolitan area, had a population of over 15 million in 2010, making it the largest city...
by concentrating all their forces along the Dhaka Bowl (the area surrounded by the rivers Jamuna, Padma
Padma River
The Padma is a major trans-boundary river in Bangladesh. It is the main distributary of the Ganges , which originates in the Himalayas. The Padma enters Bangladesh from India near Chapai Nababganj...
and Meghna). After Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight was a planned military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army to curb the Bengali nationalist movement in the erstwhile East Pakistan in March 1971. Ordered by the central government in West Pakistan, this was seen as the sequel to "Operation Blitz" which had been...
and Operation Barisal
Operation Barisal
The Operation Barisal was a Pakistan naval operation in 1971 intended to free Barisal, East Pakistan from Mukti Bahinis and the dissidents/armed personnel of the Pakistan Defence Forces. It was the part of Operation Searchlight.-External links:*...
to curb the Awami League-led political movement in March 1971 (leading to the creation of Mukti Bahini
Mukti Bahini
Mukti Bahini , also termed as the "Freedom Fighters" or FFs, collectively refers to the armed organizations who fought against the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was dynamically formed by Bengali regulars and civilians after the proclamation of Bangladesh's independence on...
and insurgency throughout Bangladesh), General Niazi (last unified commander of the Eastern Military High Command) revised the existing plan according to the Pakistan's premier General Headquarters (GHQ) directive (which emphasized the need to prevent the Mukti Bahini from occupying any area of the province and to fight for every inch of territory). HQ expected the Indians to occupy a large area of the province, transfer the Mukti Bahini and Bengali refugees there and recognize the Bangladesh government in exile – turning the insurgency into an international diplomatic issue. General Niazi (and his deputy unified commander, Vice-Admiral Mohammad Shariff) designated 10 cities (Jessore, Jhenaidah, Bogra
Bogra
Bogra is a town, and one of the oldest towns in northern Bangladesh. It is a centre of commerce and trade within the Bogra District and located under the Rajshahi Division. Bogra is sometimes described as the nerve centre of Northern Bangladesh. Amongst many notable activities, it has been hosting...
, Rangpur
Rangpur, Bangladesh
Rangpur is one of the major cities in Bangladesh. Rangpur is considered as the centre of northwestern Bangladesh. Recently established public university of Bangladesh named as "Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur" is situated in the southern part of the city. Earlier Rangpur was the headquarter of...
, Jamalpur
Jamalpur
Jamalpur may refer to:Bangladesh* Jamalpur District* Jamalpur Sadar UpazilaIndia* Jamalpur, Munger, Bihar* Jamalpur, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh* Jamalpur , West Bengal...
, Mymensingh
Mymensingh
Mymensingh , pronounced moy-mon-shing-haw, is a city of Bangladesh situated on the river Brahmaputra. It is the headquarters of the administrative unit Mymensingh District. Mymensingh is the anglicized pronunciation of the original name Momenshahi, referring to a ruler called Momen Shah. The cadet...
, Sylhet
Sylhet
Sylhet , is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District, and was granted metropolitan city status in March 2009. Sylhet is located on the banks of the Surma Valley and is surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills...
, Comilla
Comilla
Comilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
and Chittagong
Chittagong
Chittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
) on major communication hubs as "fortress towns" and placed the bulk of his troops near the Indian border. The final plan called for the armed forces to delay Indian attacks at the border and then gradually fall back to the fortress towns. From the fortresses, part of the surviving force was to take up positions near Dhaka and hold out until India was defeated in the west; Pakistani forces in the fortress towns would delay the bulk of the Indian forces and prevent them from concentrating on Dhaka.
Background
The Pakistan ArmyPakistan Army
The Pakistan Army is the branch of the Pakistani Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The Pakistan Army came into existence after the Partition of India and the resulting independence of Pakistan in 1947. It is currently headed by General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani. The Pakistan...
inherited six infantry divisions and an armored brigade after independence in 1947 from the British Indian Army
British Indian Army
The British Indian Army, officially simply the Indian Army, was the principal army of the British Raj in India before the partition of India in 1947...
, deploying most of their armed assets in West Pakistan
West Pakistan
West Pakistan , common name West-Pakistan , in the period between its establishment on 22 November 1955 to disintegration on December 16, 1971. This period, during which, Pakistan was divided, ended when East-Pakistan was disintegrated and succeeded to become which is now what is known as Bangladesh...
. East Pakistan
East Pakistan
East Pakistan was a provincial state of Pakistan established in 14 August 1947. The provincial state existed until its declaration of independence on 26 March 1971 as the independent nation of Bangladesh. Pakistan recognized the new nation on 16 December 1971. East Pakistan was created from Bengal...
had one infantry brigade in 1948, which was made up of two infantry battalion
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
s, the 1st East Bengal Regiment
East Bengal Regiment
-History:The East Bengal Regiment was formed in 1948 following Pakistan's creation from the Partition of British Raj in South Asia. As part of the agreement, the Muslim population of what was previously known as British Empire in South Asia were given their own state of Pakistan, made up of West...
and the 1/14 or 3/8 Punjab Regiment
Punjab Regiment (Pakistan)
The Punjab Regiment is an infantry regiment of the Pakistan Army. The modern regiment was formed in 1956 from an amalgamation of the 1st Punjab Regiment, 14th Punjab Regiment, 15th Punjab Regiment and 16th Punjab Regiment...
. Between them, the two battalions boasted five rifle companies (a battalion normally had five companies). This weak brigade – under the command of Brigadier
Brigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
Ayub Khan (local rank Major General – GOC 14 Division) – and a number of East Pakistan Rifles wings were tasked with defending East Pakistan during the Kashmir War of 1947
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
The India-Pakistan War of 1947-48, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of four wars fought between the two newly independent nations...
. The Pakistan Air Force
Pakistan Air Force
The Pakistan Air Force is the leading air arm of the Pakistan Armed Forces and is primarily tasked with the aerial defence of Pakistan with a secondary role of providing air support to the Pakistan Army and the Pakistan Navy. The PAF also has a tertiary role of providing strategic air transport...
and Navy
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
had little presence in East Pakistan at that time. The reasons for placing more than 90 percent of the armed might in West Pakistan
West Pakistan
West Pakistan , common name West-Pakistan , in the period between its establishment on 22 November 1955 to disintegration on December 16, 1971. This period, during which, Pakistan was divided, ended when East-Pakistan was disintegrated and succeeded to become which is now what is known as Bangladesh...
were:
- West Pakistan borders KashmirKashmirKashmir is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range...
(an issue the Pakistani government was not above using armed force to resolve): Pakistan did not have the economic base to support adequate forces in both wings, and West Pakistan had more strategic depth that East Pakistan. - Most government officials were from West Pakistan or non-Bengali. Most economic development was taking place in West Pakistan, and the bulk of the armed forces was placed to keep its power base secure. Pakistani military staff planners proposed the following doctrine to justify this deployment: "The defense of the East lies in the West". Broadly speaking, this translated into Pakistan defeating India in the west, regardless of what transpired in the east (including Indian occupation of East Pakistan) because the presumed West Pakistani success would force India to negotiate a favorable settlement. The Pakistani staff also believed in the martial raceMartial RaceMartial Race was a designation created by Army officials of British India, where they classified each ethnic group into one of two categories: 'Martial' and 'Non-Martial'. A 'martial race' was typically considered brave and well built for fighting. The 'non-martial races' were those whom the...
theory; it was widely believed that one Pakistani soldier was equal to four to ten Hindus/Indian soldiers, and the numerical superiority of the Indian armed forces ccould be negated by its smaller number of Pakistani soldiers.
1949–1965
The Pakistan Armed Forces grew exponentially in size between the wars of 1949 and 1965. The number of infantry divisions jumped from 6 to 13; it also boasted two armored divisions and several independent infantry and armored brigades by 1965. All these formations had the required artillery, commando, engineer and transport units attached to them. The growth in military infrastructure was slower in East Pakistan; the single division (14th Infantry division) HQed at DhakaDhaka
Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka Division. Dhaka is a megacity and one of the major cities of South Asia. Located on the banks of the Buriganga River, Dhaka, along with its metropolitan area, had a population of over 15 million in 2010, making it the largest city...
now contained two infantry brigades, with the 53rd Brigade stationed at Comilla
Comilla
Comilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
and the 107th Brigade deployed in Jessore by 1963. In 1964, the 23rd Brigade was created in Dhaka. This under-strength division comprised three infantry brigades, with no armor and supported by 10 EPR wings, 12 F-86 Saber planes and three gunboats, rode out the 1965 war in the east. The Air Forces had bombed each other's bases with the PAF emerging on top, while the BSF ad EPR had skirmished along the border; although India had one infantry division and one armored brigade posted near East Pakistan, the armies never clashed in the east.
Reforms of Yahya Khan
When Yahya KhanYahya Khan
General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan Qizilbash, H.Pk, HJ, S.Pk, psc was the third President of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971, following the resignation of Ayub Khan...
, a person destined for infamy in Bangladesh, became Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army
Pakistan Army
The Pakistan Army is the branch of the Pakistani Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The Pakistan Army came into existence after the Partition of India and the resulting independence of Pakistan in 1947. It is currently headed by General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani. The Pakistan...
in 1966, he initiated a series of reforms to revamp the combat capability of the Pakistan army. The Army HQ in East Pakistan was upgraded to a corps-level HQ (initially designated as the III corps), but the number of divisions in the East was kept unchanged (although the 57th Infantry Brigade was formed in Dhaka, while the 23rd Brigade was sent to Rangpur
Rangpur
Rangpur may refer to:*Rangpur - citrus fruitplaces*Rangpur Baghoor*Rangpur, India in Gujarat*Rangpur Division in Bangladesh**Rangpur District in Bangladesh**Rangpur, Bangladesh, administrative centre of Rangpur District...
. In 1970, the 29th Cavalry was deployed in Rangpur
Rangpur
Rangpur may refer to:*Rangpur - citrus fruitplaces*Rangpur Baghoor*Rangpur, India in Gujarat*Rangpur Division in Bangladesh**Rangpur District in Bangladesh**Rangpur, Bangladesh, administrative centre of Rangpur District...
from Rawalpindi
Rawalpindi
Rawalpindi , locally known as Pindi, is a city in the Pothohar region of Pakistan near Pakistan's capital city of Islamabad, in the province of Punjab. Rawalpindi is the fourth largest city in Pakistan after Karachi, Lahore and Faisalabad...
