Figure of speech
Encyclopedia
A figure of speech is the use of a word
or words diverging from its usual meaning. It can also be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase
with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it, as in idiom
, metaphor
, simile
, hyperbole
, or personification. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a rhetorical figure or a locution.
Not all theories of meaning have a concept of "literal language" (see literal and figurative language
). Under theories that do not, figure of speech is not an entirely coherent concept
.
Rhetoric originated as the study of the ways in which a source text can be transformed to suit the goals of the person reusing the material. For this goal, classical rhetoric detected four fundamental operations that can be used to transform a sentence or a larger portion of a text: expansion, abridgement, switching, and transferring.
, or categories of change, governing the formation of all figures of speech are:
These four operations were detected by classical rhetoricians, and still serve to encompass the various figures of speech. Originally these were called, in Latin, the four operations of quadripartita ratio. The ancient surviving text mentioning them, although not recognizing them as the four fundamental principles, is the Rhetorica ad Herennium
, of unknown authorship, where they are called πλεονασμός (addition), ἔνδεια (omission), μετάθεσις (transposition) and ἐναλλαγή (permutation). Quintillian then mentioned them in Institutio Oratoria. Philo of Alexandria also listed them as addition (πρόσθεσις), subtraction (ἀφαίρεσις), transposition (μετάθεσις), and transmutation (ἀλλοίωσις).
. Tropes (from the Greek tropein, to turn) change the general meaning of words. An example of a trope is irony, which is the use of words to convey the opposite of their usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So are they all, all honorable men").
During the Renaissance
, scholars meticulously enumerated and classified figures of speech. Henry Peacham
, for example, in his The Garden of Eloquence (1577), enumerated 184 different figures of speech. Professor Robert DiYanni, in his book "Literature - Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama and the Essay" wrote: "Rhetoricians have catalogued more than 250 different figures of speech, expressions or ways of using words in a nonliteral sense.".
For simplicity, this article divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not further sub-classify them (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Most entries link to a page that provides greater detail and relevant examples, but a short definition is placed here for convenience. Some of those listed may be considered rhetorical device
s, which are similar in many ways.
Word
In language, a word is the smallest free form that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content . This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own...
or words diverging from its usual meaning. It can also be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase
Phrase
In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words which form a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than a clause....
with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it, as in idiom
Idiom
Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made...
, metaphor
Metaphor
A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
, simile
Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words "like", "as". Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas...
, hyperbole
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally....
, or personification. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a rhetorical figure or a locution.
Not all theories of meaning have a concept of "literal language" (see literal and figurative language
Literal and figurative language
Literal and figurative language is a distinction in traditional systems for analyzing language. Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component...
). Under theories that do not, figure of speech is not an entirely coherent concept
Concept
The word concept is used in ordinary language as well as in almost all academic disciplines. Particularly in philosophy, psychology and cognitive sciences the term is much used and much discussed. WordNet defines concept: "conception, construct ". However, the meaning of the term concept is much...
.
Rhetoric originated as the study of the ways in which a source text can be transformed to suit the goals of the person reusing the material. For this goal, classical rhetoric detected four fundamental operations that can be used to transform a sentence or a larger portion of a text: expansion, abridgement, switching, and transferring.
The four fundamental operations
The four fundamental operationsRhetorical operations
Since classical rhetoric, the four fundamental rhetorical operations, which still today serve to encompass the various figures of speech, have been: addition , omission , permutation and transposition...
, or categories of change, governing the formation of all figures of speech are:
- addition (adiectio), also called repetition/expansion/superabundance
- omission (detractio), also called subtraction/abridgement/lack
- transposition (transmutatio), also called transferring
- permutation (immutatio), also called switching/interchange/substitution/transmutation
These four operations were detected by classical rhetoricians, and still serve to encompass the various figures of speech. Originally these were called, in Latin, the four operations of quadripartita ratio. The ancient surviving text mentioning them, although not recognizing them as the four fundamental principles, is the Rhetorica ad Herennium
Rhetorica ad Herennium
The Rhetorica ad Herennium, formerly attributed to Cicero but of unknown authorship, is the oldest surviving Latin book on rhetoric, dating from the 90s BC, and is still used today as a textbook on the structure and uses of rhetoric and persuasion....
, of unknown authorship, where they are called πλεονασμός (addition), ἔνδεια (omission), μετάθεσις (transposition) and ἐναλλαγή (permutation). Quintillian then mentioned them in Institutio Oratoria. Philo of Alexandria also listed them as addition (πρόσθεσις), subtraction (ἀφαίρεσις), transposition (μετάθεσις), and transmutation (ἀλλοίωσις).
Examples
The figure of speech comes in many varieties. The aim is to use the language inventively to accentuate the effect of what is being said. A few examples follow:- "Round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran" is an example of alliterationAlliterationIn language, alliteration refers to the repetition of a particular sound in the first syllables of Three or more words or phrases. Alliteration has historically developed largely through poetry, in which it more narrowly refers to the repetition of a consonant in any syllables that, according to...
