Figure of thought
Encyclopedia
Ancient rhetorical theory distinguished between form and content. As Gordon Williams states in introducing his study on Figures of Thought in Roman Poetry, "Language
was subject to ordering by exhaustive description of vocabulary, syntax, and figures. The content was likewise subject to ordering by the rules of inventio
(the technique by which all the latent or inherent possibilities in a given idea or cluster of ideas could be 'discovered' and exploited)."
Figures of speech, however, are those we most commonly hear about, and virtually any reader can retrieve a definition of 'figure of speech
', as in fact the existence of a Wikipedia
entry for 'figure of speech' demonstrates. When it comes to describing a figure of thought, the task is not as comfortable as we might wish, especially when our primary area of inquiry is poetry
rather than a prose composition, which adheres to the rules of rhetorical theory that were for the most part created in their fullest articulation in the age of Quintilian
. In their approach to language, the Roman
poets (Horace
, Catullus
, Propertius, Tibullus
) did not distinguish between inventio and elocutio
, which explains somewhat our confusion between figures of thought and figures of speech. The latter are exemplified most immediately by conceptual substitutions, such as metaphor
or synecdoche
, but if we consider not just the mere linguistic aspect of the substitution and focus most closely on the concepts themselves, then we might begin to perceive the comprehensiveness of the conceptual for the poet, who operates with words to extend and amplify the potential semantics of poetic output.
In other words, if the poet says 'stars' to mean 'eyes', on the linguistic level we witness a conceptual substitution that plays on the gleaming of star
s to describe human eyes, and thereby the object described acquires greater detail and more seductive features. The resulting effect of the substitution, however, also includes a fusion of concepts because the gleaming of stars and the gleaming of eyes are added to one another in thought, and the resulting meaning is a new and more potent concept than the one available in the two separate concepts of 'stars' and 'eyes', for after qualifying the eyes of a beloved as stars, the whole universe becomes readable in the beloved's eyes, and the eyes of the beloved are watching us from above on any given night.
Language
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
was subject to ordering by exhaustive description of vocabulary, syntax, and figures. The content was likewise subject to ordering by the rules of inventio
Inventio
Inventio is the system or method used for the discovery of arguments in Western rhetoric and comes from the Latin word, meaning "invention" or "discovery"...
(the technique by which all the latent or inherent possibilities in a given idea or cluster of ideas could be 'discovered' and exploited)."
Figures of speech, however, are those we most commonly hear about, and virtually any reader can retrieve a definition of 'figure of speech
Figure of speech
A figure of speech is the use of a word or words diverging from its usual meaning. It can also be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it, as in idiom, metaphor, simile,...
', as in fact the existence of a Wikipedia
Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its 20 million articles have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site,...
entry for 'figure of speech' demonstrates. When it comes to describing a figure of thought, the task is not as comfortable as we might wish, especially when our primary area of inquiry is poetry
Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
rather than a prose composition, which adheres to the rules of rhetorical theory that were for the most part created in their fullest articulation in the age of Quintilian
Quintilian
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus was a Roman rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing...
. In their approach to language, the Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
poets (Horace
Horace
Quintus Horatius Flaccus , known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus.-Life:...
, Catullus
Catullus
Gaius Valerius Catullus was a Latin poet of the Republican period. His surviving works are still read widely, and continue to influence poetry and other forms of art.-Biography:...
, Propertius, Tibullus
Tibullus
Albius Tibullus was a Latin poet and writer of elegies.Little is known about his life. His first and second books of poetry are extant; many other texts attributed to Tibullus are of questionable origins. There are only a few references to him in later writers and a short Life of doubtful authority...
) did not distinguish between inventio and elocutio
Elocutio
Elocutio is the term for the mastery of stylistic elements in Western classical rhetoric and comes from the Latin loqui, "to speak". Although today we associate the word elocution more with eloquent speaking, for the classical rhetorician it connoted "style".It is the third of the five canons of...
, which explains somewhat our confusion between figures of thought and figures of speech. The latter are exemplified most immediately by conceptual substitutions, such as metaphor
Metaphor
A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
or synecdoche
Synecdoche
Synecdoche , meaning "simultaneous understanding") is a figure of speech in which a term is used in one of the following ways:* Part of something is used to refer to the whole thing , or...
, but if we consider not just the mere linguistic aspect of the substitution and focus most closely on the concepts themselves, then we might begin to perceive the comprehensiveness of the conceptual for the poet, who operates with words to extend and amplify the potential semantics of poetic output.
In other words, if the poet says 'stars' to mean 'eyes', on the linguistic level we witness a conceptual substitution that plays on the gleaming of star
Star
A star is a massive, luminous sphere of plasma held together by gravity. At the end of its lifetime, a star can also contain a proportion of degenerate matter. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the energy on Earth...
s to describe human eyes, and thereby the object described acquires greater detail and more seductive features. The resulting effect of the substitution, however, also includes a fusion of concepts because the gleaming of stars and the gleaming of eyes are added to one another in thought, and the resulting meaning is a new and more potent concept than the one available in the two separate concepts of 'stars' and 'eyes', for after qualifying the eyes of a beloved as stars, the whole universe becomes readable in the beloved's eyes, and the eyes of the beloved are watching us from above on any given night.