, but East Pakistan was not given any corps artillery or armored units. The Pakistan Eastern Military High Command was established in 1962; in 1969, the Chief Martial Law Administrator
Chief Martial Law Administrator
The office of the Chief Martial Law Administrator was a senior government post created in countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and Indonesia that gave considerable executive authority and powers to the holder of the post to enforce martial law in the country. This office has been used mostly by...
of the country, General Yahya Khan
Yahya Khan
General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan Qizilbash, H.Pk, HJ, S.Pk, psc was the third President of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971, following the resignation of Ayub Khan...
, sent Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan
Syed Mohammad Ahsan
Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan HQA, SPk, DSO, was a senior three-star admiral who was the 4th Chief of Naval Staff of Pakistan Navy from October 20, 1966 to August 31, 1969...
as Martial Law Administrator
Martial law
Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...
of East Pakistan. Syed Mohammad Ahsan
Syed Mohammad Ahsan
Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan HQA, SPk, DSO, was a senior three-star admiral who was the 4th Chief of Naval Staff of Pakistan Navy from October 20, 1966 to August 31, 1969...
, when Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Navy, had established the naval forces in East Pakistan; the naval presence was tripled in East Pakistan with more officers from West Pakistan deployed in the region. Admiral Ahsan officially served as third unified commander of the Eastern Military High Command. The Chief of the General Staff, Major General Yakob Khan
Sahabzada Yaqub Khan
Lieutenant-General Sahabzada Yaqub Ali Khan is a retired 3 star rank general in the Pakistan Army who the was the international face of Pakistan for three decades. He served as Foreign Minister of Pakistan from 1982 to 1991 during the dying days of Cold War and then caretaker Foreign Minister...
, decided to run a series of exercises in East Pakistan to formulate an integrated battle plan for the province in 1967. Dubbed “Operation X-Sunderbans-1”, it was run by (then) Colonel Rao Farman Ali
Rao Farman Ali
Major General Rao Farman Ali Khan was Pakistan Army general during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971. He took commission in an artillery regiment in 1941 and later commanded the 26 Field Regiment...
under the command of Major General Muzaffar Hussain (GOC 14th Division); the conclusions of this exercise formed the basis for the Pakistani operational plan in 1971.
Operation X-Sundarbans-1
Pakistani planners assumed that the main Indian assault would take place on the western border of east Pakistan, and the army in East Pakistan would not defend every inch of the province. Pakistani staff planners identified the following features as significant for setting up a defense plan:- MonsoonMonsoonMonsoon is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea...
rains turn the mostly flat country into a morass which hinders movement, so the best time for conventional warfare is during November – March (when the ground firms up to allow easy mechanized movement and armored warfare). - Infrastructure is poor; navigable rives cut across roads, and many places can only be reached by dirt roads. There are 300 large canals (navigable during summer), which can be an obstacle or helpful for the battle plan. Control over air and rivers are necessary for unhindered movement along interior lines, and road conditions dictate the speed and direction of movement.
- East Pakistan is a salientSalients, re-entrants and pocketsA salient is a battlefield feature that projects into enemy territory. The salient is surrounded by the enemy on three sides, making the troops occupying the salient vulnerable. The enemy's line facing a salient is referred to as a re-entrant...
into Indian territory, and can be used to launch attacks only if the forces posted there are stronger than the Indian forces opposing them. There are some Indian salients into the province also.
Instead of defending every inch of the land, survival of the armed forces was given top priority and the defence of Dhaka was the ultimate objective. Instead of deploying along the 2600 miles (4,184.3 km)-long Indian border, three lines of deployment were chosen:
- The Forward Line: Roughly forming a semicircle running from KhulnaKhulnaKhulna is the third largest city in Bangladesh. It is located on the banks of the Rupsha and Bhairab rivers in Khulna District. It is the divisional headquarters of Khulna Division and a major industrial and commercial center. It has a seaport named Mongla on its outskirts, 38 km from Khulna...
– Jessore – Jhenaidah – RajshahiRajshahiThe city of Rajshahi is the divisional headquarters of Rajshahi division as well as the administrative district that bears its name and is one of the six metropolitan cities of Bangladesh. Often referred to as Silk City and Education City, Rajshahi is located in the north-west of the country and...
– HiliHili, Dakshin DinajpurHili is a town with a police station in Balurghat subdivision of Dakshin Dinajpur district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is a border checkpoint on the India–Bangladesh border.-History:...
– DinajpurDinajpur District, BangladeshDinajpur is a district in Northern Bangladesh. It is a part of the Rangpur Division.- Geography :Dinajpur is bounded by Thakurgaon and Panchagarh districts in the north, Gaibandha and Joypurhat districts in the south, Nilphamari and Rangpurdistricts in the east, and the state of West Bengal, India...
– RangpurRangpur, BangladeshRangpur is one of the major cities in Bangladesh. Rangpur is considered as the centre of northwestern Bangladesh. Recently established public university of Bangladesh named as "Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur" is situated in the southern part of the city. Earlier Rangpur was the headquarter of...
– JamalpurJamalpurJamalpur may refer to:Bangladesh* Jamalpur District* Jamalpur Sadar UpazilaIndia* Jamalpur, Munger, Bihar* Jamalpur, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh* Jamalpur , West Bengal...
. MymensinghMymensinghMymensingh , pronounced moy-mon-shing-haw, is a city of Bangladesh situated on the river Brahmaputra. It is the headquarters of the administrative unit Mymensingh District. Mymensingh is the anglicized pronunciation of the original name Momenshahi, referring to a ruler called Momen Shah. The cadet...
- SylhetSylhetSylhet , is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District, and was granted metropolitan city status in March 2009. Sylhet is located on the banks of the Surma Valley and is surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills...
-ComillaComillaComilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
– ChittagongChittagongChittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
. Pakistan army did not have the numbers to defend this line. - The Secondary Line: This began along the MadhumatiMadhumatiMadhumati is a 1958 Hindi film produced and directed by Bimal Roy, and written by Ritwik Ghatak and Rajinder Singh Bedi. The music was composed by Salil Choudhury with the lyrics by Shailendra. The film stars Dilip Kumar, Vyjayantimala, Pran, and Johnny Walker. It was one of the earliest films to...
River, ran north to the Padma River, ran west along the Padma to Rajshahi, then north to HiliHili, Dakshin DinajpurHili is a town with a police station in Balurghat subdivision of Dakshin Dinajpur district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is a border checkpoint on the India–Bangladesh border.-History:...
, then to BograBograBogra is a town, and one of the oldest towns in northern Bangladesh. It is a centre of commerce and trade within the Bogra District and located under the Rajshahi Division. Bogra is sometimes described as the nerve centre of Northern Bangladesh. Amongst many notable activities, it has been hosting...
, JamalpurJamalpurJamalpur may refer to:Bangladesh* Jamalpur District* Jamalpur Sadar UpazilaIndia* Jamalpur, Munger, Bihar* Jamalpur, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh* Jamalpur , West Bengal...
, Mymensingh to Bhairab, then south to ComillaComillaComilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
and back to FaridpurFaridpur Sadar UpazilaFaridpur Sadar is an Upazila of Faridpur District in the Division of Dhaka, Bangladesh. It contains Faridpur Town near the banks of the Padma River.-Geography:...
along the Meghna River. Khulna, Jessore, Jhenida and Dinajpur-Rangpur were not to be defended in force; SylhetSylhetSylhet , is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District, and was granted metropolitan city status in March 2009. Sylhet is located on the banks of the Surma Valley and is surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills...
and ChittagongChittagongChittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
were to be independent defense areas. - Inner Line: The Dhaka Bowl (the area between the Jamuna, Padma, Meghna and Old Brahmaputra Rivers). This (especially the city of Dhaka) must be defended until Pakistan defeated India in the west.
The Pakistani planners were aware of the possible negative political implications among the Bengali population of abandoning forward areas and concentrating the army around the Dhaka Bowl to maximize the defensive potential and achieve better coordination; however, it failed to come up with an alternative solution. The planners recommended taking advantage of the poor state of infrastructure and natural obstacles to the fullest.
In brief, the plan was:
- Pakistani troops in Rangpur will move south, defend the area around Hili - Bogra and fall back to the Dhaka Bowl while troops from Rajshahi (after defending the Hardinge Bridge) retreated to the Dhaka Bowl.
- Troops in Jessore will fall back to the MadhumatiMadhumatiMadhumati is a 1958 Hindi film produced and directed by Bimal Roy, and written by Ritwik Ghatak and Rajinder Singh Bedi. The music was composed by Salil Choudhury with the lyrics by Shailendra. The film stars Dilip Kumar, Vyjayantimala, Pran, and Johnny Walker. It was one of the earliest films to...
river and defend the area between MaguraMagura, BangladeshMagura_DistrictMagura is a District in the Khulna Division of southwestern Bangladesh....
and Faridpur. - Troops in Dhaka (if needed) would move north to defend the Jamalpur-Mymensingh-Bhairab area. The area north of Dhaka was deemed hazardous for military activity, and the Pakistan planners thought the hill country north of the border would impede Indian army activity.
- Troops from ComillaComillaComilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
would move west and defend the area between Chandpur, Bhairab and Daudkandi.
Pakistani forces stationed in Sylhet
Sylhet
Sylhet , is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District, and was granted metropolitan city status in March 2009. Sylhet is located on the banks of the Surma Valley and is surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills...
(surrounded by Indian territory from three sides is extremely difficult to defend) and Chittagong
Chittagong
Chittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
would look after their own affairs. The planners did not devise a plan where East Pakistan forces would fight a self-sustained, independent action and defend the province on its own.
Operation Titu Mir
In 1970 a series of exercises, codenamed "Titu Mir", was conducted by the Eastern Command. The last was staged in January 1970; the conclusions drawn were:- India would launch the main assault on East Pakistan from the west, aiming to capture the area up to the river Jamuna; secondary efforts, directed towards Sylhet and Chittagong, will take place in the east.
- Only with the fall of Dhaka would the capitulation of the province be completed.
- Against a conventional Indian attack with 3:1 superiority in numbers and enemy dominance of the air and sea, an East Pakistan armed force contingent consisting of a single infantry division (supported by a regiment of tanks, 17 EPR wings and other paramilitary forces, a squadron of jets and four gunboats) with no support from West Pakistan would probably be able to last for a maximum of three weeks.
The conclusions were submitted to GHQ in Rawalpindi, but no major alteration of the original plan took place at this time.