, where the consonant r is used repeatedly. Whereas, "Sister Suzy sewing socks for soldiers" is a particular form of alliteration called sibilance, because it repeats the letter s. Both are commonly used in poetry. - "She would run up the stairs and then a new set of curtains" is a variety of zeugmaZeugmaZeugma is a figure of speech in which two or more parts of a sentence are joined with a single common verb or noun. A zeugma employs both ellipsis, the omission of words which are easily understood, and parallelism, the balance of several words or phrases...
called a syllepsis. Run up refers to ascending and also to manufacturing. The effect is enhanced by the momentary suggestion, through a punPunThe pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use and abuse of homophonic,...
, that she might be climbing up the curtains. The ellipsisEllipsis (linguistics)In linguistics, ellipsis or elliptical construction refers to the omission from a clause of one or more words that would otherwise be required by the remaining elements.-Overview:...
or omission of the second use of the verb makes the reader think harder about what is being said. - "Military Intelligence is an oxymoronOxymoronAn oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory terms...
" is the use of direct sarcasmSarcasmSarcasm is “a sharp, bitter, or cutting expression or remark; a bitter jibe or taunt.” Though irony and understatement is usually the immediate context, most authorities distinguish sarcasm from irony; however, others argue that sarcasm may or often does involve irony or employs...
to suggest that the military would have no intelligence. This might be considered to be a satireSatireSatire is primarily a literary genre or form, although in practice it can also be found in the graphic and performing arts. In satire, vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, and society itself, into improvement...
and a terse aphorismAphorismAn aphorism is an original thought, spoken or written in a laconic and memorable form.The term was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates...
. "But he's a soldier, so he has to be an Einstein" is the use of sarcasm through ironyIronyIrony is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or situation in which there is a sharp incongruity or discordance that goes beyond the simple and evident intention of words or actions...
for the same effect. The use of hyperboleHyperboleHyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally....
by using the word Einstein calls attention to the ironic intent. An Einstein is an example of synechdoche, as it uses a particular name to represent a class of people: geniuses. - "I had butterflies in my stomach" is a metaphorMetaphorA metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
, referring to my nervousness feeling as if there were flying insects in my stomach. To say "it was like having some butterflies in my stomach" would be a simileSimileA simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words "like", "as". Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas...
, because it uses the word like which is missing in the metaphor.
Categories of figures of speech
Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two main categories: schemes and tropes. Schemes (from the Greek schēma, form or shape) are figures of speech that change the ordinary or expected pattern of words. For example, the phrase, "John, my best friend" uses the scheme known as appositionApposition
Apposition is a grammatical construction in which two elements, normally noun phrases, are placed side by side, with one element serving to define or modify the other. When this device is used, the two elements are said to be in apposition...
. Tropes (from the Greek tropein, to turn) change the general meaning of words. An example of a trope is irony, which is the use of words to convey the opposite of their usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So are they all, all honorable men").
During the Renaissance
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
, scholars meticulously enumerated and classified figures of speech. Henry Peacham
Henry Peacham
Henry Peacham is the name shared by two English Renaissance writers who were father and son.The elder Henry Peacham was an English curate, best known for his treatise on rhetoric titled The Garden of Eloquence first published in 1577....
, for example, in his The Garden of Eloquence (1577), enumerated 184 different figures of speech. Professor Robert DiYanni, in his book "Literature - Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama and the Essay" wrote: "Rhetoricians have catalogued more than 250 different figures of speech, expressions or ways of using words in a nonliteral sense.".
For simplicity, this article divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not further sub-classify them (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Most entries link to a page that provides greater detail and relevant examples, but a short definition is placed here for convenience. Some of those listed may be considered rhetorical device
Rhetorical device
In rhetoric, a rhetorical device or resource of language is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading him or her towards considering a topic from a different perspective. While rhetorical devices may be used to evoke an...
s, which are similar in many ways.
Schemes
- accumulation: Summary of previous arguments in a forceful manner
- adnomination: Repetition of a word with a change in letter or sound
- alliterationAlliterationIn language, alliteration refers to the repetition of a particular sound in the first syllables of Three or more words or phrases. Alliteration has historically developed largely through poetry, in which it more narrowly refers to the repetition of a consonant in any syllables that, according to...
: Series of words that begin with the same consonant or sound alike - adynatonAdynatonAdynaton is a figure of speech in the form of hyperbole taken to such extreme lengths as to suggest a complete impossibility:...
: hyperboleHyperboleHyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally....
taken to such extreme lengths as to suggest a complete impossibility. - anacoluthonAnacoluthonAn anacoluthon is a rhetorical device that can be loosely defined as a change of syntax within a sentence. More specifically, anacoluthons are created when a sentence abruptly changes from one structure to another. Grammatically, anacoluthon is an error; however, in rhetoric it is a figure that...
: Change in the syntax within a sentence - anadiplosisAnadiplosisAnadiplosis is the repetition of the last word of a preceding clause. The word is used at the end of a sentence and then used again at the beginning of the next sentence.-Examples:...
: Repetition of a word at the end of a clause at the beginning of another - anaphora: Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses
- anastropheAnastropheAnastrophe is a figure of speech in which a language's usual word order is inverted: for example, saying "smart you are" to mean "you are smart"....
