Food contaminants
Encyclopedia
Food contamination refers to the presence in food of harmful chemicals and microorganisms which can cause consumer illness. This article addresses the chemical contamination of foods, as opposed to microbiological contamination, which can be found under Foodborne illness
.hdufhijfiudiuh
, fluoroquinolones, malachite green
, chloramphenicol
), and bovine somatotropin
(rBST).
Air: radionuclides (137Caesium
, 90Strontium
), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
Water: arsenic
, mercury
.
Soil: cadmium
, nitrate
s, perchlorate
s.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB
) , dioxins, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are ubiquitous chemicals, which are present in air, water, soil, and the entire biosphere.
Packaging materials: antimony
, tin
, lead, perfluorooctanoic acid
(PFOA), semicarbazide
, benzophenone
, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX), bisphenol A
.
Processing/cooking equipment: copper
, or other metal chips, lubricants, cleaning and sanitizing agents.
Naturally occurring toxins: mycotoxin
s, phytohaemagglutinin
, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, grayanotoxin
, mushroom
toxins, scombrotoxin (histamine
), ciguatera
, shellfish toxins (see shellfish poisoning
), tetrodotoxin
, among many others.
In most countries, people working in the food industry are required to cover their hair. When people are served food which contains hair in restaurants or cafés, it is usual for them to complain to the staff. Despite this, it is not a valid ground on which to sue
the restaurant in the United States
but in the United Kingdom it breaks the regulations of the UK Food Safety Act 1990 as it has been known to cause food poisoning and people can sue over this.
There are a range of possible reasons for the objection to hair in food, ranging from cultural taboos to the simple fact that it is difficult to digest and unpleasant to eat. It may also be interpreted as a sign of more widespread problems with hygiene. The introduction of complete capture hairnets is believed to have resulted in a decrease in incidents of contamination of this type.
Sometimes protein from human hair is used as a food ingredient, in bread and other such similar products. Such use of human hair in food is forbidden in Islam
. Historically in Judaism
, finding hair in food was a sign of bad luck.
). They are absent in the raw materials, and are formed by chemical reactions between natural and/or added food constituents during processing. The presence of these contaminants in processed foods cannot be entirely avoided. Technological processes can be adjusted and/or optimized, however, in order to reduce the levels of formation of processing contaminants. Examples are: nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), heterocyclic amines, histamine
, acrylamide
, furan
, benzene
, trans fat
, monochloropropanediol (MCPD), semicarbazide
, 4-hydroxynonenal
(4-HNE), and ethyl carbamate
. There is also the possibility of metal chips from the processing equipment contaminating food. These can be identified using metal detection equipment. In many conveyor lines, the line will be stopped, or when weighing the product with a Check weigher
, the item can be rejected for being over- or underweight or because small pieces of metal are detected within it.
, furan
, benzene
, perchlorate
, perfluorooctanoic acid
(PFOA), 3-monochloropropane-1,3-diol (3-MCPD), 4-hydroxynonenal
and (4-HNE).
(ADI) levels and tolerable concentrations of contaminants in individual foods are determined on the basis of the "No Observed Adverse Effect Level" (NOAEL) in animal experiments, by using a safety factor (usually 100). The maximum concentrations of contaminants allowed by legislation are often well below toxicological tolerance levels, because such levels can often be reasonably achieved by using good agricultural and manufacturing practices.
The establishment of ADIs for certain emerging food contaminants is currently an active area of research and regulatory debate.
Foodborne illness
Foodborne illness is any illness resulting from the consumption of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food, as well as chemical or natural toxins such as poisonous mushrooms.-Causes:Foodborne illness usually arises from improper handling, preparation, or...
.hdufhijfiudiuh
Agrochemicals
Agrochemicals are chemicals used in agricultural practices and animal husbandry with the intent to increase crops and reduce costs. Such agents include pesticides (e.g. insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides), plant growth regulators, veterinary drugs (e.g. nitrofuranNitrofuran
Nitrofurans are a class of drugs typically used as antibiotics or antimicrobials. The defining structural component is a furan ring with a nitro group.Members of this class of drugs include:* Furazolidone, antibacterial* Furylfuramide...
, fluoroquinolones, malachite green
Malachite green
Malachite green is an organic compound that is used as a dyestuff and has emerged as a controversial agent in aquaculture. Malachite green is traditionally used as a dye for materials such as silk, leather, and paper...