Operations Searchlight and Barisal
During 1971, Pakistan experienced riots and civil disobedience against the military dictatorship in both east and west. The positions of the Pakistan armed forces under Admiral Ahsan were changed and deployed at the borders to observe Indian intelligence efforts. The magnitude of force was also increased, and logistics efforts were improved under Admiral Ahsan's command. His two-year rule saw stability and improvement in government control of the province; however, the deployment ratio of military forces increased. The Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan, Vice-Admiral S.M. Ahsan (who was serving as the Unified Commander of the Pakistan Combatant Forces), was East Pakistan's governor also. In March 1971, General Yahya Khan visited Dhaka to break the Mujib-BhuttoZulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that, 4th President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973. Bhutto was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party — the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan— and served as its chairman until his...
impasse. General Tikka Khan's staff at the Eastern Military High Command headquarters was the first to present their assessment of the civil and military situation to Yahya Khan and the army and air force's top generals accompanying him, and Vice-Admiral Ahsan persuaded General Yahya Khan at the meeting. During this meeting, Admiral Ahsan brief ran counter to the cut-and-dried solutions of West Pakistan representatives and civil servants. The Pakistan Air Force
Pakistan Air Force
The Pakistan Air Force is the leading air arm of the Pakistan Armed Forces and is primarily tasked with the aerial defence of Pakistan with a secondary role of providing air support to the Pakistan Army and the Pakistan Navy. The PAF also has a tertiary role of providing strategic air transport...
's Brigadier-General Mitty Masud stressed the importance of a political solution rather than military action. General Masud backed Admiral Ahsan, as he believed that an autonomous East Pakistan was preferable to the certainty of military defeat if India decided to intervene. General Yahya Khan rejected Masud's arguments.
Before the start of military operations a final high-level meeting was held (chaired by General Yahya Khan) at the General Headquarters (GHQ), where the participants were unanimously in favor of the military operation (despite the calls from Admiral Ahsan and General Masud for a political settlement). One of the bases of the replacement was Admiral Ahsan's resignation; he opposed any military actions in the East Pakistan, and was determined to find political solutions rather than military. The GHQ generals in the army and air force (and the navy admirals) were determined to curb the political movement with violence and military might. Admiral Ahsan went to East Pakistan, later returning to West Pakistan. General Yaqub Khan temporarily assumed control of the province in place of Admiral Ahsan; he was replaced by Lt. General Tikka Khan on his refusal to support military action against civilians. Once Operation Searchlight and Operation Barisal launched, Admiral Ahsan resigned from his position as Unified Commander and Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan, retiring from the Navy in protest. In his place, Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff assumed the Eastern Naval Command. Air Commodore Mitty Masud
Mohammad Zafar Masud
Air-Commodore Mohammad Zafar Masud, best known as Mitty Masud, , was a PAF's fighter pilot and a former top military strategist in East Pakistan...
was also replaced by the inexperienced officer Air Commodore Enamul Haque. Masud resigned from the air force due to his apparent opposition to Operations Searchlight and Barisal. Lt. General Tikka Khan
Tikka Khan
General Tikka Khan, HJ, HQA, SPk, was a senior four-star general in the Pakistan Army who served as the first Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistan Army from 3 March 1972 to 1 March 1976. Before his four-star assignment, Khan was a Martial Law Administrator of erstwhile East-Pakistan...
(Chief Martial Law Administrator and Commander of Pakistan Armed forces in East Pakistan) ordered the formulation and implementation of Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight was a planned military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army to curb the Bengali nationalist movement in the erstwhile East Pakistan in March 1971. Ordered by the central government in West Pakistan, this was seen as the sequel to "Operation Blitz" which had been...
after receiving approval from Pakistan Army GHQ.
Major General Khadim Hussain Raja (GOC 14th Division) and Maj. Gen. Rao Farman Ali devised the scheme for Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight was a planned military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army to curb the Bengali nationalist movement in the erstwhile East Pakistan in March 1971. Ordered by the central government in West Pakistan, this was seen as the sequel to "Operation Blitz" which had been...
in March 1971 (to curb the Awami League-led non-cooperation movement through military action) within 10 days of launching the scheme. Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff, commander of the Pakistan Navy in the region, ran violent naval operations that contributed to the insurgency. The Pakistan armed forces had no reserves to meet any unforeseen events, and success depended heavily on reinforcements from West Pakistan. There was no contingency plan for any Indian military action – the main reason Generals Yakub (GOC East Pakistan), Khadim and Farman had opposed launching the operation. Pakistani forces occupied Bangladesh, and Gen. Gul Hassan )then Chief of General Staff of the Pakistan army and no admirer of Gen. Niazi – GOC East Pakistan from April 11, 1971 – expressed satisfaction with the situation.
1971 High Command plan
The size and disposition of Pakistan combat forces in East Pakistan changed during Operation Searchlight. The 14th Division was reinforced by the 9th (made up of the 27th, 313th and 117th Brigades) and the 16th (comprising the 34th and 205th Brigades) Divisions (minus their heavy equipment and most of their supporting units)—in all, fifteen infantry and one commando battalion and two heavy mortar batteries by May 1971. Until the end of 1971, General Yahya Khan's government was unable to find an active military administrator comparable to Admiral Ahsan as the civil war in East Pakistan intensified. Senior general officers and admirals were unwilling to assume the command of East Pakistan until Lieutenant-General Amir Nazi volunteered for this assignment. General Niazi was made the unified commander of the East Pakistan contingent and the unified commander of the Pakistan Eastern Military Command (replacing Lt. General Tikka Khan, who remained as Chief Martial Law Administrator until September 1971). Vice Admiral Mohammed SharifMohammed Sharif
Mohammed Sharif is a citizen of Afghanistan who was held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba.Mohammed Sharif was captured in Afghanistan and he was transferred back to Afghanistan on August 7, 2007....
was made second-in-command of the Eastern Military High Command.
May 1971 army redeployment
Following the change in command, the 14th Division initially had its brigades posted at Comilla (53rd), Dhaka (57th), Rangpur (23rd) and Jessore (107th) before March 1971. During Operation Searchlight the 57th and the 107th moved to Jessore, while the 53rd had relocated to ChittagongChittagong
Chittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
. The Eastern Command moved 9th Division HQ (CO Maj. Gen. Shawkat Riza) to Jessore, putting the 107th (CO Brig. Makhdum Hayat, HQ Jessore) and the 57th (CO Brig. Jahanzab Arbab, HQ Jhenida) under this division. The 16th Division (CO Maj. Gen. Nazar Hussain Shah) HQ moved to Bogra, which now included the 23rd (CO Brig. Abdullah Malik, HQ Rangpur), the 205th (HQ Bogra) and the 34th (HQ Nator) Brigades. The 14th Division (CO Maj. Gen. Rahim) HQ remained at Dhaka, with its brigades at Mymensingh (27th), Sylhet (313th) and Comilla (117th). The 97th Independent Brigade was formed in Chittagong, while the 53rd Brigade was moved to Dhaka as a command reserve.
Changes to Titu Mir
Brig. Gulam Jilani (later DG ISI), chief of staff for Gen. Niazi, reviewed the existing East Pakistan defence plan in June 1971 in light of the prevailing circumstances and left the plan basically unchanged. The following assumptions were made while reevaluating the plan:- The main Indian thrust would come from the east, not the west as assumed in the earlier plan. The Indian army would attack to take control over the area between Sylhet and Chandpur, while a secondary attack would be aimed at Rangpur – Bogra and MymensinghMymensinghMymensingh , pronounced moy-mon-shing-haw, is a city of Bangladesh situated on the river Brahmaputra. It is the headquarters of the administrative unit Mymensingh District. Mymensingh is the anglicized pronunciation of the original name Momenshahi, referring to a ruler called Momen Shah. The cadet...
. At least five Indian infantry divisions (supported by an armored brigade) would launch the attack. - The insurgency situation would have improved, and the Eastern Command would be ready for both internal and external threats. If not, internal security measures have to be taken to contain the insurgency.
- All communication links would be fully functional and under government control, to facilitate troop movements.
Gen. Niazi added the following to the plan:
- The Pakistani Army would launch attacks towards TripuraTripuraTripura is a state in North-East India, with an area of . It is the third smallest state of India, according to area. Tripura is surrounded by Bangladesh on the north, south, and west. The Indian states of Assam and Mizoram lie to the east. The capital is Agartala and the main languages spoken are...
, Calcutta or the Shiliguri corridor if needed. - Take over as much Indian territory as possible when the opportunity arises
No war games were conducted to factor in the new directives, or specific plans drawn up to attain these objectives. The revised plan was sent to Rawalpindi and approved in August 1971. During June and July, Mukti Bahini regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot
Operation Jackpot
For the 1983–1986 South Carolina drug investigation see Operation Jackpot Operation Jackpot was the codename assigned to several different operations during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The original "Operation Jackpot" was the logistical and training operation set up under the Indian Army...
and sent 2,000–5,000 guerrillas across the border (the unsuccessful "Monsoon Offensive").
Eastern offensive proposal
By July 1971 the Pakistan army had build up an intelligence network to track Mukti BahiniMukti Bahini
Mukti Bahini , also termed as the "Freedom Fighters" or FFs, collectively refers to the armed organizations who fought against the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was dynamically formed by Bengali regulars and civilians after the proclamation of Bangladesh's independence on...
infiltration and counter it through ambush, artillery shelling and minefields along the 2700 kilometres (1,677.7 mi) border with India. Gen. Niazi claimed to have suggested the following measures to Gen. Hamid (COS Pakistan Army) during his visit in June:
- Attack the Mukti Bahini training camps across the border inside India in July 1971
- Create chaos within India by aiding the Mizo, NagaNaga peopleThe term Naga people refers to a conglomeration of several tribes inhabiting the North Eastern part of India and north-western Burma. The tribes have similar cultures and traditions, and form the majority ethnic group in the Indian state of Nagaland...
and Naxal insurgents, thus luring the Indian army away from Bangladesh - Force the BSF units away form the border areas, sabotage the Farrakka barrage, launch offensive demonstrations against English BazarEnglish BazarEnglish Bazar, better known as Malda, called mango city, is a city and a municipality in Malda district in the state of West Bengal, India. Malda is the fifth largest city in West Bengal. Malda is nominated for becoming the municipal corporation...
and BalurghatBalurghatBalurghat is the headquarters of the Dakshin Dinajpur district of West Bengal in India. Hili Balurghat is the headquarters of the Dakshin Dinajpur district of West Bengal in India. Hili Balurghat is the headquarters of the Dakshin Dinajpur district of West Bengal in India. Hili (Bangladesh...
