Fort King George
Encyclopedia
Fort King George was a fort
located in the U.S. state
of Georgia
. The fort was built in 1721 along the Altamaha River
and served as the southernmost outpost of the British Empire in the Americas
until 1727. The fort was constructed in what was then considered part of the colony
of South Carolina
, but was territory later settled as Georgia. It was part of a defensive line intended to encourage settlement along the colony's southern frontier, from the Savannah River
to the Altamaha River. Great Britain, France, and Spain were competing to control the American Southeast, especially the Savannah-Altamaha River region.
Fort King George was a hardship for troops assigned there. A total of 140 officers and soldiers died, mostly from camp diseases such as dysentery
and malaria
, due to poor sanitation. The soldiers made up The Independent Company of South Carolina, an "invalid" company of elderly British Regulars, one hundred in all, sent over from Great Britain. Their suffering was largely caused by their own poor health, and inadequate provisions due to poor funding. Problems such as periodic river flooding, indolence, starvation, excessive alcoholism, desertion, enemy threats, and potential mutiny exacerbated hardships at the fort.
The fort was a model for General James Oglethorpe
when he set up his southern defense system for Georgia, and established settlement along the Atlamaha River. In 1736, Ogelthorpe brought Scottish
colonists to settle the site of the abandoned Fort King George. They named their village Darien
. That same year, Oglethorpe built Fort Frederica
on Saint Simons Island. Oglethorpe borrowed extensively from ideas laid out earlier when South Carolina imperialists, such as John Barnwell, Josheph Bowdler, and Francis Nicholson
, planned Fort King George as part of a defensive system.
Operated by the state of Georgia as Fort King George Historical Site, the fort has been reconstructed and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places
. It is open to the public for historical tours. Structures include a blockhouse
, officers' quarters, barracks
, a guardhouse
, baking and brewing house, blacksmith
shop, moat
, and palisades
. The park's museum focuses on the 18th-century cultural history of the area, including the Guale
, the 17th-century Spanish mission Santo Domingo de Talaje, the fort, and the Scottish colonists. An exhibit explains the 19th century sawmilling at the site, and the remains of two sawmills and ruins. Tabby cement
ruins, based on a regional building material, also can be found on the property. Site staff offers award-winning living history
programs year-round.
, and Savannah rivers, offered valuable conduits of transportation for empire building during the Age of Mercantilism
. Europeans believed they could conquer its Native American
peoples. The area's coastline had a labyrinth
of barrier island
s, mud shoals, sandbars, and impassable rivers that afforded a great natural barrier system for whoever controlled it.
Over time, this territory would become a "debatable land" for which Europe's three mightiest countries of the time: Spain, France, and Great Britain, all competed. This international rivalry brought many outcomes. First, the Spanish founded St. Augustine, Florida
in 1565 to protect their shipping lanes for treasure-laden ships sailing up from South America. As the French sought newer fur trade
markets in the South, and ultimately the Southeast, French Louisiana was expanded in the late 17th century down the Mississippi and into the Gulf region. To curb French encroachment from the west, and to undermine Spain's traditional claims to areas north of Florida, the British colonists deemed it vital to expand and defend their southern borders, especially at the Savannah River
. The resultant clash of European forces affected most of the regional Native American peoples, eventually destroying their traditional cultures and their independence.
The imperial struggle contributed in the 1720s to the establishment of Fort King George by the British, built at the headwaters of the Altamaha River, 3 miles (4.8 km) inland from Sapelo Island
. Trade was also a key aspect of founding the fort. In 2011, an old map, dated 1721 and drawn by John Barnwell
, was found in the fort's storeroom. It shows two roads from the fort: one leading north and the other along the river to a Muscogee (Creek) path, the tribe who were the desired trading partners. Spain sought to protect its rich harvest of precious metals in the Americas. France and England competed for control over the lucrative fur trade
with the Native Americans. Additional resources such as timber
, naval stores
, and cash crops were also at stake for the British.