: Inversion of the usual word order - anticlimax: Arrangement of words in order of decreasing importance
- antimetaboleAntimetaboleIn rhetoric, antimetabole is the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposed grammatical order...
: Repetition of words in successive clauses, in reverse order - antistrophe: Repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses (see epistrophe)
- antithesisAntithesisAntithesis is a counter-proposition and denotes a direct contrast to the original proposition...
: Juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas - aphorismusAphorismusAphorismus is a figure of speech that calls into question the meaning of a word...
: Statement that calls into question the definition of a word - aposiopesisAposiopesisAposiopesis is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue. An example would be the threat "Get out, or else—!" This device often portrays its...
: Breaking off or pausing speech for dramatic or emotional effect - apostropheApostrophe (figure of speech)Apostrophe is an exclamatory rhetorical figure of speech, when a speaker or writer breaks off and directs speech to an imaginary person or abstract quality or idea...
: Directing the attention away from the audience and to a personified abstraction - appositionAppositionApposition is a grammatical construction in which two elements, normally noun phrases, are placed side by side, with one element serving to define or modify the other. When this device is used, the two elements are said to be in apposition...
: Placing of two elements side by side, in which the second defines the first - assonanceAssonanceAssonance is the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences, and together with alliteration and consonance serves as one of the building blocks of verse. For example, in the phrase "Do you like blue?", the is repeated within the sentence and is...
: Repetition of vowel sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse - asteismus: Facetious or mocking answer that plays on a word
- asyndetonAsyndetonAsyndeton is a stylistic scheme in which conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses. Examples are veni, vidi, vici and its English translation "I came, I saw, I conquered." Its use can have the effect of speeding up the rhythm of a passage and making a single idea more...
: Omission of conjunctions between related clauses - cacophony: Juxtaposition of words producing a harsh sound
- cataphora: Co-reference of one expression with another expression which follows it (example: If you need one, there's a towel in the top drawer.)
- classification (literature & grammar): Linking a proper noun and a common noun with an article
- chiasmusChiasmusIn rhetoric, chiasmus is the figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point; that is, the clauses display inverted parallelism...
: Word order in one clause is inverted in the other (inverted parallelismParallelism (grammar)In grammar, parallelism is a balance of two or more similar words, phrases, or clauses. The application of parallelism in sentence construction can sometimes improve writing style clearness and readability. Parallelism may also be known as parallel structure or parallel construction...
). - climaxClimax (figure of speech)In rhetoric, a climax is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of increasing importance. It is sometimes used with anadiplosis, which uses the repetition of a word or phrase in successive clauses.Examples:*"There are three things that will endure: faith,...
: Arrangement of words in order of increasing importance - commoratio: Repetition of an idea, re-worded
- consonance: Repetition of consonant sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse
- dystmesis: A synonym for tmesisTmesisTmesis is a linguistic phenomenon in which a word or set phrase is separated into two parts, with other words occurring between them.-Verbs:...
- ellipsis: Omission of words
- enallageEnallageEnallage is a term used to mean the substitution of one grammatical form for another one.-Pluralization:Enallage can be used poetically to emphasize the subject of a sentence. This can be done in many ways. For instance, the number of a pronoun can be altered to stress the responsibility of the...
: Substitution of forms that are grammatically different, but have the same meaning - enjambmentEnjambmentEnjambment or enjambement is the breaking of a syntactic unit by the end of a line or between two verses. It is to be contrasted with end-stopping, where each linguistic unit corresponds with a single line, and caesura, in which the linguistic unit ends mid-line...
: Breaking of a syntactic unit (a phrase, clause, or sentence) by the end of a line or between two verses - enthymemeEnthymemeAn enthymeme , in its modern sense, is an informally stated syllogism with an unstated assumption that must be true for the premises to lead to the conclusion. In an enthymeme, part of the argument is missing because it is assumed...
: Informal method of presenting a syllogism - epanalepsisEpanalepsisThe epanalepsis is a figure of speech defined by the repetition of the initial word of a clause or sentence at the end of that same clause or sentence. The beginning and the end are the two positions of stronger emphasis in a sentence; so, by having the same phrase in both places, the speaker...
: Repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence - epistropheEpistropheEpistrophe , also known as epiphora , is a figure of speech and the counterpart of anaphora. It is the repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences...
: Repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of successive clauses. The counterpart of anaphora (also known as antistrophe) - euphonyEuphonyPhonaesthetics is the claim or study of inherent pleasantness or beauty or unpleasantness of the sound of certain words and sentences. Poetry is considered euphonic, as is well-crafted literary prose...
: Opposite of cacophony - i.e. pleasant sounding - hendiadysHendiadysHendiadys is a figure of speech used for emphasis — "The substitution of a conjunction for a subordination". The basic idea is to use two words linked by a conjunction to express a single complex idea....
: Use of two nouns to express an idea when the normal structure would be a noun and a modifier - hendiatrisHendiatrisHendiatris is a figure of speech used for emphasis, in which three words are used to express one idea...
