Faltonia Betitia Proba (c. 306/c. 315 - c. 353/c. 366) was a Latin

Latin

Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...

 Roman

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....

 Christian

Christianity

Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...

 poet

Poet

A poet is a person who writes poetry. A poet's work can be literal, meaning that his work is derived from a specific event, or metaphorical, meaning that his work can take on many meanings and forms. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary...

ess, possibly the most influential Latin poetess of Late Antiquity

Late Antiquity

Late Antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world. Precise boundaries for the period are a matter of debate, but noted historian of the period Peter Brown proposed...

.

A member of one of the most influential aristocratic families, she composed the Cento vergilianus de laudibus Christi, a cento

Cento (poetry)

A cento is a poetical work wholly composed of verses or passages taken from other authors; only disposed in a new form or order.- History :The term comes from the Latin cento, a cloak made of patches; and that from the Greek κέντρων. The Roman soldiers used these centones, or old stuffs patched...

 composed with verses by Virgil

Virgil

Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil in English , was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He is known for three major works of Latin literature, the Eclogues , the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid...

 re-ordered to form an epic poem centred around the life of Jesus

Jesus

Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...

.

Life

Proba belonged to an influential family of the 4th century, the Petronii Probi. Her father was Petronius Probianus

Petronius Probianus

- Life :Probianus was a member of the Petronii Probi, a family of the senatorial aristocracy. He was the son of Pompeius Probus, consul in 310, the father of Petronius Probinus, consul in 341, and of the poet Faltonia Betitia Proba, the grandfather of Sextus Petronius Probus, consul in...

, Roman consul

Roman consul

A consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month...

 in 322, while her mother was probably called Demetria. She had a brother, Petronius Probinus

Petronius Probinus (consul 341)

Petronius Probinus was an aristocrat and statesman of the Roman Empire, Roman consul and praefectus urbi of Rome.- Biography :...

, appointed consul in 341; also her grandfather, Pompeius Probus

Pompeius Probus

Pompeius Probus was a politician of the Roman Empire during the Tetrarchy, active at the Eastern court under Emperors Galerius and Licinius.- Life :...

, had been a consul, in 310. Proba married Clodius Celsinus Adelphus

Clodius Celsinus Adelphus

Clodius Celsinus Adelphius or Adelfius was a politician of the Roman Empire.- Life :He was married to the poet Faltonia Betitia Proba, and they had two sons, Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius and Faltonius Probus Alypius...

, praefectus urbi

Praefectus urbi

The praefectus urbanus or praefectus urbi, in English the urban prefect, was prefect of the city of Rome, and later also of Constantinople. The office originated under the Roman kings, continued during the Republic and Empire, and held high importance in late Antiquity...

of Rome in 351, thus creating a bond with the powerful gens Anicia

Anicia (gens)

The gens Anicia was a plebeian family at Rome, mentioned first towards the end of the 4th century BC The first of the Anicii under to achieve prominence under the Republic was Lucius Anicius Gallus, who conducted the war against the Illyrii during the Third Macedonian War, in 168 BC.A noble family...

. They had at least two sons, Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius

Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius

Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius was a Roman politician, praefectus urbi of Rome in 368–370 and Roman consul in 379...

 and Faltonius Probus Alypius

Faltonius Probus Alypius

- Life :Alypius was the son of Clodius Celsinus Adelphius, Praefectus urbi of Rome in 351, and of the Christian poetess Faltonia Betitia Proba. His brother, Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius, was Roman consul in 379....

, who become high imperial officers. She also had a nephew, Anicia Faltonia Proba

Anicia Faltonia Proba

Anicia Faltonia Proba was a Roman noblewoman of the gens Anicia.- Biography :Proba's father was Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius ; the famous poet Faltonia Betitia Proba was a relative...

, daughter of Olybrius and Tirrania Anicia Juliana.

Her family was Pagan

Religio Romana

Religio Romana may refer to:*Ancient Roman religion*Roman Way to the Gods, Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism and Neopaganism...

, but Proba converted to Christianity when she was an adult, influencing her husband and her sons, who converted after her. Proba died before Celsinus. She was probably buried with her husband in the Basilica di Sant'Anastasia al Palatino in Rome

Rome

Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...