The British built Fort King George as a step toward settling the Atlamaha River region. The British needed to control the river systems in order to control economic activities and commerce in the Southeast, especially that pertaining to the fur trade
. The Altamaha River is one of the largest and far reaching rivers in the region, and it allowed passage throughout the territory, especially to the powerful tribes of the Creek/Muskogee
found west of the river system. Fort King George was part of a plan by the British to control the Altamaha and to secure economic imperial superiority in the Southeast.
in present-day Florida in 1565. They started creating a mission
system, converting the Native American tribes and using them as workers for agricultural production. The city became a base so that the Spanish could protect their treasure ships carrying gold and silver from the South. They used missions to expand the Catholic
faith to the numerous tribes found in the Southeast. The converted Native Americans were incorporated into the Spanish system of repartimento. They used an indigenous labor force capable of growing surplus grains for needy colonists in the Spanish-American Empire
.
By the mid-17th century, dozens of Spanish missions controlled the southeastern coastline with thousands of Native Americans drawn into and around them. This system centered on missions accompanied with troops occupying presidio
s. They created four mission provinces: Tumucua (interior northern Florida), Apalachee
(northwestern Florida), Guale
(Georgia coast north of the Altamaha River), and Mocama
(from the Altamaha River south to the St. Johns River). The name Guale was possibly derived from a Native American chief of that name who was visited by Pedro Menéndez on St. Catherines Island
in 1566. In that year, Menéndez established troops on that island. Santa Catalina de Guale
would later become one of the largest and most productive missions by the mid-17th century.
Another successful mission was Santo Domingo de Talaje. Established sometime in the early 17th century, this mission was located on a large bluff 3 miles (5 km) up the north branch of the Altamaha River. Native Americans had inhabited the bluff for thousands of years. The English later used this site as the location for Fort King George in the 1720s.
Guale was threatened by the settlement of English Carolina immediately to the north, where Charlestown
was established in 1670. Through the late seventeenth century, Carolinian forces and their Indian allies were successful at destroying the Spanish mission system. Throughout the 1670s and 1680s, they attacked and destroyed missions on Saint Catherines Island, St Simons Island, Cumberland Island, and several interior missions situated close to the coast. San Joseph de Sapala on Sapelo Island was destroyed by pirates
in 1683, leading to Spanish abandonment of the Guale and Mocama
provinces. Likewise, the British and allied forces reduced the Apalachee mission province during the first decade of the 18th century. The surviving mission Indians retreated and aggregated farther south until their remnants were situated just north of the Saint Augustine base near the St. Johns River. During the 1680s, the Carolina colonists had effectively driven the Spanish entirely from the modern Georgia coast. This campaign intensified hostilities between the Spanish and the English, and catalyzed British interest in settling the Savannah-Altamaha River region.
Further west, the French were moving down the Mississippi
and into the Gulf region
. In 1699 Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
founded Biloxi
, and Mobile
, the first capital of French Louisiana
, was settled in 1702. From these bases, French fur traders planned to move eastward to incorporate regional tribes, especially the Creek
, into their business enterprise. In 1718, they built Fort Toulouse
at the forks of the Coosa
and Tallapoosa
rivers, in the heart of Creek country. This settlement, designed to take business from Carolina traders, was close to the Creek capital of Coweta
. The British perceived it as a threat to their plans to control trade networks throughout the Southeast, especially among the Creek and Cherokee
. The tribes' geographical proximity to the Carolina colony made their stability vital. The British intended to expand their trade westward to other Southeast tribes, such as the Choctaw
and Chickasaw
.
In 1702, during the War of Spanish Succession, Spain and France allied against Great Britain. South Carolinians were bordered by enemies to the south and west, which intensified the competition for Native American alliances. That year, the British colonists learned of their enemies' plan known as "Projet Sur La Caroline". Spanish Florida and French Louisiana allied forces intended to encircle South Carolina, especially with Native Americans. Officials in South Carolina convinced a large number of Yamasee
to settle in the Beaufort area just north of the Savannah River basin. Good relations with the Yamasee ensured a protective buffer along the southern borders of the colony. The British also worked to maintain relations with the Creek and Cherokee tribes to the west. "Projet Sur La Caroline," while never implemented, left the South Carolina colonists with high anxiety for many years, and convinced officials of the necessity to maintain good Indian alliances.