: Use of three nouns to express one idea - homeoptotonHomeoptotonThe homeoptoton , is a figure of speech, characteristical of the flexive languages, consisting in ending the last words of single parts of the speech with the same cases: for instance, in Latin, two consecutive and correlated sentences ending both in accusative."Hominem laudem egentem virtutis,...
: in a flexiveFlexiveFlexive is a Java EE 5 open-source next generation content repository for the development ofcomplex and evolving web applications. It puts strong focus on enterprise-scale content modeling, storage and retrieval, and includes...
language the use the first and last words of a sentence in the same forms - homographs: Words that are identical in spelling but different in origin and meaning
- homonyms: Words that are identical with each other in pronunciation and spelling, but differing in origin and meaning
- homophones:Words that are identical with each other in pronunciation but differing in origin and meaning
- hypallageHypallageHypallage is a literary device that is the reversal of the syntactic relation of two words .One kind of hypallage, also known as a transferred epithet, is the trope or rhetorical device in which a modifier, usually an adjective, is applied to the "wrong" word in the sentence...
: Changing the order of words so that they are associated with words normally associated with others - hyperbatonHyperbatonHyperbaton is a figure of speech in which words that naturally belong together are separated from each other for emphasis or effect. This kind of unnatural or rhetorical separation is possible to a much greater degree in highly inflected languages, where sentence meaning does not depend closely...
: Schemes featuring unusual or inverted word order - hyperboleHyperboleHyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally....
: Exaggeration of a statement - hysteron proteronHysteron proteronThe hysteron proteron is a rhetorical device in which the first key word of the idea refers to something that happens temporally later than the second key word...
: The inversion of the usual temporal or causal order between two elements - isocolonIsocolonIsocolon is a figure of speech in which parallelism is reinforced by members that are of the same length. A well-known example of this is Julius Caesar's "Veni, vidi, vici" , which also illustrates that a common form of isocolon is tricolon, or the use of three parallel members.It is derived from...
: Use of parallel structures of the same length in successive clauses - internal rhymeInternal rhymeIn poetry, internal rhyme, or middle rhyme, is rhyme that occurs in a single line of verse.Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as exemplified by Coleridge, "In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the night through fog-smoke white," in "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner." ...
: Using two or more rhyming words in the same sentence - kenningKenningA kenning is a type of literary trope, specifically circumlocution, in the form of a compound that employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun. Kennings are strongly associated with Old Norse and later Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon poetry...
: A metonymic compound where the terms together form a sort of anecdoteAnecdoteAn anecdote is a short and amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person. It may be as brief as the setting and provocation of a bon mot. An anecdote is always presented as based on a real incident involving actual persons, whether famous or not, usually in an identifiable place... - merismMerismIn rhetoric, a merism is a figure of speech by which a single thing is referred to by a conventional phrase that enumerates several of its parts, or which lists several synonyms for the same thing....
: Referring to a whole by enumerating some of its parts - non sequitur: Statement that bears no relationship to the context preceding
- onomatopoeia: Word that imitates a real sound (e.g. tick-tock or boom)
- paradiastoleParadiastoleParadiastole is the use of euphemism to soften the force of naming a vice or a virtue. It is often used ironically...
: Repetition of the disjunctive pair "neither" and "nor" - parallelismParallelism (rhetoric)Parallelism means giving two or more parts of the sentences a similar form so as to give the whole a definite pattern.Parallelisms of various sorts are the chief rhetorical device of Biblical poetry in Hebrew. In fact, Robert Lowth coined the term "parallelismus membrorum Parallelism means giving...
: The use of similar structures in two or more clauses - paraprosdokianParaprosdokianA paraprosdokian is a figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence or phrase is surprising or unexpected in a way that causes the reader or listener to reframe or reinterpret the first part. It is frequently used for humorous or dramatic effect, sometimes producing an anticlimax...
: Unexpected ending or truncation of a clause - parenthesisParenthesis (rhetoric)In rhetoric, a parenthesis is an explanatory or qualifying word, clause, or sentence inserted into a passage with which it doesn't necessarily have any grammatical connection...
: Insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence - paroemion: Resolute alliteration in which every word in a sentence or phrase begins with the same letter
- parrhesiaParrhesiaIn rhetoric, parrhesia is a figure of speech described as: to speak candidly or to ask forgiveness for so speaking. The term is borrowed from the Greek παρρησία meaning literally "to speak everything" and by extension "to speak freely," "to speak boldly," or "boldness." It implies not only...
: Speaking openly or boldly, or apologizing for doing so (declaring to do so) - perissologia: The fault of wordiness
- pleonasmPleonasmPleonasm is the use of more words or word-parts than is necessary for clear expression: examples are black darkness, or burning fire...
: Use of superfluous or redundant words - polyptotonPolyptotonPolyptoton is the stylistic scheme in which words derived from the same root are repeated . A related stylistic device is antanaclasis, in which the same word is repeated, but each time with a different sense....
: Repetition of words derived from the same root - polysyndetonPolysyndetonPolysyndeton is the use of several conjunctions in close succession, especially where some might be omitted . It is a stylistic scheme used to achieve a variety of effects: it can increase the rhythm of prose, speed or slow its pace, convey solemnity or even ecstasy and childlike exuberance...