, chloramphenicol
Chloramphenicol
Chloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic antimicrobial that became available in 1949. It is considered a prototypical broad-spectrum antibiotic, alongside the tetracyclines, and as it is both cheap and easy to manufacture it is frequently found as a drug of choice in the third world.Chloramphenicol is...
), and bovine somatotropin
Bovine somatotropin
Bovine somatotropin , or BGH, is a chain of amino acids produced by the cow's pituitary gland. Like other hormones, it is produced in small quantities and is used in regulating metabolic processes...
(rBST).
Environmental contaminants
Environmental contaminants are chemicals that are present in the environment in which the food is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed, and consumed. The physical contact of the food with its environment results in its contamination. Possible sources of contamination are:Air: radionuclides (137Caesium
Caesium
Caesium or cesium is the chemical element with the symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a melting point of 28 °C , which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at room temperature...
, 90Strontium
Strontium
Strontium is a chemical element with the symbol Sr and the atomic number 38. An alkaline earth metal, strontium is a soft silver-white or yellowish metallic element that is highly reactive chemically. The metal turns yellow when exposed to air. It occurs naturally in the minerals celestine and...
), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
Water: arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As, atomic number 33 and relative atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in conjunction with sulfur and metals, and also as a pure elemental crystal. It was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250.Arsenic is a metalloid...
, mercury
Mercury (element)
Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum...
.
Soil: cadmium
Cadmium
Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft, bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12, zinc and mercury. Similar to zinc, it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and similar to mercury it shows a low...
, nitrate
Nitrate
The nitrate ion is a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula NO and a molecular mass of 62.0049 g/mol. It is the conjugate base of nitric acid, consisting of one central nitrogen atom surrounded by three identically-bonded oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement. The nitrate ion carries a...
s, perchlorate
Perchlorate
Perchlorates are the salts derived from perchloric acid . They occur both naturally and through manufacturing. They have been used as a medicine for more than 50 years to treat thyroid gland disorders. They are used extensively within the pyrotechnics industry, and ammonium perchlorate is also a...
s.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB
Polychlorinated biphenyl
Polychlorinated biphenyls are a class of organic compounds with 2 to 10 chlorine atoms attached to biphenyl, which is a molecule composed of two benzene rings. The chemical formula for PCBs is C12H10-xClx...
) , dioxins, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are ubiquitous chemicals, which are present in air, water, soil, and the entire biosphere.
Packaging materials: antimony
Antimony
Antimony is a toxic chemical element with the symbol Sb and an atomic number of 51. A lustrous grey metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite...
, tin
Tin
Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn and atomic number 50. It is a main group metal in group 14 of the periodic table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both neighboring group 14 elements, germanium and lead and has two possible oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4...
, lead, perfluorooctanoic acid
Perfluorooctanoic acid
Perfluorooctanoic acid , also known as C8 and perfluorooctanoate, is a synthetic, stable perfluorinated carboxylic acid and fluorosurfactant. One industrial application is as a surfactant in the emulsion polymerization of fluoropolymers. It has been used in the manufacture of such prominent...
(PFOA), semicarbazide
Semicarbazide
In organic chemistry, semicarbazide is a derivative of urea, where NH2 on one side has been replaced with H2NNH2 hydrazine, yielding H2NNHCNH2.Semicarbazide is used as a detection reagent on thin layer chromatography...
, benzophenone
Benzophenone
Benzophenone is the organic compound with the formula 2CO, generally abbreviated Ph2CO. Benzophenone is a widely used building block in organic chemistry, being the parent diarylketone.-Uses:...
, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX), bisphenol A
Bisphenol A
Bisphenol A is an organic compound with two phenol functional groups. It is used to make polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins, along with other applications....
.
Processing/cooking equipment: copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
, or other metal chips, lubricants, cleaning and sanitizing agents.
Naturally occurring toxins: mycotoxin
Mycotoxin
A mycotoxin is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organisms of the fungus kingdom, commonly known as molds. The term ‘mycotoxin’ is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops...
s, phytohaemagglutinin
Phytohaemagglutinin
Phytohaemagglutinin is a lectin found in plants, especially legumes. PHA actually consists of two closely related proteins, called leucoagglutinin and PHA-E. The letters E and L indicate these proteins agglutinate Erythrocytes and Leukocytes...
, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, grayanotoxin
Grayanotoxin
Grayanotoxins are a group of closely related toxins found in rhododendrons and other plants of the family Ericaceae. They can be found in honey made from their nectar and cause a very rare poisonous reaction called grayanotoxin poisoning, honey intoxication, or rhododendron poisoning...
, mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
toxins, scombrotoxin (histamine
Histamine
Histamine is an organic nitrogen compound involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter. Histamine triggers the inflammatory response. As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced by...
), ciguatera
Ciguatera
Ciguatera is a foodborne illness caused by eating certain reef fishes whose flesh is contaminated with toxins originally produced by dinoflagellates such as Gambierdiscus toxicus which lives in tropical and subtropical waters. These dinoflagellates adhere to coral, algae and seaweed, where they are...
, shellfish toxins (see shellfish poisoning
Shellfish poisoning
There are four syndromes called shellfish poisoning, which share some common features and are primarily associated with bivalve molluscs...
), tetrodotoxin
Tetrodotoxin
Tetrodotoxin, also known as "tetrodox" and frequently abbreviated as TTX, sometimes colloquially referred to as "zombie powder" by those who practice Vodou, is a potent neurotoxin with no known antidote. There have been successful tests of a possible antidote in mice, but further tests must be...
, among many others.
Banned pesticides, carcinogens
There are many cases of banned pesticides or carcinogens found in foods.- GreenpeaceGreenpeaceGreenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over forty countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam, The Netherlands...
exposed in 2006 in China that 25% of surveyed supermarkets agricultural products contained banned pesticides. Over 70% of tomatoes that tested were found to have the banned pesticide LindaneLindaneLindane, also known as gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane, , gammaxene, Gammallin and erroneously known as benzene hexachloride , is an organochlorine chemical variant of hexachlorocyclohexane that has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and as a pharmaceutical treatment for lice and...
, and almost 40% of the samples had a mix of three or more types of pesticides. Fruits were also tested in this investigation. Tangerines, strawberries and Kyofung grapes samples were found contaminated by banned pesticides, including the highly toxic MethamidophosMethamidophosMethamidophos is an organophosphate insecticide.Crops grown with the use of methamidophos include some Latin American rice. Many nations use methamidophos on crops, including developed nations such as Spain, US, Japan, and Australia...
. These fruits can also be found in Hong Kong market. Greenpeace says there exists no comprehensive monitoring on fruit produce in the Hong Kong as of 2006.
- In India, soft drinks were found contaminated with high levels of pesticides and insecticides, including lindane, DDTDDTDDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
, malathionMalathionMalathion is an organophosphate parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to cholinesterase. Malathion is an insecticide of relatively low human toxicity, however one recent study has shown that children with higher levels of organophosphate pesticide metabolites in their urine are more likely...
and chlorpyrifosChlorpyrifosChlorpyrifos is a crystalline organophosphate insecticide that inhibits acetylcholinesterase and is used to control insect pests. It is known by many trade names...
.
- News of FormaldehydeFormaldehydeFormaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula CH2O. It is the simplest aldehyde, hence its systematic name methanal.Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent odor. It is an important precursor to many other chemical compounds, especially for polymers...
, a carcinogenCarcinogenA carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes...
was found in Vietnamese national dish, PhoPHOPHO may refer to:* Primary Health Organisation* Potentially hazardous object, an asteroid or comet that could potentially collide with Earth...
, broke in 2007 Vietnam food scare2007 Vietnam food scareThe 2007 Vietnam food scare was a food scandal, which exposed contaminated food. Among the issues were formaldehyde in noodles of the national dish, Phở, banned pesticides in vegetables and fruit, and toxic soy sauce.-External links:* * * Jakarta Post...
. Vegetables and fruits were also found to have banned pesticides. "Health agencies have known that Vietnamese soy sauceSoy sauceSoy sauce is a condiment produced by fermenting soybeans with Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus sojae molds, along with water and salt...
, the country's second most popular sauce after fish sauceFish sauceFish sauce is a condiment that is derived from fish that have been allowed to ferment. It is an essential ingredient in many curries and sauces. Fish sauce is a staple ingredient in numerous cultures in Southeast Asia and the coastal regions of East Asia, and features heavily in Thai and Vietnamese...