The Yamasee War
of 1715-1717 broke out. This war started because of grave injustices carried out by Carolina traders against their Native American clients. For many years the traders had been systematically cheating the Indians in the fur trade by using bogus weights and measures, applying tough credit standards, severely indebting Native American suppliers, and taking Indian slaves for unpaid debts. Finally, the Yamasee turned on South Carolina and nearly destroyed the colony. Virginia's support and Cherokee warriors helped deflect the Yamasee attacks.
After the surviving Yamasee were expelled, they migrated to the St. Augustine area and cultivated a new alliance with the Spanish. South Carolina was left weak and vulnerable with no military buffer along its southern fringes, and the war alienated the Creek tribes to the west.
Also, during this same period the amount of slaves in the colony was growing exponentially to the point that blacks outnumbered whites. The Spanish attempted to incite revolts by offering runaway slaves freedom and land in St. Augustine. They enrolled escaped slaves into the Spanish army.
In 1718, French colonists successfully attacked Pensacola
, a settlement controlled by Spanish Florida. By this time, Spain and France had started the War of the Quadruple Alliance
. The French success threatened Charlestown officials, who were convinced the French aimed to conquer the Southeast. They built Fort Toulouse had been built in the heart of Creek country earlier that year. The French were more active among the Creek and it appeared as though they had designs to expand further east.
Frightened and upset, the colonists finally exercised their own revolt. They rebelled against the ineffective rule of the Proprietors back in England. South Carolina, being a colony that was governed by eight proprietors from across the ocean, had suffered under proprietary rule. The economy of the colony was hampered by runaway inflation
caused by reckless economic policies and unreasonable restrictions on land ownership and trade regulation
. Of graver concern were the issues related to defense. The colonists and their officials wanted greater protection from the enemies on their borders. The Proprietors were not willing to fund greater military development. In 1719, the colonists finally had enough. That year they ousted governor Robert Johnson, a proprietary governor, and chose James Moore
, an outspoken opponent of proprietary rule, as his replacement. Secondly, they sent Carolina planter John Barnwell to petition British Parliament
that South Carolina become a Royal colony. It just so happened that Parliament had been taking a greater interest in the colony and the prospects of bringing it under royal dominion. Though the colony was having internal economic problems, overall it was one of the most productive in producing cash crops such as rice
and indigo
. Furthermore, the fur trade in the colony, creating nearly a fifth of its exports to Great Britain, was quite lucrative for merchants back in England. Finally, the Yamasee War had made many English officials realize that the preservation of South Carolina was principal in defending the British North American Empire. Without the colony and its economic activities, the empire would be significantly weakened. Therefore, the petition was granted and in August 1720, South Carolina became a royal colony
, though in name only as it would be nearly a decade later until the Proprietors were truly nullified and the colony was officially taken over by the Crown in practice. Many felt Royal control would improve defensive measures for the colony. However, things did not vastly improve, though Parliament did seem receptive to newer ideas and token measures were taken to aid the colony's defense.
Colonel John "Tuscarora Jack" Barnwell had come to South Carolina in 1699 from northern Ireland. He was a man of considerable talent and leadership skills. He gained a reputation during his successful fight against the Tuscarora
Indians in North Carolina
in 1712. He owned a large and successful plantation
in Beaufort, South Carolina
. Barnwell was influential in the colony and proposed defensive measures for it. He developed a plan that became the inspiration for Georgia. It involved building a series of forts in strategic locations along South Carolina's frontiers in order to check French and Spanish expansion. These forts would serve as launching points for towns where soldiers would receive land allotments and other furnishings to facilitate settlement. The settlements would be used to expand the colony's territory and trade with the Natives.
During his visit to Parliament in 1720, Barnwell petitioned the British Board of Trade
to help implement his plan. He emphasized the French threat as opposed to the Spanish one, since at the time the French seemed to be gaining considerable ground in the Southeast. Before the Board, Barnwell argued the strong possibility of a French attack on the colony and possible takeover of its southern borders, especially at the headwaters of the Altamaha River (called the River May by the French). To secure this area from French encroachment, his first proposal was for a fort to be built along the Altamaha River. The British Board of Trade approved of his plan in building this fort.