, and bomb Calcutta. - Reinforced by another squadron of warplanes and an additional infantry brigade, and bringing the existing infantry divisions in East Pakistan up to strength with required artillery and armor along with proper antiaircraft defense, it might be possible to occupy parts of Assam and West Bengal and create chaos in Calcutta.
- If reinforced with another two divisions (while reinforcing existing forces with required artillery and armor), it might be possible to carry the war onto Indian soil. With India deploying at least 15 divisions in the east to defeat the Pakistani force, its forces in the west could be defeated by the Pakistani army.
The Indian military at this time was vulnerable, with its main formations posted away from the East Pakistan border. Col. Z.A. Khan (commander of the Special Services Group
Special Services Group
The Special Service Group , also known as Black Storks, because of their distinctive headgear, the unit is also known as Maroon Beret, are a special operations military unit of the Pakistan Army mandated with fourteen primary and special missions: Asymmetric warfare,Anti piracy,Special...
in East Pakistan) also advocated aggressive action against select Indian targets. General Hamid ruled out any provocations that might provoke Indian retaliation, while outlining the main objective of the Eastern Command: to keep the insurgency under control and prevent the formation of a Bangladesh government inside the province. Gen. Niazi remained convinced that his scheme would have forced India to concede terms, but at least one Pakistani source labels his proposal “sheer folly”.
The main plan remained unchanged until September 1971: Pakistani units were to fight a series of defensive battles before deploying to defend the Dhaka Bowl, but every inch of the province would not be defended. The Pakistan army occupied all the towns and fortified 90 of the 370 BoPs (half of the BoPs were destroyed by Indian shell fire by July 1971 to facilitate Mukti Bahini infiltration) and deployed close to the border to halt Mukti Bahini activity.
Western Command strategy
The Pakistani high command began contemplating full-scale war with India to settle all issues as the insurgency in Bangladesh began to escalate after August; with Mukti Bahini activities more aggressive and effective, Pakistani forces were in disarray. In doing so they had to contemplate fighting in the west and the east, and the ongoing insurgency. Since the defense of East Pakistan rested on overwhelming Pakistani success in the west (resulting in India withdrawing its forces in the east), any formal war would also start when Pakistani forces in West Pakistan were ready to strike. In the summer of 1970, the western operational plan was revised. The following conclusions were drawn:- Pakistan can counterattack in retaliation for an Indian attack, or
- Launch preemptive strikes on Indian soil after GHQ approval is granted.
- A reserve force is needed to reinforce formations whenever needed, or to strike a decisive blow.
It was decided to keep part of the reserves to the north of the Ravi River and part to the south. The plan called for the formations near the border to seize favorable lodgement areas, to screen the main attack of the army. In September 1971 the plan was updated to include:
- West Pakistan would retaliate immediately after the Indians launched an attack in East Pakistan. Pakistani formations would take over border areas without stretching their defensive capabilities; the idea was to create an impression that West Pakistan had launched a full-scale attack all along the border.
- The reserve force of one armored and two infantry divisions from south of the Ravi would launch a full-scale attack and, if successful, the northern reserve force would join the assault.
Western battle plan
The Pakistani army had thirteen infantry and two armored divisions (in addition to several independent brigade groups) in West Pakistan in 1971. After transferring the 9th and 16th Divisions (known as "China Divisions" because these formations were given new Chinese equipment) to East Pakistan, they had a rough parity with the Indian army in infantry and a slight edge in armor. However, they could only hope to attack with 3:1 superiority in selected areas where surprise was vital. Pakistan had raised the 33rd Infantry Division, and had started to raise the 35th and the 37th Divisions to replace those sent to Bangladesh; these formations were active but not fully operational by November 1971. The Pakistan Army deployed ten infantry and two armored divisions to face an Indian force of three corps (thirteen infantry, two mountain, one armored division and several battle groups under the Indian Army Western and Southern Commands) as follows:- The 12th (CO Maj. Gen. Akbar Khan: six infantry brigades and six wings from the Frontier Corps) and the 23rd (CO Maj. Gen. Eftikhar Khan Janjua: five infantry brigades, an independent armored brigade and an armored regiment) infantry divisions were deployed in Azad KashmirAzad KashmirAzad Jammu and Kashmir or Azad Kashmir for short, is the southernmost political entity within the Pakistani-administered part of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir...
. The 12th was to attack the PoonchPoonchPoonch is a town and a municipal committee in Poonch District in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Based on the Mahābhārata evidence, and the evidence from 7th Chinese traveler Xuanzang, the districts of Poonch along with Rajauri and Abhisara had been under the sway of the Republican Kambojas...
sector, while the 23rd would attack the Chhamb sector initially and then push forward. - In the SialkotSialkotSialkot is a city in Pakistan situated in the north-east of the Punjab province at the foothills of snow-covered peaks of Kashmir near the Chenab river. It is the capital of Sialkot District. The city is about north-west of Lahore and only a few kilometers from Indian-controlled Jammu.The...
sector the 6th Armored Division (CO Maj. Gen. M. Iskanderul Karim: two armored brigades and two infantry battalions) was deployed along with the 8th (CO Maj. Gen. Abdul Ali Malik: three brigades and two armored regiments), the 15th (CO Mag. Gen. Abid Ali Zahid: four brigades and eight independent armored brigades) and the 17th (CO Mag. Gen. R.D. Shamim: five infantry brigades) infantry divisions under I Corps (CO Lt General Irshad Ahmed Khan). The 8th was to attack near Sakkargarh, in an attempt to draw off Indian reserves. These formations would then attempt to cut off Kashmir from the rest of India. The 6th Armored and the 17th Divisions were designated "Reserve North". - The 10th (CO Mag. Gen. S.A.Z Naqvi: four infantry brigades) and the 11th (six infantry brigades) Infantry Divisions, along with the 3rd Independent Armored Brigade, was stationed in the LahoreLahoreLahore is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and the second largest city in the country. With a rich and fabulous history dating back to over a thousand years ago, Lahore is no doubt Pakistan's cultural capital. One of the most densely populated cities in the world, Lahore remains a...
sector under IV Corps (CO Lt. Gen. Bahadur Shah). These formations were to launch diversionary attacks across the border and defend the central Punjab. - The 1st Armored Division (two armored brigades and one infantry battalion) and the 7th (CO Maj. Gen. I.A. Akram: three infantry brigades) and the 33rd (CO Maj. Gen. Ch. Nessar Ahmed: three infantry brigades) Infantry Divisions were posted south of the Ravi River; they were later joined by an independent infantry brigade under II Corps (Lt. Gen. Tikka Khan), headquartered in MultanMultanMultan , is a city in the Punjab Province of Pakistan and capital of Multan District. It is located in the southern part of the province on the east bank of the Chenab River, more or less in the geographic centre of the country and about from Islamabad, from Lahore and from Karachi...
. This force was designated "Reserve South". The 7th Infantry Division (initially based at Peshawar) was to move east to areas where it could support the 12th and 23rd Divisions as a diversion, then move and form up with the rest of II Corps south of the Sutlej. - The 18th Infantry Division (CO Maj. Gen. B.M. Mustafa: three infantry brigades) and two armored regiments were deployed in Sindh, near Hydrabad.
Aside from these formations, Pakistan also had two independent artillery and two infantry brigade groups deployed on the border. The initial Pakistani plan was to launch diversionary attacks along the whole Indian border to keep Indian reserve forces away from the main target areas, then attack the Poonch and Chhamb sectors and drive back the Indian forces while an infantry brigade (supported by an armored regiment) pushed into Rajastan towards Ramgarh. Once India had committed her reserves, II Corps would assemble south of the Sutlej (near Bahawalpur) and move east into India, swinging northeast towards Bhatinda and Ludhiana. Then IV Corps would push towards the Indian Punjab. Given that India had a slight edge in forces, Pakistani armored units and the Pakistan Air Force
Pakistan Air Force
The Pakistan Air Force is the leading air arm of the Pakistan Armed Forces and is primarily tasked with the aerial defence of Pakistan with a secondary role of providing air support to the Pakistan Army and the Pakistan Navy. The PAF also has a tertiary role of providing strategic air transport...
needed to gain the upper hand quickly to ensure this plan succeeded.
The overall objective of the Pakistani ground assault was to capture enough Indian territory in the west to ensure a favorable bargaining position with India (should the Pakistani Eastern Command fail to repel the Indian attack on Bangladesh), and by forcing India to commit forces in the west and triggering the withdrawal of Indian forces from the east. From October 1971 onwards, Pakistani units began to take up positions along the border.
Importance of airstrikes
To negate Indian superiority in infantry (in addition to the 13 divisions deployed along the Pakistan border, it could call up the main reserve force if needed), the Pakistan Air Force (OC Air MarshalAir Marshal
Air marshal is a three-star air-officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force...
A. Rahim Khan) needed to achieve air superiority on the western front. In 1971 it had 17 front-line squadrons facing 26 Indian front-line squadrons (OC Air Chief Marshal
Air Chief Marshal
Air chief marshal is a senior 4-star air-officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force...
Pratap C. Lal, CO West Air Marshal M.M Engineer), while India deployed 12 squadrons (CO East Air Marshal H.C. Dewan) in the east (against one PAF squadron – CO Air Commodore
Air Commodore
Air commodore is an air-officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force...
Enamul Huq) and had another seven squadrons deployed elsewhere. PAF planners were aware that once India neutralized the lone PAF squadron in East Pakistan, it would be free to concentrate more aircraft in the west after deploying units to negate any Chinese moves. The PAF devised Operation Chengiz Khan
Operation Chengiz Khan
Operation Chengiz Khan was the code name assigned to the pre-emptive strikes carried out by the Pakistani Air Force on the forward airbases and radar installations of the Indian Air Force on the evening of 3 December 1971, and marked the formal initiation of hostilities of the Indo-Pakistani war...
to launch preemptive strikes on the IAF and neutralize its advantage at the onset of the war.
Naval role
The Pakistan Navy was in no position to counter the Indian threat, despite appeals to enhance naval capabilities. The Pakistan Navy under commander-in-chief Vice AdmiralVice Admiral
Vice admiral is a senior naval rank of a three-star flag officer, which is equivalent to lieutenant general in the other uniformed services. A vice admiral is typically senior to a rear admiral and junior to an admiral...