, where, until the 16th century, there was their funerary inscription, later moved to Villa Borghese

Villa Borghese

Villa Borghese may refer to:*The Villa Borghese Pinciana , the villa built by the architect Flaminio Ponzio , developing sketches by Scipione Borghese, who used it as a villa suburbana, a party villa, at the edge of Rome, and to house his art collection.**The Galleria...

 before disappearing. The bond between Proba and this church might be related to saint Anastasia

Saint Anastasia

Saint Anastasia or Santa Anastasia may refer to:* Anastasia the Patrician* Anastasia of Sirmium* Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia* Saint Anastasia of Serbia , Princess consort of Serbia* St. Anastasia Island, Bulgarian islet...

, who probably belonged to the gens Anicia: Proba and Celsinus could have received the honour of being buried ad sanctos (next to the tomb of a saint), because of the particular veneration of the Anicii for this saint.

With her husband she owned the Horti Aciliorum at Rome

Rome

Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...

, on the Pincian Hill

Pincian Hill

The Pincian Hill is a hill in the northeast quadrant of the historical center of Rome. The hill lies to the north of the Quirinal, overlooking the Campus Martius...

.

Works

To "Proba" are attributed two poems, only one of them preserved. Most of the modern scholars identify this poetess Proba with Faltonia Betitia, the other possible identification being with her nephew, Anicia Faltonia Proba

Anicia Faltonia Proba

Anicia Faltonia Proba was a Roman noblewoman of the gens Anicia.- Biography :Proba's father was Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius ; the famous poet Faltonia Betitia Proba was a relative...

.

Constantini bellum adversus Magnentium

The first poem, now lost, is called Constantini bellum adversus Magnentium by the Codex Mutinensis. It dealt with the war between Roman Emperor Constantius II

Constantius II

Constantius II , was Roman Emperor from 337 to 361. The second son of Constantine I and Fausta, he ascended to the throne with his brothers Constantine II and Constans upon their father's death....

 and the usurper Magnentius

Magnentius

Flavius Magnus Magnentius was a usurper of the Roman Empire .-Early life and career:...

. Proba was involved to this war through her husband Clodius Celsinus Adelphus

Clodius Celsinus Adelphus

Clodius Celsinus Adelphius or Adelfius was a politician of the Roman Empire.- Life :He was married to the poet Faltonia Betitia Proba, and they had two sons, Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius and Faltonius Probus Alypius...

, who had been praefectus urbi

Praefectus urbi

The praefectus urbanus or praefectus urbi, in English the urban prefect, was prefect of the city of Rome, and later also of Constantinople. The office originated under the Roman kings, continued during the Republic and Empire, and held high importance in late Antiquity...

of Rome in 351, that the same year Italy passed from the sphere of influence of Magnetius to Constantius after the Battle of Mursa Major

Battle of Mursa Major

The Battle of Mursa Major was fought in 351 between the Eastern Roman army led by Constantius II and the western forces supporting the usurper Magnentius.The action took place along the valley of the Drava River, a Danube tributary in present day Croatia....

.

The existence of this first poem is based on the first verses of the second poem. Here Proba rejects her first Pagan composition, and scholars think that the Pagan poem was destroyed according to her will.

De laudibus Christi

After her conversion, around 362, Proba composed a Christian epic poem, the Cento Vergilianus de laudibus Christi, also known as De laudibus Christi.

The poem is a Virgil

Virgil

Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil in English , was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He is known for three major works of Latin literature, the Eclogues , the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid...

ian cento

Cento (poetry)

A cento is a poetical work wholly composed of verses or passages taken from other authors; only disposed in a new form or order.- History :The term comes from the Latin cento, a cloak made of patches; and that from the Greek κέντρων. The Roman soldiers used these centones, or old stuffs patched...

, a patchwork of verses extracted from several works of Virgil, with minimal modifications (in this case, with the introduction of Biblical names).

She knew Virgil's poems quite well and memorized most of them. She devised a scheme one day that the history of the Bible could be compiled in a pleasant easy to read verse. She researched Bucolics

Bucolics

The Eclogues is the first of the three major works of the Latin poet Virgil.Taking as his generic model the Greek Bucolica by Theocritus, Virgil created a Roman version partly by offering a dramatic and mythic interpretation of revolutionary change at Rome...

, the Georgics

Georgics

The Georgics is a poem in four books, likely published in 29 BC. It is the second major work by the Latin poet Virgil, following his Eclogues and preceding the Aeneid. It is a poem that draws on many prior sources and influenced many later authors from antiquity to the present...