: Repetition of conjunctions - punPunThe pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use and abuse of homophonic,...
: When a word or phrase is used in two different senses - sibilance: Repetition of letter 's', it is a form of alliterationAlliterationIn language, alliteration refers to the repetition of a particular sound in the first syllables of Three or more words or phrases. Alliteration has historically developed largely through poetry, in which it more narrowly refers to the repetition of a consonant in any syllables that, according to...
- sine dicendo: A statement that is so obvious it need not be stated, and if stated, it seems almost pointless (e.g. 'It's always in the last place you look.')
- superlativeSuperlativeIn grammar, the superlative is the form of an adjective that indicates that the person or thing modified has the quality of the adjective to a degree greater than that of anything it is being compared to in a given context. English superlatives are typically formed with the suffix -est In...
: Declaring something the best within its class i.e. the ugliest,the most precious - spoonerismSpoonerismA spoonerism is an error in speech or deliberate play on words in which corresponding consonants, vowels, or morphemes are switched . It is named after the Reverend William Archibald Spooner , Warden of New College, Oxford, who was notoriously prone to this tendency...
: Interchanging of (usually initial) letters of words with amusing effect - symploceSymploceIn rhetoric, symploce is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is used successively at the beginning of two or more clauses or sentences and another word or phrase is used successively at the end of the same. It is the combination of anaphora and epistrophe...
: Simultaneous use of anaphora and epistrophe: the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning and the end of successive clauses - synchysisSynchysisSynchysis is an interlocked word order, in the form A-B-A-B; which often display change and difference. This poetry form was a favorite with Latin poets...
: Interlocked word order - synesisSynesisSynesis is a traditional grammatical/rhetorical term derived from Greek...
: Agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form - synizesisSynizesisSynizesis is a sound change in which two originally syllabic vowels are pronounced as a single syllable without change in writing. In Latin and Greek, this was often to preserve meter, but similar changes occur naturally in languages....
: Pronunciation of two juxtaposed vowels or diphthongs as a single sound - synonymiaSynonymiaIn rhetoric, Synonymia is the use of several synonyms together to amplify or explain a given subject or term. It is a kind of repetition that adds emotional force or intellectual clarity...
: Use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence - tautologyTautology (rhetoric)Tautology is an unnecessary or unessential repetition of meaning, using different and dissimilar words that effectively say the same thing...
: Redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice - tmesisTmesisTmesis is a linguistic phenomenon in which a word or set phrase is separated into two parts, with other words occurring between them.-Verbs:...
: Division of the elements of a compound word - zeugmaZeugmaZeugma is a figure of speech in which two or more parts of a sentence are joined with a single common verb or noun. A zeugma employs both ellipsis, the omission of words which are easily understood, and parallelism, the balance of several words or phrases...
: The using of one verb for two actions
Tropes
- allegoryAllegoryAllegory is a demonstrative form of representation explaining meaning other than the words that are spoken. Allegory communicates its message by means of symbolic figures, actions or symbolic representation...
: Extended metaphorMetaphorA metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
in which a story is told to illustrate an important attribute of the subject - alliterationAlliterationIn language, alliteration refers to the repetition of a particular sound in the first syllables of Three or more words or phrases. Alliteration has historically developed largely through poetry, in which it more narrowly refers to the repetition of a consonant in any syllables that, according to...
: Repetition of the first consonant sound in a phrase. - allusionAllusionAn allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to, or representation of, people, places, events, literary work, myths, or works of art, either directly or by implication. M. H...
: Indirect reference to another work of literature or art - anacoenosisAnacoenosis-Description:Anacoenosis is asking the opinion of others in a way that demonstrates a common interest.-Examples:Do you not think we can do this now?Now tell me, given the evidence before us, could you have decided any differently?...
: Posing a question to an audience, often with the implication that it shares a common interest with the speaker - antanaclasisAntanaclasisIn rhetoric, antanaclasis is the stylistic trope of repeating a single word, but with a different meaning each time. Antanaclasis is a common type of pun, and like other kinds of pun, it is often found in slogans.-Examples:...
: A form of punPunThe pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use and abuse of homophonic,...
in which a word is repeated in two different senses - anthimeriaAnthimeriaIn rhetoric, anthimeria, traditionally and more properly called antimeria , is the use of a word as if it were a member of a different word class ; typically, the use of a noun as if it were a verb.-Examples:*"I'll unhair thy head." * "The...
: Substitution of one part of speech for another, often turning a noun into a verb - anthropomorphismAnthropomorphismAnthropomorphism is any attribution of human characteristics to animals, non-living things, phenomena, material states, objects or abstract concepts, such as organizations, governments, spirits or deities. The term was coined in the mid 1700s...
: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphismZoomorphismZoomorphism is the shaping of something in animal form or terms. Examples include:*Art that imagines humans as animals*Art that portrays one species of animal like another species of animal*Art that creates patterns using animal imagery, or animal style...
) - antimetaboleAntimetaboleIn rhetoric, antimetabole is the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposed grammatical order...
: Repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposed grammatical order - antiphrasisAntiphrasisAn antiphrasis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is used to mean the opposite of its usual sense, especially ironically....