Muzaffar Hasan
Muzaffar Hassan
Vice Admiral Muzaffar Hassan, HQA, SPk, was the last Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Navy from 1969 to 1972, and led the Pakistan Navy during the Indo-Pakistan Naval Operations of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War...
(Fleet CO: Rear Admiral
Rear Admiral
Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the "admiral" ranks, which are also sometimes referred to as "flag officers" or "flag ranks"...
MAK Lodhi), with one cruiser
Cruiser
A cruiser is a type of warship. The term has been in use for several hundreds of years, and has had different meanings throughout this period...
, three frigate
Frigate
A frigate is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries.In the 17th century, the term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability, the description often used being "frigate-built"...
s, five destroyer
Destroyer
In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, powerful, short-range attackers. Destroyers, originally called torpedo-boat destroyers in 1892, evolved from...
s, four submarines and several gunboats, faced the Indian Western Fleet (OC Admiral S.M. Nanda; Fleet CO: Rear Admiral E.C. “Chandy” Kuruvila) consisting of one cruiser, eight frigates, one destroyer, two submarines and several patrol and missile boats in 1971. The Pakistan Navy had no aggressive plans except sending the Ghazi
PNS Ghazi
PNS Ghazi was Pakistan Navy 's first ever submarine, leased from United States in 1963. It saw action in the 1965 and 1971 wars between India and Pakistan. The submarine could be armed with up to 28 torpedoes and, in later years, was re-fitted in Turkey for mine-laying capability...
to the Bay of Bengal to sink the Indian aircraft carrier INS Vikrant. On the eastern front, only one destroyer was active with seven gunboats; therefore, it was impossible to conduct operations in the deep Bay of Bengal.
Problems in occupied Bangladesh
Pakistan Eastern Command HQ began to revise the operational plan from September onwards under the following assumptions:- India would launch a conventional attack in East Pakistan aiming to liberate a large area, transfer the Mukti Bahini and the refugees in the liberated area and seek recognition for the Bangladesh government in exile – thus involving the UN in the conflict.
- Mukti Bahini activity (which was supposed to be neutralized when the conventional attack took place, according to the old plan) had peaked, instead of being under control.
- The Army GHQ had ordered that the Mukti Bahini would be denied any area in East Pakistan to declare as “Bangladesh”. Every inch of the province was to be defended from Bangladesh forces.
- Control over communications networks vital for the movement of troops and logistics had collapsed due to the destruction of bridges, ferries and railway lines.
Besides the above, the planners also had to factor in the status of the Pakistani forces in the province, logistical challenges presented by their deployment and the state of communications.
Manpower shortage
The East Pakistan garrison was reinforced with two infantry divisions in April 1971 to restore order and fight the insurgency. All divisional heavy equipment needed to fight a conventional war was left in the west. A comparison of the deployed units between March and November shows:| March 1971 | June 1971 | Dec 1971 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Division HQ | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| Ad hoc Division HQ | 0 | 0 | 2 |
| Brigade HQ | 4 | 11 | 11 |
| Ad hoc Brigade HQ | 0 | 0 | 4 |
| Infantry battalion | 16 | 30 | 35 + 4 |
| Artillery Regiment | 5 | 6 | 6 + 3 |
| Armored Regiment | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Heavy Mortar battery | 2 | 5 | 5 |
| Commando Battalion | 1 | 2 | 2 |
| Engineer Battalion | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| Ack Ack Regiment | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| EPR/EPCAF Wings | 17 | 17 | 17 |
| W Pakistan Ranger Wings | 0 | 7 | 7 |
| Mujahid Battalion | 0 | 0 | 5 |
| Razakars | 0 | 22,000 | 50,000 |
| Al Badr/Al Shams | 0 | 0 | 10,000 |
According to one estimate, the Eastern Command needed at least 250,000 personnel; it barely had 150,000 (50,000 regular soldiers) by November 1971. To fill the manpower gap, the East Pakistan Civil Armed Force (EPCAF) (17 planes and approximately 23,000 personnel) and Razakar
Razakar
Razakar is an Urdu word for volunteer and may historically refer to:*Razakars : Islamist East Pakistani militia that aided the Pakistan Army against the Mukti Bahini during the Bangladesh Liberation War...
s (40,000 members, against a target of 100,0000) were raised after June 1971. The armed police (11,000 members) was also reorganized and bolstered with 5,000 West Pakistani personnel. Therefore, the army was only fit for “Police action”.
According to General Niazi, he had requested the following from GHQ in June 1971:
- Three medium- and one light-tank regiments were allocated for East Pakistan, out of which only the regiment already in the province was provided. Also, two heavy- and one medium-artillery regiments were supposed to be sent but never arrived.
- A squadron of fighter planes to back up the PAF unit in East Pakistan. The PAF had plans to deploy a squadron of Shenyang F-6 planes in East Pakistan in 1971, but these were withdrawn because the PAF infrastructure in the province lacked the operational capacity to support housing two active squadrons.
- Bringing the 9th and 16th Divisions up to strength by sending the artillery and engineering units left behind in West Pakistan and allocating corps artillery and armor for the Eastern Command (none of which was sent).
The Pakistan GHQ had to weigh every request to resupply, reequip and reinforce the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan against the need of the West Pakistani forces, and did not have enough reserves of manpower and equipment for a long conflict. The Eastern Command only deemed one of the three divisions fit for conventional warfare. Seven West Pakistan Ranger wings, five Mujahid battalions and a wing of Khyber Rifles, Tochi and Thal Scouts were sent to East Pakistan by November 1971. Five infantry battalions were sent from West Pakistan in November. Al Badr and Al Shams units contributed another 5,000 men each.
Ad hoc units
The lack of regular units also forced the Eastern Command to improvise in two ways: creating ad hoc formations to mimic regular army formations and mixing regular troops with paramilitary units. When Pakistani planners assumed India would launch its main attack in the east along the Akhaura – Brahmanbaria axis, it had no brigades available to cover this area. The 27th brigade from MymensinghMymensingh
Mymensingh , pronounced moy-mon-shing-haw, is a city of Bangladesh situated on the river Brahmaputra. It is the headquarters of the administrative unit Mymensingh District. Mymensingh is the anglicized pronunciation of the original name Momenshahi, referring to a ruler called Momen Shah. The cadet...
was moved to Akhaura, while two battalions from the brigade were detached to form the 93rd Brigade in Mymensingh. Similarly, the 313th Brigade was moved from Sylhet
Sylhet
Sylhet , is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District, and was granted metropolitan city status in March 2009. Sylhet is located on the banks of the Surma Valley and is surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills...
to Maulavi Bazar and a battalion from the 313th was kept at Sylhet to form the nucleus of the 202nd ad hoc Brigade. The 14th Division (which covered both the Dhaka Bowl and the Eastern Sector except Chittagong) was given responsibility for the Eastern Sector only, and the 36th ad hoc Division (containing only the 93rd Brigade) was created to defend the Dhaka Bowl. Similarly, the 314th (for Khulna
Khulna
Khulna is the third largest city in Bangladesh. It is located on the banks of the Rupsha and Bhairab rivers in Khulna District. It is the divisional headquarters of Khulna Division and a major industrial and commercial center. It has a seaport named Mongla on its outskirts, 38 km from Khulna...
) and the Rajshahi ad hoc Brigades were created and deployed in September. In mid-November, the 39th ad hoc Division was created to defend the Comilla
Comilla
Comilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
and Noakhali districts from the 14th Division units deployed in those areas; the 14th was tasked to defend the Sylhet
Sylhet
Sylhet , is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District, and was granted metropolitan city status in March 2009. Sylhet is located on the banks of the Surma Valley and is surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills...
and Brahmanbaria areas only. The 91st ad hoc Brigade was created to defend the Ramgarh area north of Chittagong as part of the 39th Division in November. The ad hoc formations lacked the staff and equipment of regular formations.
Deception
General Niazi hoped that by creating five divisional HQs and simulating the signal traffic of numerous brigades, he would deceive the Indian Eastern Command into committing at least 15 infantry divisions and other assorted supporting forces in the east; this would mean India would have less to deploy in the west after retaining forces to use against any possible Chinese attacks from the north (or at least deter the Indians from aggressive action). While India did not deploy 15 divisions in the east, the measures deceived the Indian Eastern Command to some extent.Subtraction by addition
All paramilitary units (EPCAF/Razakar/Mujahid) were not up to army standards in terms of equipment and effectiveness, and the Eastern Command began to mix them with regular units to bolster their efficiency. Pakistani battalions were given two-thirds-companies of paramilitary units, while a company from some battalions was split into platoons and deployed at the BoPs or other places. Paramilitary personnel were attached to the platoons to bring these units up to company strength. The army members were to stiffen these mixed units, but often the paramilitary members proved to be the weakest link. Thus, some of the regular army units lost cohesion and effectiveness when their regular companies were detached from them.Logistical woes
The underdeveloped state of the Bangladeshi communication infrastructures and the river system cutting through the plains was a formidable challenge to the movement of troops and supplies. General Niazi had ordered the Pakistan army to live off the land because of logistical difficulties, and Maj. General A.O. Mittha (Quartermaster General, Pakistan Army) had recommended setting up river-transport battalions, cargo and tankerTanker (ship)
A tanker is a ship designed to transport liquids in bulk. Major types of tankship include the oil tanker, the chemical tanker, and the liquefied natural gas carrier.-Background:...
flotillas and increasing the number of helicopter
Helicopter
A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by one or more engine-driven rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forwards, backwards, and laterally...
s in the province (none of which happened). Instead, the C-130 planes (which had played a crucial role during Operation Searchlight) were withdrawn from the province, diminishing the airlift capacity of the Pakistani forces further. The Mukti Bahini had sabotaged 231 bridges and 122 rail lines by November 1971 (thus diminishing transport capacity to 10 percent of normal), and complicated the delivery of the daily minimum 600 tons of supplies to the army units.
The Eastern Command staff kept the plan unchanged after the review; Pakistani troop deployments were not altered after the July appraisal. Pakistani units were kept at the border with the intention to withdraw them towards Dhaka after a series of defensive battles. The Eastern Command completed a final revision of the plan in October 1971, after both generals (Gul Hassan and Hamid) had visited the province.