, has been chock full of cancer agents since at least 2001," thundered the Thanh NienThanh NienThanh Nien News is a Ho Chi Minh city-based newspaper in Vietnam. It is one of the most circulated newspapers in Vietnam. Thanh Nien News is released in Vietnamese and English. Thanh Nien News is an official organ of the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth League and mainly focuses on social affairs....
daily. "Why didn't anyone tell us?" The carcinogen in Asian sauces is 3-MCPD3-MCPD3-MCPD or is an organic chemical compound which is carcinogenic and highly suspected to be genotoxic in humans, has male anti-fertility effects, and is a chemical byproduct which may be formed in foods, the most commonly found member of chemical contaminants known as chloropropanols.It is...
and its metabolite 1,3-DCP, which has been an ongoing problem before 2000 affecting multiple continents.
- 2005 Indonesia food scare2005 Indonesia food scareThe 2005 Indonesia food scare was a food scare in 2005 in Jakarta, Indonesia, when the government found that 60% of noodle shops in the capital had been serving noodles laced with formaldehyde, a known carcinogen. Noodles in the 2007 Vietnam food scare also had the same contaminant, and the...
, carcinogenic formaldehyde was added as a preservative to noodles, tofu, salted fish, and meatballs.
- 2008 Chinese milk scandal2008 Chinese milk scandalThe 2008 Chinese milk scandal was a food safety incident in the People's Republic of China, involving milk and infant formula, and other food materials and components, adulterated with melamine....
.
Hair in food
There is a heavy stigma attached to the presence of hair in food in most societies. There is a risk that it may induce choking and vomiting, and also that it may be contaminated by toxic substances. Views differ as to the level of risk it poses to the inadvertent consumer.In most countries, people working in the food industry are required to cover their hair. When people are served food which contains hair in restaurants or cafés, it is usual for them to complain to the staff. Despite this, it is not a valid ground on which to sue
Lawsuit
A lawsuit or "suit in law" is a civil action brought in a court of law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendant's actions, demands a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiff's complaint...
the restaurant in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
but in the United Kingdom it breaks the regulations of the UK Food Safety Act 1990 as it has been known to cause food poisoning and people can sue over this.
There are a range of possible reasons for the objection to hair in food, ranging from cultural taboos to the simple fact that it is difficult to digest and unpleasant to eat. It may also be interpreted as a sign of more widespread problems with hygiene. The introduction of complete capture hairnets is believed to have resulted in a decrease in incidents of contamination of this type.
Sometimes protein from human hair is used as a food ingredient, in bread and other such similar products. Such use of human hair in food is forbidden in Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
. Historically in Judaism
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
, finding hair in food was a sign of bad luck.
Processing contaminants
Processing contaminants are generated during the processing of foods (e.g. heating, fermentationFermentation (food)
Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol...
). They are absent in the raw materials, and are formed by chemical reactions between natural and/or added food constituents during processing. The presence of these contaminants in processed foods cannot be entirely avoided. Technological processes can be adjusted and/or optimized, however, in order to reduce the levels of formation of processing contaminants. Examples are: nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), heterocyclic amines, histamine
Histamine
Histamine is an organic nitrogen compound involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter. Histamine triggers the inflammatory response. As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced by...
, acrylamide
Acrylamide
Acrylamide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula C3H5NO. Its IUPAC name is prop-2-enamide. It is a white odourless crystalline solid, soluble in water, ethanol, ether, and chloroform. Acrylamide is incompatible with acids, bases, oxidizing agents, iron, and iron salts...
, furan
Furan
Furan is a heterocyclic organic compound, consisting of a five-membered aromatic ring with four carbon atoms and one oxygen. The class of compounds containing such rings are also referred to as furans....
, benzene
Benzene
Benzene is an organic chemical compound. It is composed of 6 carbon atoms in a ring, with 1 hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom, with the molecular formula C6H6....
, trans fat
Trans fat
Trans fat is the common name for unsaturated fat with trans-isomer fatty acid. Because the term refers to the configuration of a double carbon-carbon bond, trans fats are sometimes monounsaturated or polyunsaturated, but never saturated....
, monochloropropanediol (MCPD), semicarbazide
Semicarbazide
In organic chemistry, semicarbazide is a derivative of urea, where NH2 on one side has been replaced with H2NNH2 hydrazine, yielding H2NNHCNH2.Semicarbazide is used as a detection reagent on thin layer chromatography...