: Word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony - antonomasiaAntonomasiaIn rhetoric, antonomasia is a substitution of any epithet or phrase for a proper name, such as "the little corporal" for Napoleon I. The reverse process is also sometimes called antonomasia. The word derives from the Greek verb , meaning "to name differently"...
: Substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa - aphorismAphorismAn aphorism is an original thought, spoken or written in a laconic and memorable form.The term was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates...
: Tersely phrased statement of a truth or opinion, an adage - apophasisApophasisApophasis refers, in general, to "mention by not mentioning". Apophasis covers a wide variety of figures of speech.-Apophasis:...
: Invoking an idea by denying its invocation - apostrophe: Addressing a thing, an abstraction or a person not present
- archaismArchaismIn language, an archaism is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current. This can either be done deliberately or as part of a specific jargon or formula...
: Use of an obsolete, archaic, word (a word used in olden language, e.g. Shakespeare's language) - auxesisAuxesis (figure of speech)In rhetoric, auxesis is a form of hyperbole that intentionally overstates something or implies that it is greater in significance or size than it really is. Auxesis is the opposite of meiosis....
: Form of hyperboleHyperboleHyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally....
, in which a more important sounding word is used in place of a more descriptive term - catachresisCatachresisCatachresis is "misapplication of a word, especially in a mixed metaphor" according to the Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory...
: Mixed metaphorMetaphorA metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
(sometimes used by design and sometimes a rhetorical fault) - circumlocutionCircumlocutionCircumlocution is an ambiguous or roundabout figure of speech...
: "Talking around" a topic by substituting or adding words, as in euphemismEuphemismA euphemism is the substitution of a mild, inoffensive, relatively uncontroversial phrase for another more frank expression that might offend or otherwise suggest something unpleasant to the audience...
or periphrasis - commiseration: Evoking pity in the audience
- correctio: Linguistic device used for correcting one's mistakes, a form of which is epanorthosisEpanorthosisAn epanorthosis is a figure of speech that signifies emphatic word replacement. The example "thousands, no, millions!" is a stock example. More often, however, epanorthosis signifies immediate and emphatic self-correction, and as such often follows a Freudian slip .Examples:*"The psychologist known...
- denominatio: Another word for metonymyMetonymyMetonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept...
- double negativeDouble negativeA double negative occurs when two forms of negation are used in the same sentence. Multiple negation is the more general term referring to the occurrence of more than one negative in a clause....
: Grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words - dysphemismDysphemismIn language, dysphemism, malphemism, and cacophemism refer to the usage of an intentionally harsh, rather than polite, word or expression; roughly the opposite of euphemism...
: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemismEuphemismA euphemism is the substitution of a mild, inoffensive, relatively uncontroversial phrase for another more frank expression that might offend or otherwise suggest something unpleasant to the audience... - epanorthosisEpanorthosisAn epanorthosis is a figure of speech that signifies emphatic word replacement. The example "thousands, no, millions!" is a stock example. More often, however, epanorthosis signifies immediate and emphatic self-correction, and as such often follows a Freudian slip .Examples:*"The psychologist known...
: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongueSlip of the Tongue-20th Anniversary Edition DVD:-Singles:*"Fool for Your Loving"*"Now You're Gone"*"The Deeper the Love"-Personnel:*David Coverdale – vocals*Steve Vai – All Guitars*Adrian Vandenberg - Guitars *Rudy Sarzo – bass... - enumeratioEnumeratioEnumeratio is the figure of amplification in which a subject is divided, detailing parts, causes, effects, or consequences to make a point more forcibly....
: A form of amplification in which a subject is divided, detailing parts, causes, effects, or consequences to make a point more forcibly - epanados: Repetition in a sentence with a reversal of words. Example: The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath
- erotema: Synonym for rhetorical questionRhetorical questionA rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question posed for its persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply. Rhetorical questions encourage the listener to think about what the answer to the question must be. When a speaker states, "How much longer must our people...
- euphemismEuphemismA euphemism is the substitution of a mild, inoffensive, relatively uncontroversial phrase for another more frank expression that might offend or otherwise suggest something unpleasant to the audience...
: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another - exclamationExclamationExclamation may refer to:* Exclamation mark, the punctuation mark "!"* Exclamation, an emphatic sentence* Exclamation, an emphatic interjection* Exclamation, a statement against penal interest in criminal law* Exclamation, a fragrance by Coty, Inc....
: An emphatic parenthetic addition that is complete in itself, exclamation differs from interjection in that it usually involves an emotional response. - hermeneia: Repetition for the purpose of interpreting what has already been said
- hyperbatonHyperbatonHyperbaton is a figure of speech in which words that naturally belong together are separated from each other for emphasis or effect. This kind of unnatural or rhetorical separation is possible to a much greater degree in highly inflected languages, where sentence meaning does not depend closely...
: Words that naturally belong together are separated from each other for emphasis or effect - hyperboleHyperboleHyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally....
: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis - hypocatastasisHypocatastasisHypocatastasis is a figure of speech that declares or implies a resemblance, representation or comparison. It differs from a metaphor, because in a metaphor the two nouns are both named and given; while, in hypocatastasis, only one is named and the other is implied, or as it were, is put down...