Final plan: October 1971
General Niazi (along with General Jamshed (GOC EPCAF), General Rahim (2IC Eastern Command), Brig. Bakir (COS Eastern Command), Rear Admiral Sharif and Air Commodore Enam) reviewed the existing plan and updated it to factor in the manpower shortage, logistical difficulties, and the directive of the GHQ to defend every inch of East Pakistan. The initial assumptions were:- The Indian Army Eastern Command would use 12 infantry/mountain divisions and an armored brigade for the invasion under three corps commands, supported by Mukti Bahini and BSF units.
- The Mukti Bahini would step up its activities and try to occupy border areas, (if possible) occupying a large area of the province adjacent to the border.
- The PAF in East Pakistan would last only 24 hours against the IAF Eastern Contingent.
- The main Indian assault would come from the west (opposite the Jessore sector), with a subsidiary attack from the east (opposite the ComillaComillaComilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
sector). - The naval detachment would move into the harbors once hostilities commenced.
- The Indian strategic objective was to occupy as much of the province as quickly as possible to set up the Bangladesh government and the Mukti Bahini in the liberated area. Full occupation of the province was not the Indian goal.
Defensive considerations
The review committee analyzed four strategic concepts when formulating the revised plan:- Deploying all available forces to defend the Dhaka Bowl along the Meghna, Jamuna and Padma Rivers. The Pakistan Army could utilize interior lines to switch forces as needed, and build up a strategic reserve while fighting on a narrower front. The disadvantage was that large tracts of areas outside the bowl would be lost without much effort from the invaders; India could set up the Bangladesh government easily inside the province. Also, it gave the Indians the opportunity to divert some of their forces to the west (thus threatening the balance of forces there) where a near-parity in forces was needed for a decisive result.
- Deploying in depth along the border, gradually moving towards the Dhaka Bowl. There were three problems with this concept:
- The state of the transport network and the transport capacity of the army
- Expected Indian air supremacy
- Mukti Bahini activity; all could combine to hinder movements.
- “Mobile Warfare” (positional defense): While the planners agreed that this was best possible course of action (given the terrain of the province), they also noted the chance of being chased and cornered by both the Mukti Bahini and the Indian army was also greater. Indian air dominance would also pose a threat to mobility, and might unhinge the strategy. Also, a large uncommitted reserve force was needed to execute this strategy properly; the Eastern Command had no such reserves, and could not create one unless reinfiorced by West Pakistan or by abandoning the "defending every inch of the province" concept.
- The “fortress” concept: Principal towns (especially those situated at communication hubs or an expected enemy thrust axis) would be converted into fortresses and defended to the last. This concept had two advantages: it did not call for the voluntary surrender of territory, concentrated forces and required limited mobility. Also, the planners felt India would have to neutralize the fortresses by capturing them through direct assaults or keeping sufficient forces back before pushing inland; they might not have sufficient forces to threaten the Dhaka Bowl if they bypassed the fortresses.
The fortress concept was adopted; the planners decided on a single defensive deployment of troops on the border, which went against the troop deployments advocated by earlier plans. This was done to stick to the GHQ order of not surrendering any territory to the Mukti Bahini. When devising troop deployments, the planners mixed political considerations with strategic ones and envisioned a forward-leaning defense in depth:
- BoPs: East Pakistan had 370 border outposts along the Indian border, of which 90 had been occupied by Pakistani forces in an attempt to stop Mukti Bahini infiltration. Some of them had been fortified to withstand conventional assaults and airstrikes. EPCAF or regular soldiers were to man the outposts and offer initial resistance to enemy activity. Forward positions were to have supplies to last 7–15 days, and stockpiles for another 15–30 days in rear areas.
- Strong points: These positions were to be chosen by the area division commanders according to the area terrain. Each strong point was to delay the enemy advance after troops have retreated from the BoPs and regular army units had concentrated around these positions. Flanking areas and communications would be guarded by paramilitary troops. Strong points stored munitions and supplies for up to 15 days.
- Fortresses: These were major cities located on communications-network hubs. After delaying the enemy at the strong points, Pakistani units were to fall back on the fortresses and fight till the last. The fortresses were to contain rations to last 45 days, munitions for 60 days and be fortified like TobrukTobrukTobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
in World War II.
Defensive lines
Once the fortress defense was chosen, General Niazi and his staff designated the following cities as fortresses: Jessore, Jhenida, BograBogra
Bogra is a town, and one of the oldest towns in northern Bangladesh. It is a centre of commerce and trade within the Bogra District and located under the Rajshahi Division. Bogra is sometimes described as the nerve centre of Northern Bangladesh. Amongst many notable activities, it has been hosting...
, Rangpur
Rangpur, Bangladesh
Rangpur is one of the major cities in Bangladesh. Rangpur is considered as the centre of northwestern Bangladesh. Recently established public university of Bangladesh named as "Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur" is situated in the southern part of the city. Earlier Rangpur was the headquarter of...
, Comilla
Comilla
Comilla is a city in south-eastern Bangladesh, located along the Dhaka-Chittagong Highway. It is the administrative center of the Comilla District, part of the Chittagong Division. The Eastern Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police is located in Comilla....
and Bhairab Bazar (these were located on communication hubs), Jamalpur
Jamalpur Sadar Upazila
Jamalpur Sadar is an Upazila of Jamalpur District in the Division of Dhaka, Bangladesh.-Geography:Jamalpur Sadar is located at . It has 102578 units of house hold and total area 489.56 km².Hazrat Sha Jamal & Sha Kamal & Maulana A. Jabber Khan were famous religious leader.-Demographics:As of...
and Mymensingh
Mymensingh
Mymensingh , pronounced moy-mon-shing-haw, is a city of Bangladesh situated on the river Brahmaputra. It is the headquarters of the administrative unit Mymensingh District. Mymensingh is the anglicized pronunciation of the original name Momenshahi, referring to a ruler called Momen Shah. The cadet...
(defending the northern perimeter of the Dhaka bowl), and Sylhet
Sylhet
Sylhet , is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District, and was granted metropolitan city status in March 2009. Sylhet is located on the banks of the Surma Valley and is surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills...
and Chittagong
Chittagong
Chittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
(independent defense areas). There were four lines of defense:
- The troops deployed on the border were the forward line. This was in front of the forward line envisioned in the X-Sundarbans exercise of 1967, which had deemed the whole border impossible to defend against a conventional attack. The BoPs were all located on this line.
- Fortresses: All the fortresses were located on this line except Chittagong and Sylhet, which were to be independent defensive areas. This was the forward line of the 1967 X-Sundarbans plan; it was also deemed indefensible in its entirety in that exercise.
- Dhaka Outer Defense Line: Troops from the fortresses were to retreat to this line, which ran from PabnaPabnaPabna is a town in Rajshahi Division ofBangladesh and the administrative capital of eponymous Pabna District. It is located on the north bank of Padma river and has a population of about 138,000.-Name:...
in the west, to Bera and SirajganjSirajganjSirajganj is a town in central Bangladesh, lying just west of the Brahmaputra River and about 70 mi. northwest of Dhaka.- Overview :...
to the north and then to Mymensingh. From Mymensingh the line went south to Bhairab Bazar; from Bhairab it ran southwest along the Meghna to Daudkandi and ChandpurChandpur DistrictChandpur is a district in east-central Bangladesh. It is located at the mouth of the Meghna River. It is a part of the Chittagong Division. The town of Chandpur is terminus of a metre gauge branch of Bangladesh Railways. It also has a water terminal situated here.-Geography:Chandpur district has a...
, then ran northwest along the Padma to the MadhumatiMadhumatiMadhumati is a 1958 Hindi film produced and directed by Bimal Roy, and written by Ritwik Ghatak and Rajinder Singh Bedi. The music was composed by Salil Choudhury with the lyrics by Shailendra. The film stars Dilip Kumar, Vyjayantimala, Pran, and Johnny Walker. It was one of the earliest films to...
, along the Madhumati back to PabnaPabnaPabna is a town in Rajshahi Division ofBangladesh and the administrative capital of eponymous Pabna District. It is located on the north bank of Padma river and has a population of about 138,000.-Name:...
. The fortresses of Bhairab and Mymensingh were part of this line. Pabna, Bera, Chandpur, Daudkandi and Faridpur would be turned into fortresses, while Kamarkhali, Goalanda, Nagarbari and Narshindi would be strong points. Faridpur and Narshindi were turned into strong points in December; the other sites were not built up. - Dhaka Inner Defense Line: This ran from Manikganj in the west to Kaliakair, on to TongiTongiTongi is a township in Bangladesh with a population of 350,000 that hosts the Biswa Ijtema, features a BSCIC industrial area, which produces BDT 1500 crore of industrial products annually, and marks the northern border of Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, since 1786...
, then to Naryanganj and from Naryanganj back to Manikganj. This area was to have a fortress (Naryanganj) and strong points at Kalaikair and Tongi. None were developed by December 1971.
Having chosen the defense concept and defensive lines, the Pakistan Eastern Command outlined its course of action:
- Troops deployed on the border would hold on until ordered to retreat by the GOC. Later, Gen. Niazi forbade any retreat unless units had a casualty rate of 75 percent.
- Troops would "trade space for time" and fight a delaying action, while falling back to the nearest fortress.
- The fortress would be defended to the last (which was understood as the amount of time needed for Pakistan to deliver the knockout blow in the west).
- Troop formations would fall back to the Dhaka outer line to defend Dhaka as needed.
The divisional commanders were authorised to make plans for limited counterattacks in Indian territory to aid in their defensive objectives (one of which was to maintain control of the main roads leading into the territory).
Planned Pakistani deployments
Pakistani planners assumed (based on intelligence estimates) that an Indian force of 8 to 12 infantry divisions, an armored brigade and the Mukti Bahini would launch the invasion of East Pakistan during the winter. The Pakistani army had divided the country into four sectors:Northern Sector: This area is to the north of the Padma and west of the Jamuna River, encompassing the Rajhshahi, Pabna
Pabna
Pabna is a town in Rajshahi Division ofBangladesh and the administrative capital of eponymous Pabna District. It is located on the north bank of Padma river and has a population of about 138,000.-Name:...
, Bogra
Bogra
Bogra is a town, and one of the oldest towns in northern Bangladesh. It is a centre of commerce and trade within the Bogra District and located under the Rajshahi Division. Bogra is sometimes described as the nerve centre of Northern Bangladesh. Amongst many notable activities, it has been hosting...