Due to the South Sea Bubble financial crisis, the British economy was in shambles. The government had minimal funds to spare and it showed in how Fort King George was operated, resourced, and funded. Barnwell requested "young, robust" soldiers to man the fort. He realized that the environment along the Altamaha would be a tough one. A long seasoning process was inevitable for the settler
s and it would take time for them to adapt and properly outfit the settlement. Instead, the British sent elderly "invalids" from Colonel Felding's 41st Regiment
. This Independent Company, thereafter known as His Majesty's Independent Company of Foot of South Carolina, was composed of three sergeant
s, three corporal
s, two drummers, and one hundred privates
, all older men well past their prime. Governor Francis Nicholson of South Carolina was commissioned Captain of the Independent Company with Barnwell later being named Colonel
. Initial officers included Lt. Joseph Lambert, Lt. John Emmenes, Ensigns Thomas Merryman and John Bowdler, Robert Mason as surgeon, with Thomas Hesketh as Chaplain. Most of the soldiers and officers, including Barnwell, perished at the fort by 1727.
With the land allotments, tools, and farming implements, the soldiers were expected to establish a new settlement around the fort. This was the first British attempt to populate the Altamaha River region. It planned to have other settlers follow to the fort. Fort King George was highly significant in that it represented the culmination of a nearly 200-year European struggle to control the Southeast. By constructing the fort, the British dominated the river and its surrounding territory. It started a diplomatic feud with the Spanish, eventually leading to war between the two nations. The feud ended with the British success at the Battle of Bloody Marsh
on St. Simons Island in 1742, several years after the fort had been abandoned. Though the fort was considered a failure in the near term, it ultimately contributed to Georgia's establishment and early success.
on the voyage over to South Carolina. Immediately upon landing the following March, the soldiers were placed in a hospital in Port Royal, South Carolina
, where they would spend time recovering throughout the remainder of that year.
Left with no troops, Colonel Barnwell's only option was to enlist Coastal Scouts and civilians to help him construct the fort. Coastal Scouts were hardened seamen whose organization dated all the way back to the early 18th century in South Carolina. They were formed to establish some semblance of a navy
for the colony. Their role was akin to marines, to patrol the waterways in scout boats up and down the coast between Beaufort and St. Augustine, and engage the enemy from their boats if necessary. They were also charged with the task of provisioning outlying forts on the frontier. Many scouts may have been former pirates as South Carolina was a den for many in the 1680s and 1690s when the colony started cracking down on piracy, arresting pirates, and then offering them clemency in exchange for their oath to the King and services in the colony. Though they may have been good seamen, they were hardly good at following directions on land. Barnwell complained bitterly in his journal about all his troubles with them. He referred to them as "Continually (sic) sotting" and described them as "a wild Idle (sic) people" who were highly disobedient. In one incident, during a bout of drunkenness, one prankster scout actually picked Barnwell up and heaved him over his shoulder pretending to carry Barnwell to his boat. Instead, he dropped the colonel in the water, forcing Barnwell to lie all night in wet clothes on his boat, something Barnwell later attributed to a sickness he soon contracted. Barnwell, ill tempered, no doubt got his revenge somehow, but the incident goes to show there was little formal discipline in the wild frontiers of South Carolina. Barnwell needed the scouts to get the fort underway, and they were noted for being highly prone toward dissension and possible mutiny
. Given the proximity to St. Augustine and the likeliness of desertion
Barnwell, no doubt, had to be quite a bit more tolerant than most Colonels dealing with troops on the front lines of Europe.
Though their relationship was rough, Barnwell did manage to gain some progress during construction of the fort that summer in 1721. The fort's blockhouse was completed by the fall. The men had to go 3 miles (5 km) up-river to find adequate cypress trees to cut for the blockhouse's framework and siding. They nearly mutinied so Barnwell had to offer extra pay, and probably extra rum rations, to provide incentives for the men to go back out to cut more trees. Also, in addition to these accomplishments, Barnwell managed to sound out much of the river and charted a route down coast to St. Simons Island. He was impressed with the obvious logistical
advantage of this island and decided to propose moving the fort there. He was repeatedly denied by the legislature due to cost prohibitions.