, 4-hydroxynonenal
4-Hydroxynonenal
4-Hydroxynonenal, or 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal or 4-HNE or HNE, , is an α,β-unsaturated hydroxyalkenal which is produced by lipid peroxidation in cells...
(4-HNE), and ethyl carbamate
Ethyl carbamate
Ethyl carbamate is a chemical compound with the molecular formula C3H7NO2 first prepared in the nineteenth century. Structurally, it is an ester of carbamic acid...
. There is also the possibility of metal chips from the processing equipment contaminating food. These can be identified using metal detection equipment. In many conveyor lines, the line will be stopped, or when weighing the product with a Check weigher
Check weigher
A checkweigher is an automatic machine for checking the weight of packaged commodities.It is normally found at the offgoing end of a production process and is used to ensure that the weight of a pack of the commodity is within specified limits...
, the item can be rejected for being over- or underweight or because small pieces of metal are detected within it.
Emerging food contaminants
While many food contaminants have been known for decades, the formation and presence of certain chemicals in foods has been discovered relatively recently. These are the so-called emerging food contaminants, e.g. acrylamideAcrylamide
Acrylamide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula C3H5NO. Its IUPAC name is prop-2-enamide. It is a white odourless crystalline solid, soluble in water, ethanol, ether, and chloroform. Acrylamide is incompatible with acids, bases, oxidizing agents, iron, and iron salts...
, furan
Furan
Furan is a heterocyclic organic compound, consisting of a five-membered aromatic ring with four carbon atoms and one oxygen. The class of compounds containing such rings are also referred to as furans....
, benzene
Benzene
Benzene is an organic chemical compound. It is composed of 6 carbon atoms in a ring, with 1 hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom, with the molecular formula C6H6....
, perchlorate
Perchlorate
Perchlorates are the salts derived from perchloric acid . They occur both naturally and through manufacturing. They have been used as a medicine for more than 50 years to treat thyroid gland disorders. They are used extensively within the pyrotechnics industry, and ammonium perchlorate is also a...
, perfluorooctanoic acid
Perfluorooctanoic acid
Perfluorooctanoic acid , also known as C8 and perfluorooctanoate, is a synthetic, stable perfluorinated carboxylic acid and fluorosurfactant. One industrial application is as a surfactant in the emulsion polymerization of fluoropolymers. It has been used in the manufacture of such prominent...
(PFOA), 3-monochloropropane-1,3-diol (3-MCPD), 4-hydroxynonenal
4-Hydroxynonenal
4-Hydroxynonenal, or 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal or 4-HNE or HNE, , is an α,β-unsaturated hydroxyalkenal which is produced by lipid peroxidation in cells...
and (4-HNE).
Safety and regulation
Acceptable Daily IntakeAcceptable daily intake
Acceptable daily intake or ADI is a measure of the amount of a specific substance in food or drinking water that can be ingested on a daily basis over a lifetime without an appreciable health risk...
(ADI) levels and tolerable concentrations of contaminants in individual foods are determined on the basis of the "No Observed Adverse Effect Level" (NOAEL) in animal experiments, by using a safety factor (usually 100). The maximum concentrations of contaminants allowed by legislation are often well below toxicological tolerance levels, because such levels can often be reasonably achieved by using good agricultural and manufacturing practices.
The establishment of ADIs for certain emerging food contaminants is currently an active area of research and regulatory debate.
See also
- Food safetyFood safetyFood safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards....
- Bad Bug BookBad Bug BookThe Bad Bug Book is a public domain online publication about foodborne illnesses.It was prepared in 1992 by the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, a division of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.-External links:...
from the US Food and Drug AdministrationFood and Drug AdministrationThe Food and Drug Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments... - The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food AdditivesThe Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food AdditivesThe Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food Additives was an international report of the World Health Organization. The Expert Committee commissioned to evaluate the safety for human consumption of selected Food additives and contaminants and to establish acceptable daily intakes for these...
External links
- Office of Food Additive Safety at the US Food and Drug Administration's website
- Chemical Risks in Food from the World Health OrganizationWorld Health OrganizationThe World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...
- Briefing on GM Food Contamination
- Pesticides and Chemical Contaminants from the US Food and Drug Administration's website