: An implication or declaration of resemblance that does not directly name both terms - hypophoraHypophoraHypophora, also referred to as anthypophora or antipophora, is a figure of speech in which the speaker poses a question and then answers the question.-History:...
: Answering one's own rhetorical questionRhetorical questionA rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question posed for its persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply. Rhetorical questions encourage the listener to think about what the answer to the question must be. When a speaker states, "How much longer must our people...
at length - hysteron proteronHysteron proteronThe hysteron proteron is a rhetorical device in which the first key word of the idea refers to something that happens temporally later than the second key word...
: Reversal of anticipated order of events; a form of hyperbaton - innuendoInnuendoAn innuendo is a baseless invention of thoughts or ideas. It can also be a remark or question, typically disparaging , that works obliquely by allusion...
: Having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not - inversion: A reversal of normal word order, especially the placement of a verb ahead of the subject (subject-verb inversion).
- invocationInvocationAn invocation may take the form of:*Supplication or prayer.*A form of possession.*Command or conjuration.*Self-identification with certain spirits....
: Apostrophe to a god or muse - ironyIronyIrony is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or situation in which there is a sharp incongruity or discordance that goes beyond the simple and evident intention of words or actions...
: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning - kataphoraKataphoraIn semantics, Kataphora is the repetition of a cohesive device at the end of a sentence.There are two kinds of Kataphora:S Kataphora, in which the pronoun is interpreted as a set determined by the antecedent, and;...
: Repetition of a cohesive device at the end - litotesLitotesIn rhetoric, litotes is a figure of speech in which understatement is employed for rhetorical effect when an idea is expressed by a denial of its opposite, principally via double negatives....
: Emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite - malapropismMalapropismA malapropism is an act of misusing or the habitual misuse of similar sounding words, especially with humorous results. An example is Yogi Berra's statement: "Texas has a lot of electrical votes," rather than "electoral votes".-Etymology:...
: Using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar - meiosisMeiosis (figure of speech)In rhetoric, meiosis is a euphemistic figure of speech that intentionally understates something or implies that it is lesser in significance or size than it really is. Meiosis is the opposite of auxesis, and also sometimes used as a synonym for litotes...
: Use of understatement, usually to diminish the importance of something - merismMerismIn rhetoric, a merism is a figure of speech by which a single thing is referred to by a conventional phrase that enumerates several of its parts, or which lists several synonyms for the same thing....
: Statement of opposites to indicate reality - metalepsisMetalepsisMetalepsis is a figure of speech in which one thing is referred to by something else which is only remotely associated with it. Often the association works through a different figure of speech, or through a chain of cause and effect. Often metalepsis refers to the combination of several figures...
: Referring to something through reference to another thing to which it is remotely related - metaphorMetaphorA metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality - metonymyMetonymyMetonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept...
: Substitution of an associated word to suggest what is really meant - neologism: The use of a word or term that has recently been created, or has been in use for a short time. Opposite of archaismArchaismIn language, an archaism is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current. This can either be done deliberately or as part of a specific jargon or formula...
- onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning
- oxymoronOxymoronAn oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory terms...
: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other - parableParableA parable is a succinct story, in prose or verse, which illustrates one or more instructive principles, or lessons, or a normative principle. It differs from a fable in that fables use animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as characters, while parables generally feature human...
: Extended metaphorMetaphorA metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson - paradoxParadox (literature)In literature, the paradox is an anomalous juxtaposition of incongruous ideas for the sake of striking exposition or unexpected insight. It functions as a method of literary composition - and analysis - which involves examining apparently contradictory statements and drawing conclusions either to...
: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth - paradiastoleParadiastoleParadiastole is the use of euphemism to soften the force of naming a vice or a virtue. It is often used ironically...
: Extenuating a vice in order to flatter or soothe - paraprosdokianParaprosdokianA paraprosdokian is a figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence or phrase is surprising or unexpected in a way that causes the reader or listener to reframe or reinterpret the first part. It is frequently used for humorous or dramatic effect, sometimes producing an anticlimax...
: Phrase in which the latter part causes a rethinking or reframing of the beginning - parallel irony: An ironic juxtaposition of sentences or situations (informal)
- paralipsis: Drawing attention to something while pretending to pass it over
- paronomasia: A form of punPunThe pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use and abuse of homophonic,...
, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used - pathetic fallacyPathetic fallacyThe pathetic fallacy, anthropomorphic fallacy or sentimental fallacy is the treatment of inanimate objects as if they had human feelings, thought, or sensations. The pathetic fallacy is a special case of the fallacy of reification...
: Using a word that refers to a human action on something non-human - periphrasisPeriphrasisIn linguistics, periphrasis is a device by which a grammatical category or grammatical relationship is expressed by a free morpheme , instead of being shown by inflection or derivation...
: Using several words instead of few - personification/prosopopoeia/anthropomorphism: Attributing or applying human qualities to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena
- praeteritio: Another word for paralipsis
- procatalepsisProcatalepsisProcatalepsis, also called prebuttal, is a figure of speech in which the speaker raises an objection to his own argument and then immediately answers it...