, Rangpur
Rangpur, Bangladesh
Rangpur is one of the major cities in Bangladesh. Rangpur is considered as the centre of northwestern Bangladesh. Recently established public university of Bangladesh named as "Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur" is situated in the southern part of the city. Earlier Rangpur was the headquarter of...
and Dinajpur
Dinajpur District, Bangladesh
Dinajpur is a district in Northern Bangladesh. It is a part of the Rangpur Division.- Geography :Dinajpur is bounded by Thakurgaon and Panchagarh districts in the north, Gaibandha and Joypurhat districts in the south, Nilphamari and Rangpurdistricts in the east, and the state of West Bengal, India...
districts. Pakistani planners were undecided on whether the Indian attack would come from the Siliguri Corridor south towards Bogura or on the Hili–Chilimari axis (from southwest to northeast) to cut the area in two. The division was deployed to counter both possibilities.
The 16th Infantry Division (CO Maj. Gen. Nazar Hussain Shah, HQ Bogra, then Nator) defended this area. It had the 29th Cavalry, two artillery regiments and a heavy mortar battery (the 117th Independent Mortar Battery), in addition to three infantry brigades: the 23rd (CO Brig. S.A. Ansari, HQ Rangpur), the 205th (CO Brig. Tajammul Hosain Malik, HQ Bogra) and the 34th (Brig. Mir Abdul Nayeem, HQ Nator). The general plan of defense was:
- The 23rd Brigade (8th, 25th, 48th Punjab and 26th Frontier Force Battalions) was to defend the area north of the HiliHiliHili may be:* Tikoloshe, Tokoloshe or Hili — a dwarf-like water Sprite or zombie, in Zulu mythology* Hili, Dakshin Dinajpur — a border check-post in West Bengal, India* Hili - a CD Block in West Bengal, India...
–Chilmari axis. The troops were to retreat to Dinajpur, Saidpur and Rangpur from the border areas, while Dinajpur, Saidpur, T-Junction and Thakurgaon were turned into strong points. The 48th Field regiment and one tank squadron (deployed near Thakurgaon) was also attached to this brigade. Three EPCAF wings, the 34th Punjab and a Mujahid battalion (the 86th) were also deployed in the brigade operational area. The area north of the Teesta RiverTeesta RiverRiver Teesta or Tista is said to be the lifeline of the Indian state of Sikkim, flowing for almost the entire length of the state and carving out verdant Himalayan temperate and tropical river valleys. The emerald-coloured river then forms the border between Sikkim and West Bengal before joining...
was a separate defense area where the 25th Punjab, 86th Mujahid, one-wing EPCAF and the independent heavy mortar battery were located. - The 205th Brigade (the 4th and 13th Frontier Forces and the 3rd Baloch) would defend the area between Hili (a strong point) and Naogaon, then fall back to Bogra (a fortress) and hold out. Palashbari, Phulchari and Joyporhut were turned into strong points. A squadron of tanks (deployed near Naogaon, then Hili) along with the 80th Field Artillery Regiment and a mortar battery was also attached to this brigade.
- The 34th Brigade (the 32nd Punjab and 32nd Baloch) would look after the area between Rajshahi and Naogaon, and if needed would fall back to the Outer Dhaka defense line and defend from Pabna and Bera (both proposed fortresses). Three EPCAF wings supported this brigade. A squadron of tanks was deployed near Pakshi to guard the Hardinge bridge. In September, an ad hoc brigade was formed in Rajshahi to block the Padma from river operations.
Western Sector: This area (south of the Padma and east of the Meghna) contained the Khulna
Khulna
Khulna is the third largest city in Bangladesh. It is located on the banks of the Rupsha and Bhairab rivers in Khulna District. It is the divisional headquarters of Khulna Division and a major industrial and commercial center. It has a seaport named Mongla on its outskirts, 38 km from Khulna...
, Jessore, Kushtia, Faridpur
Faridpur District
Faridpur is a district in central Bangladesh. It is a part of the Dhaka Division. Faridpur District has a population of over 1.7 million people and is situated on the banks of the Padma river . It is bordered by Madaripur, Narail, Rajbari, Magura, Shariatpur, Gopalgonj, Dhaka and Manikganj...
, Barisal and Patuakhali districts and was defended by the 9th Division (CO Maj. Gen. Ansari) made up of two infantry brigades: the 107th (CO Brig. Makhdum Hayat, HQ Jessore), covering the border from Jibannagar to the Sunderbans to the south, and the 57th (CO Brig. Manzoor Ahmed, HQ Jhenida), which covered the border from Jibannagar to the Padma in the north. Two artillery regiments, a heavy mortar battery (the 211th) and a squadron of tanks were also part of the division. Pakistani planners assumed three likely axes of advance from the Indian army:
- The main attack would come in the Calcutta – Banapol – Jessore axis.
- Another thrust would be made, either using the Krishnanagar – Darshana – Chuadanga axis or the Murshidabad – Rajapur – Kushtia axis.
The 107th Brigade (the 12th Punjab, the 15th and 22nd FF Battalions) was tasked with guarding the Benapol axis. This brigade was reinforced with the 38th FF in November, while the Third Independent Tank Squadron was destroyed at Garibpur
Battle of Garibpur
The Battle of Garibpur fought on 20–21 November 1971 was one of the first engagements of between Indian and Pakistani troops during the Bangladesh Liberation War prior to the initiation of hostilities on 3 December 1971...
on November 22. In addition, the 55th Field Artillery Regiment and the heavy mortar battery was attached to the brigade and the 12th and 21st Punjab Battalions were deployed near its operational area.
The 57th Brigade (the 18th Punjab and 29th Baloch) was deployed to cover the Darshana and Meherpur areas. The 49th Field Artillery regiment was attached to this brigade, and the 50th Punjab reinforced the unit in November. To defend the Hardinge Bridge, a tank squadron was placed under the Eastern Command control near Kushtia.
In September an ad hoc brigade – the 314th (CO Col. Fazle Hamid, one Mujahib battalion and five companies each from EPCAF and Razakars) was created to defend the city of Khulna
Khulna
Khulna is the third largest city in Bangladesh. It is located on the banks of the Rupsha and Bhairab rivers in Khulna District. It is the divisional headquarters of Khulna Division and a major industrial and commercial center. It has a seaport named Mongla on its outskirts, 38 km from Khulna...
.
The 57th and 107th Brigades were to defend the border, then fall back to Jhenida and Jessore and prevent the Indians from crossing the Jessore–Jhenida road (which runs almost parallel to the border). The brigades also had the option to fall back across the Madhumati
Madhumati
Madhumati is a 1958 Hindi film produced and directed by Bimal Roy, and written by Ritwik Ghatak and Rajinder Singh Bedi. The music was composed by Salil Choudhury with the lyrics by Shailendra. The film stars Dilip Kumar, Vyjayantimala, Pran, and Johnny Walker. It was one of the earliest films to...
River (which formed part of the Dhaka outer defense line) and defend the area between Faridpur
Faridpur District
Faridpur is a district in central Bangladesh. It is a part of the Dhaka Division. Faridpur District has a population of over 1.7 million people and is situated on the banks of the Padma river . It is bordered by Madaripur, Narail, Rajbari, Magura, Shariatpur, Gopalgonj, Dhaka and Manikganj...
, Kamarkhali and Goalanda
Goalanda
Goalundo Ghat is a small town and pourasabha in Goalandaghat Upazila, Rajbari District, Dhaka Division, Bangladesh, South Asia. There are two railway stops one at Goalundo Ghat and one at Goalundo Bazar. The town has an area of 4.86 km2 and a population of 22,000 inhabitants ....
.
Dhaka Bowl: Pakistani planners anticipated a brigade size attack on the Kamalpur – Sherpur – Jamalpur
Jamalpur
Jamalpur may refer to:Bangladesh* Jamalpur District* Jamalpur Sadar UpazilaIndia* Jamalpur, Munger, Bihar* Jamalpur, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh* Jamalpur , West Bengal...
axis, and another along the Haluaghat – Mymensingh
Mymensingh
Mymensingh , pronounced moy-mon-shing-haw, is a city of Bangladesh situated on the river Brahmaputra. It is the headquarters of the administrative unit Mymensingh District. Mymensingh is the anglicized pronunciation of the original name Momenshahi, referring to a ruler called Momen Shah. The cadet...
axis. They deemed this area impassable because of the hilly terrain on the Indian side and the Modhupur Jungle and Brahmaputra River to the north of Dhaka. The 27th Brigade initially was posted at Mymensingh, and the 53rd was in Dhaka. However, when the 27th Brigade was sent to Brahmanbaria, the 93rd Brigade (CO Brig. Abdul Qadir Khan, HQ Mymensingh) was created from units of the 27th Brigade, and the 36th ad hoc Division (CO Maj. Gen. Mohammad Jamshed Khan, HQ Dhaka) was created to replace the 14th Division. The order of battle of the 36th ad hoc Division was:
- The 93rd Brigade (the 33rd Punjab and 31st Baloch, plus the 70th and 71st West Pakistan Ranger wings), supported by the two EPCAF wings and the 83rd Independent Mortar Battery was responsible for the border area between the Jamuna river and Sunamganj. It developed strong points at Kamalpur, Haluaghat and Durgapur, while Jamalpur and MymensinghMymensinghMymensingh , pronounced moy-mon-shing-haw, is a city of Bangladesh situated on the river Brahmaputra. It is the headquarters of the administrative unit Mymensingh District. Mymensingh is the anglicized pronunciation of the original name Momenshahi, referring to a ruler called Momen Shah. The cadet...
were turned into fortresses. The course of the Brahmaputra River was designated the “line of no penetration”. - The 53rd Brigade (CO Brig. Aslam Niazi, the 15th and 39th Baloch Battalions) was posted in Dhaka as command reserves and was responsible for the Dhaka inner defense line. Dhaka also had Razakar, EPCAF and other units that could be deployed for defense of the city. In November, Pakistani forces carried out a cleansing operation inside the Dhaka Bowl, but it had little effect in curbing Mukti Bahini activity.
Eastern Sector: This sector included the Chittagong, Noakhali, Comilla and Sylhet districts. The anticipated lines of advance were:
- The Agartala - Akhaura – Bhairab Bazar axis would be the main thrust, with another attack coming towards Maulavi Bazar – Shamshernagar and a third near Comilla.