, and the Aeneid

Aeneid

The Aeneid is a Latin epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. It is composed of roughly 10,000 lines in dactylic hexameter...

. She would then mix various lines from each with great care and skill to complete a story. They were done expertly following all the rules of meter and the respect of verse that a connoisseur

Connoisseur

A connoisseur is a person who has a great deal of knowledge about the fine arts, cuisines, or an expert judge in matters of taste.Modern connoisseurship must be seen along with museums, art galleries and "the cult of originality"...

 had trouble detecting the scheme. The resulting cento presents the Biblical story from the creation of the world up to the coming of the Holy Spirit

Holy Spirit

Holy Spirit is a term introduced in English translations of the Hebrew Bible, but understood differently in the main Abrahamic religions.While the general concept of a "Spirit" that permeates the cosmos has been used in various religions Holy Spirit is a term introduced in English translations of...

 by using 694 lines from Virgil

Virgil

Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil in English , was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He is known for three major works of Latin literature, the Eclogues , the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid...

. This poem was declared apocrypha

Apocrypha

The term apocrypha is used with various meanings, including "hidden", "esoteric", "spurious", "of questionable authenticity", ancient Chinese "revealed texts and objects" and "Christian texts that are not canonical"....

l (not heretic, but also not allowed to be read in public) by Pope Gelasius I

Pope Gelasius I

Pope Saint Gelasius I was pope from 492 until his death in 496. He was the third and last bishop of Rome of African origin in the Catholic Church. Gelasius was a prolific writer whose style placed him on the cusp between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages...

 and is her only surviving work. She also wrote a Homeric cento with verses taken from Homer

Homer

In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...

 that basically followed the same scheme. She was skilled in both the Greek and Latin languages.

The 694 lines are divided into a proemium with invocation (lines 1-55), episodes from the Old Testament

Old Testament

The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...

 (lines 56-345), episodes from the New Testament

New Testament

The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....

 (lines 346-688) and the end.

Jerome

Jerome

Saint Jerome was a Roman Christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, and who became a Doctor of the Church. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Stridon, which was on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia...

 heavily criticized this work, claiming that an "old chatterbox" wanted "to teach Scriptures before understanding them", considering "the Christless Maro a Christian" (Letters 53.7, written from Bethlehem

Bethlehem

Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...

 to Paulinus of Nola

Paulinus of Nola

Saint Paulinus of Nola, also known as Pontificus Meropius Anicius Paulinus was a Roman senator who converted to a severe monasticism in 394...

); Isidore of Seville

Isidore of Seville

Saint Isidore of Seville served as Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as the historian Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien"...

, on the contrary, praised the author of this work.

Pope Gelasius I

Pope Gelasius I

Pope Saint Gelasius I was pope from 492 until his death in 496. He was the third and last bishop of Rome of African origin in the Catholic Church. Gelasius was a prolific writer whose style placed him on the cusp between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages...

 (492-496) declared the De laudibus Christi an apocryphal; therefore, even if it was not considered heretical, its public reading was forbidden. Despite this prohibition, the work had some success: it is known that Emperors Arcadius

Arcadius

Arcadius was the Byzantine Emperor from 395 to his death. He was the eldest son of Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of the Western Emperor Honorius...

 (395-408) and Theodosius II

Theodosius II

Theodosius II , commonly surnamed Theodosius the Younger, or Theodosius the Calligrapher, was Byzantine Emperor from 408 to 450. He is mostly known for promulgating the Theodosian law code, and for the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople...

 (408-451) requested copies of the poem; furthermore, during the Middle Ages this cento was used in education, and Proba's fame caused Giovanni Boccaccio

Giovanni Boccaccio

Giovanni Boccaccio was an Italian author and poet, a friend, student, and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist and the author of a number of notable works including the Decameron, On Famous Women, and his poetry in the Italian vernacular...

 to include her among the most influential women list, in his De mulieribus claris

De mulieribus claris

De mulieribus claris is a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, first published in 1374. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature...

. The first printed edition

Editio princeps

In classical scholarship, editio princeps is a term of art. It means, roughly, the first printed edition of a work that previously had existed only in manuscripts, which could be circulated only after being copied by hand....

of the De laudibus Christi, dating back to 1472, possibly the first printed work composed by a woman.

External links

• Proba
• Matthaeus Sylvagius, Liber de Tribus Peregrinis / Colloquia trium Peregrinorum (Venice, 1542)