By early 1722, the Independent Company was stationed at Fort King George. Within a year nearly half of them had died, mostly from diseases such as dysentery and malaria. The fort's officers periodically intimated in letters that the men were not well motivated. They had difficulty getting the men to tend to their lots, to build fences in order to entrap roaming cattle
supplied for the troops, and to grow crops. A lack of development made life even more miserable. A few soldiers deserted to St. Augustine. Still, others stayed though death from the elements was nearly a certainty. By later that year the fort's guardhouse was being called a hospital for "treating the sick".
Some excitement did occur periodically. In 1722 Indian agent
Theophilus Hastings reported to the legislature
that 170 Yamasee Indians were prepared to attack Fort King George. It seems, he indicated, that the Spanish "were playing their old game". Apparently, it was presumed that the Spanish were inciting the attack to test the fort's defensibility. Unfortunately, the records do not indicate whether or not the attack actually happened, however, if it did the fort must have survived unabated.
Later on that year, some unexpected visitors arrived at the fort. A company of "Switzers", Swiss soldiers
, had deserted a settlement on the Mississippi River and had made their way to Fort King George where they sought asylum. Switzers were under the employ of the French government in their colony of Louisiana. These men were charged with the toilsome duty of digging canal
s and were often overworked and mistreated. This was probably the reason for their desertion. It also indicates that the French were quite aware of Britain's occupation at the mouth of the Altamaha and were apparently discussing it openly among all Louisiana settlers. Interestingly, even though Carolina officials were having a hard time getting much-needed recruits at the fort, to replace the dying soldiers, they did not let all the Switzers stay there. Instead, they allowed them to "disperse themselves into the colony as they pleased". However, they did request that any skilled Switzers, up to six total, stay behind to assist with construction. One of them obviously was a skilled artist and penned one of the fort's most descriptive drawings entitled, "A Plan of Fort King George at Allatamaha South Carolina". The drawing clearly displays intentions for the fort to be a triangular shaped structure with only one bastion jutting out on the northwestern side, the only direction in which the fort could most likely be attacked by land. The eastern and southern sides of the fort were fully protected by natural wetlands thus making a land assault from those directions impossible. Also, the fort was designed to include a barracks, ninety feet long and fourteen feet wide, a guardhouse, an officers’ quarters, several indigenous huts, a very impressive parapet, a house of office (privy), and a dock for the scout boat, in addition to the blockhouse discussed previously.>.
The Spanish had been protesting the British occupation of the Altamaha ever since Fort King George was first built. In 1724, some Spanish envoys came to address grievances over the construction of the fort. However, they were not allowed to enter Fort King George because the Governor and commanders were worried that if they were to enter and inspect, the fort's security could be compromised. As such, the envoys were diverted to Charlestown where they had to express their grievances. Though Governor Francis Nicholson welcomed them and treated them graciously, he did not accept their arguments and maintained the right of the British to settle the Altamaha River region. The Spanish were infuriated and over the next several years an intense game of diplomatic jousting ensued.
More drawings of the fort indicate that the fort was developing even though hardships seemed abundant. A 1726 drawing reveals the fort was fortified with a parapet
that, in critical places, consisted of firing steps, a firing wall held against a breastwork
made of earth, a palisade
fence, and a moat
. Fronting the river to the south, the fort was protected from naval assault by nine cannon
emplacements. Each emplacement had a six-pounder cannon mounted on it. Also, several swivel gun
s were positioned throughout the fort, primarily around the gates. Most important, the fort was positioned on the closed end of a horseshoe-shaped bend in the river. Typical of the time period, this positioning prevented passing enemy ships a convenient firing of broadside
s on the fort. Instead, all ships would have to approach the fort bow (nose) first, thus making it harder for enemy sailors to position the boat sideways so as to fire through cannon ports at the fort. The fort was by all appearances a standard "pallisado" fort very typical of the type built on frontiers during the time period. They were primarily designed to be temporary until something more substantial could be built. Such forts, made from earthen materials and indigenous wood, were very practical for frontier defense as the materials were relatively easy to gather and transport to site. Also, these fortifications could easily be repaired if damaged, as materials were relatively available and indigenous to the area.