- The 14th Division (CO: Maj. Gen. Rahim Khan, then Maj. Gen Abdul Majid Kazi) was initially HQed at Dhaka until the creation of the 36th ad hoc Division to cover the Dhaka Bowl, when its HQ moved to Brahmanbaria. The 14th Division initially had four brigades: the 27th (CO Brig. Saadullah Khan, HQ Mymensingh), the 313th (Brig Iftikar Rana, HQ Sylhet), the 117th (Brig. Mansoor H. Atif, HQ Comilla) and the 53rd (Brig. Aslam Niazi, HQ Dhaka). After the review of September, it was decided to make the 14th responsible for the eastern sector encompassing the Sylhet, Comilla and Noakhali districts only. Chittagong was designated as an independent defense zone under control of the 97th Independent Brigade. Also, two ad hoc brigades were created: the 202nd and the 93rd, out of the units of the 14th Division. The division order of battle after September was:
- The 202nd ad hoc Brigade (CO Brig. Salimullah, HQ Sylhet) was created by detaching the 31st Punjab from the 313th Brigade and incorporating elements of the 91st Mujahid and 12th Azad Kashmir Battalions. A wing each of Tochi and Thal Scouts and Khyber Rifles were also attached to the brigade, along with a battery from the 31st Field Regiment and the 88th Independent Mortar Battery. Sylhet was made a fortress, while this brigade was responsible for the border stretching from Sunamganj to the northwest of Sylhet, to Latu, to the east of that city.
- The 313th Brigade (CO Brig. Rana, 30th FF and 22nd Baloch Battalions plus elements of the 91st Mujahid Battalion) moved to Maulavi Bazar (which was developed as a strong point), and the unit was responsible for the border between Latu and Kamalganj. After resisting the expected thrust along the Maulavi Bazar – Shamshernagar front, the brigade was to move south and link up with the 27th Brigade near Brahmanbaria. Gen Niazi also envisioned this brigade launching an assault inside Tripura, if possible.
- The 27th Brigade (33rd Baloch and 12th FF Battalions) was responsible for covering the border between Kamalganj and Kasba (just north of Comilla), and would block the expected main Indian axis of advance with strong points at Akhaura and Brahmanbaria. The Eighth Independent Armored Squadron (four tanks), 10 field guns from the 31st Field Regiment, a mortar battery along with a EPCAF wing, a Mujahid battalion, units from the 21st Azak Kashmir and 48th Punjab were also part of this brigade. Brig. Saadullah anticipated a three-pronged assault on his area around Akhaura, and planned to ultimately fall back to Bhairab (which was the nearest fortress, and part of the Dhaka outer-defense line).
- The 117th Brigade (the 23rd and 30th Punjab, 25th FF Battalions and 12th Azad Kashmir, minus elements) was HQed at MainamatiMainamatiMainamati is located almost 8 miles from the town of Comilla, Bangladesh. It is the home of one of the most important Buddhist archaeological sites in the region. There are a number of Buddhist sites in this region, dating approximately from 7th to 12th centuries CE...
(north of Comilla), which was turned into a fortress. The 53rd Field Regiment and the 117th Independent Mortar Battery were attached to this brigade, along with three EPCAF wings and a troop of tanks. This brigade was responsible for the border between Kasba (to the north of Comilla) to Belonia in Noakhali. It was to concentrate near Comilla in the event of an Indian advance, then fall back to Daudkandi and Chandpur (which were part of the Dhaka outer-defense line and designated fortresses).
Chittagong: Independent defense zone
The 97th independent Infantry Brigade (CO Brig. Ata Md. Khan Malik, HQ Chittagonng) was to cover the Chittagong fortress and hill tracks. The 24th FF Battalion (along with two EPCAF wings and a Marine battalion) guarded Chittagong itself. The Second SSG was at KaptaiKaptai
Kaptai is a region in south-eastern Bangladesh. The Kaptai Upazila is part of the Rangamati District of Chittagong Division. Karnaphuli Hydroelectric Power Station, the only Hydro-electric power plant of Bangladesh is located here...
while the 60th and 61st Ranger Wings were posted at Ramgarh and Cox's Bazar
Cox's Bazar
Cox's Bazar is a town, a fishing port and district headquarters in Bangladesh. It is known for its wide sandy beach which is the world's longest natural sandy sea beach. It is an unbroken 125 km sandy sea beach with a gentle slope. It is located 150 km south of Chittagong. Cox’s Bazar...
, respectively.
Distribution of artillery and armor
The Eastern Command could not attach an artillery regiment to each of the infantry brigades, so only the 23rd, 205th, 57th, 107th, and 117th brigades were given an artillery regiment each. An artillery regiment (the 31st) was split between the 202nd ad hoc and the 27th Brigades, while elements of three other artillery regiments (the 25th, 32nd and 56th) were proportionately distributed among the other brigades as required. The 29th Cavalry was split into three independent squadrons among the 16th Division troops, while two other tank squadrons (one with the 107th Brigade and the other with the 117th Brigade) and two tank troops (one with the 36th ad hoc Division and the other with the 27th Brigade) were deployed.Last-minute changes: November 1971
As events unfolded in Bangladesh and the Pakistani Army began to face ever-increasing difficulties, some officers at GHQ began to have second thoughts about the existing operational plan to defend East Pakistan. General Abdul Hamid, COS of the Pakistani Army, approved of the existing deployment of troops close to the border but Lt. General Gul Hassan, CGS, had little faith in the plan Lt. Gen. Niazi had outlined to him in June. Gen. Hassan supposedly tried to get the plan revised several times and insisted on abandoning the concept of defending every inch of the province, wanted the Eastern Command to redeploy regular units away from the border, fight for the BoPs and strong points on a limited scale and ensure Dhaka Bowl had enough reserves instead of the gradual withdrawal of forces to Dhaka outlined in the existing plan. However, GHQ Rawalpindi approved in October 1971 only with the following adjustments:- Pakistani units to launch offensive action against English Bazar in West Bengal, if possible
- Commando action to destroy Farakka barrage should be considered
- Defense of Chittagong should be formed around one infantry battalion
- Dhaka to be defended at all costs
These suggestions were incorporated in the plan without change. From September onwards Pakistani forces had begun to fortify positions with concrete bunkers, anti-tank ditches, land mines and barbed wires. Spiked bamboo was also used, and some areas were flooded to hinder enemy movements. Engineering battalions were sent to construct fortified positions, although some of the strong points and fortresses (especially those inside the Dhaka outer-defense line) remained incomplete.
Final reinforcements and directives
In November, Gen. Niazi sent Maj. Gen Jamshed and Brig. Bakir Siddiqi to RawalpindiRawalpindi
Rawalpindi , locally known as Pindi, is a city in the Pothohar region of Pakistan near Pakistan's capital city of Islamabad, in the province of Punjab. Rawalpindi is the fourth largest city in Pakistan after Karachi, Lahore and Faisalabad...
to request two more divisions as reinforcements (as well as all the heavy equipment left behind by the 9th and 16th Divisions for East Pakistan). The GHQ promised to send 8 infantry battalions and an engineer battalion; only five battalions were sent to East Pakistan because the GHQ probably could not spare anything else. The first two units (the 38th FF and 50th Punjab) were given to the 9th Division. The next three battalions were split up and sent as reinforcements to various areas, as needed. The last three battalions were to replace the 53rd Brigade as command reserves in Dhaka
Dhaka
Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka Division. Dhaka is a megacity and one of the major cities of South Asia. Located on the banks of the Buriganga River, Dhaka, along with its metropolitan area, had a population of over 15 million in 2010, making it the largest city...
, but never arrived from West Pakistan. At the meeting, the Eastern Command was told to continue its “political mission” (i.e. prevent territory from falling into Mukti Bahini hands), although by this time 5000 square miles (12,949.9 km²) of territory had fallen into their hands. Gen Niazi claims this order was never withdrawn, and Gen. Hassan suggested that Gen. Hamid never altered the plan Gen. Niazi had submitted in October (including the deployment of troops near the border). The GHQ never commented on the deployment plan, while others claim the Eastern Command failed to readjust its deployments despite advice from GHQ.
39th ad-hoc Division
In November 1971, Rawalpindi GHQ warned the Eastern Command that the Indian army would launch the main attack from the east. Gen. Niazi and Gen. Rahim identified the axis of the main attack as:- South of Comilla, towards Mudafarganj and ChandpurChandpurChandpur is one of the most important city in Bijnor district, in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India.Chandpur is 140 km from the capital of New Delhi, 110 km from Meerut, and 38 km from Gajraula on National Highway 24 ....
- East of Belonia, from RamgarhRamgarhRamgarh Raj was a major Zamindari in the era of the British Raj.The areas that would later comprise the Ramgarh Raj had initially belonged to the Raja of Chhota Nagpur. Around the year AD 1368, the area witnessed unrest for reasons not now known. The Raja deputed two brothers by name Baghdeo and...
south towards ChittagongChittagongChittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
Gen Niazi split the 14th Division and transferred the 117th Brigade to the newly-created 39th ad hoc Division (CO Maj. Gen. Rahim, HQ Chandpur), which also included the 53rd (CO Brig. Aslam Niazi, HQ Feni
Feni District
Feni is a small southern district of Bangladesh, bordering Tripura in India, Chittagong district, the Bay of Bengal, Noakhali district and Comilla district...
) and the 91st ad hoc Brigade (CO Brig. Mian Taskeen Uddin, HQ Chittagong). The deployment of the troops was:
- The 117th Brigade was to cover the area from Kasba to the north of Comilla to Chauddagram in the south. After fighting at the border, the force was to redeploy around the Mainamati fortress and then fall back to defend Daudkandi (which was on the Dhaka outer-defense line).
- The 53rd Brigade (the 15th and 39th Baloch, plus elements of the 21st Azad Kashmir Battalion) was transferred from the command reserve to guard the border from Chaddagram to BeloniaBeloniaBelonia is a town and a nagar panchayat in South Tripura district in the state of Tripura, India. It is also the head-quarters of Belonia sub-division. It is linked with Agartala, the state capital, with highway via Udaipur, the district head-quarters....
. This brigade was to fall back to Chandpur, a fortress located on the Dhaka outer-defense line after its initial defense of Feni and Laksham. - The 91st ad hoc Brigade (the 24th FF battalion, one Ranger and one Mujahid battalion and elements of the 21st Azad Kashmir) was to guard the Belonia – RamgarhRamgarhRamgarh Raj was a major Zamindari in the era of the British Raj.The areas that would later comprise the Ramgarh Raj had initially belonged to the Raja of Chhota Nagpur. Around the year AD 1368, the area witnessed unrest for reasons not now known. The Raja deputed two brothers by name Baghdeo and...
area. It was to fall back to Chittagong after defending the area. The 48th Baloch was sent to the 97th Brigade in Chittagong after the 24th FF was given to the 91st Brigade.