: Refuting anticipated objections as part of the main argument - prolepsis: Another word for procatalepsisProcatalepsisProcatalepsis, also called prebuttal, is a figure of speech in which the speaker raises an objection to his own argument and then immediately answers it...
- proslepsis: Extreme form of paralipsis in which the speaker provides great detail while feigning to pass over a topic
- proverbProverbA proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of humanity. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim...
: Succinct or pithy expression of what is commonly observed and believed to be true - punPunThe pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use and abuse of homophonic,...
: Play on words that will have two meanings - repetition: Repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect
- rhetorical questionRhetorical questionA rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question posed for its persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply. Rhetorical questions encourage the listener to think about what the answer to the question must be. When a speaker states, "How much longer must our people...
: Asking a question as a way of asserting something. Or asking a question not for the sake of getting an answer but for asserting something (or as in a poem for creating a poetic effect) - satireSatireSatire is primarily a literary genre or form, although in practice it can also be found in the graphic and performing arts. In satire, vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, and society itself, into improvement...
: Use of irony, sarcasm, ridicule, or the like, in exposing, denouncing, or deriding vice, folly, etc. A literary composition, in verse or prose, in which human folly and vice are held up to scorn, derision, or ridicule. A literary genre comprising such compositions - simileSimileA simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words "like", "as". Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas...
: Comparison between two things using like or as - snowcloneSnowcloneA snowclone is a type of cliché and phrasal template originally defined as "a multi-use, customizable, instantly recognizable, time-worn, quoted or misquoted phrase or sentence that can be used in an entirely open array of different variants"....
: Quoted or misquoted clichéClichéA cliché or cliche is an expression, idea, or element of an artistic work which has been overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect, especially when at some earlier time it was considered meaningful or novel. In phraseology, the term has taken on a more technical meaning,...
or phrasal templatePhrasal templateA phrasal template is a phrase-long collocation that contains one or several empty slots which may be filled by words to produce individual phrases. Often there are some restrictions on the grammatic category of the words allowed to fill particular slots... - superlativeSuperlativeIn grammar, the superlative is the form of an adjective that indicates that the person or thing modified has the quality of the adjective to a degree greater than that of anything it is being compared to in a given context. English superlatives are typically formed with the suffix -est In...
: Saying that something is the best of something or has the most of some quality, e.g. the ugliest, the most precious etc. - syllepsis: Form of punPunThe pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use and abuse of homophonic,...
, in which a single word is used to modify two other words, with which it normally would have differing meanings - syncatabasisSyncatabasisSyncatabasis in Christology is the "condescension" of God below his transcendence for the purpose of creation, and the ascription of human passions or attributes to God...
(condescension, accommodation): adaptation of style to the level of the audience - synecdocheSynecdocheSynecdoche , meaning "simultaneous understanding") is a figure of speech in which a term is used in one of the following ways:* Part of something is used to refer to the whole thing , or...
: Form of metonymyMetonymyMetonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept...
, in which a part stands for the whole - synesthesiaSynesthesiaSynesthesia , from the ancient Greek , "together," and , "sensation," is a neurologically based condition in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway...
: Description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another. - tautologyTautology (rhetoric)Tautology is an unnecessary or unessential repetition of meaning, using different and dissimilar words that effectively say the same thing...
: Needless repetition of the same sense in different words Example: The children gathered in a round circle - transferred epithet: Placing of an adjective with what appears to be the incorrect noun
- truismTruismA truism is a claim that is so obvious or self-evident as to be hardly worth mentioning, except as a reminder or as a rhetorical or literary device and is the opposite of falsism....
: a self-evident statement - tricolon diminuensTricolonIn rhetoric, a bicolon, tricolon, or tetracolon is a sentence with two, three, or four clearly defined parts , usually independent clauses and of increasing power.-Tricolon:...
: Combination of three elements, each decreasing in size - tricolon crescensTricolonIn rhetoric, a bicolon, tricolon, or tetracolon is a sentence with two, three, or four clearly defined parts , usually independent clauses and of increasing power.-Tricolon:...
: Combination of three elements, each increasing in size - zeugmaZeugmaZeugma is a figure of speech in which two or more parts of a sentence are joined with a single common verb or noun. A zeugma employs both ellipsis, the omission of words which are easily understood, and parallelism, the balance of several words or phrases...
: A figure of speech related to syllepsis, but different in that the word used as a modifier is not compatible with one of the two words it modifies - zoomorphismZoomorphismZoomorphism is the shaping of something in animal form or terms. Examples include:*Art that imagines humans as animals*Art that portrays one species of animal like another species of animal*Art that creates patterns using animal imagery, or animal style...
: Applying animal characteristics to humans or gods
See also
- Figure of thoughtFigure of thoughtAncient rhetorical theory distinguished between form and content. As Gordon Williams states in introducing his study on Figures of Thought in Roman Poetry, "Language was subject to ordering by exhaustive description of vocabulary, syntax, and figures...
- List of forms of word play
- IdiomIdiomIdiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made...