In 1724, Colonel Barnwell died at his plantation in Beaufort due to failing health, probably brought on by hardships during his tenure at the fort. Earlier, he had been declared to be Governor
of the territory in addition to being the fort's commander. Though his dreams of seeing South Carolina bounded by a barrier of defensive settlements had been initiated, by the time of his death the reality of its successful fruition seemed bleak. Though dead, his legacy lived on later through General James Oglethorpe
who borrowed heavily from Colonel Barnwell's ideas.
In late 1725 or early 1726, the fort burned under mysterious circumstances. It was suggested by the fort's reporting officer, Capt. Edward Massey, that the men stationed there may have been responsible for it, or at least, they did not rush to put the fires out "in hopes by the destruction of the Fort (sic) they should be delivered from the Miseries (sic) they had so long suffered." The soldiers probably desperately wanted to go back home or anywhere but Fort King George, three days away from Beaufort. If this was the case, their wishes did not come true. The fort was ordered rebuilt, this time with inferior cypress
deal planking. Life did not improve.
Finally, in 1727, British Parliament ordered that Fort King George be abandoned and that the Independent Company be moved to Port Royal, South Carolina. In all, one hundred and forty soldiers and officers lost their lives at the fort, probably mostly from the diseases. The fort's officer, Lt. Emmenes, writing the justification of the fort's evacuation, sited the unwholesome climate and the ineffectiveness of the fort's location. He stated that the fort would be no more useful to the safety of the colony if it had been "placed in Japan." Writing with a clear hint of indignation, Massey complained about the poor provisions and indicated grave concern that the men may mutiny if "they have no hopes of being relieved." Also, the fort was prone to periodic flooding which worsened conditions. Yamasee Indian raids were still occurring along the southern borders thus illustrating the failure of Fort King George's intent to secure the southern border.
Six years after its establishment the fort was abandoned with two lookouts left behind. South Carolina colonists and officials were gravely disappointed and even more so alarmed by the diplomatic sensitivities it had flared. Until Georgia
was settled, expansionists were determined to re-establish some settlement on the Altamaha. By 1730, the issue of southern border defense had become an even more vexing and contentious one. Around this time, Governor Robert Johnson ordered that several towns be settled along the Altamaha in order to maintain Britain's claim to the area. Also, the South Carolina legislature relayed desires to have another fort or settlement built along the Altamaha. However, these measures never came to fruition. The demise of Fort King George once again brought an increase in anxieties over South Carolina's security.
Though the outlook may have seemed disappointing, there were a few silver linings. Fort King George actually did serve the colony well, not for its effectiveness, because it was largely ineffective, but for what it taught British imperialists. First, the hardships suffered by the Company of "Invalids" at Fort King George taught imperialists the necessity of peopling the Altamaha with a young, tough, and hardy people. It was a harsh, dangerous environment that could not be tamed by the weak-of-heart or faint-in-design. Settlers there would have to be able to withstand a harsh seasoning period. Also, being so far removed from civilization
, Altamaha settlers would have to be thrifty, self reliant, and industrious. Furthermore, these people would need incentives to develop a strong settlement and establish industry. Secondly, diplomatic entanglements with the Spanish over Fort King George shifted much focus away from the French and problems of western defense, and more toward defenses on the southern frontier. As such, there was a greater focus on protecting the colony with fortresses and settlements along the coastal area, especially the barrier islands and their surrounding inlet
s. This is why General Oglethorpe later borrowed from Barnwell's idea for a fort to be built on St. Simons Island, where Fort Frederica, Oglethorpe's military base, was constructed in 1736.
Additionally, he added forts and settlements near Skidaway Island, near the mouth of the Ogeechee River, near the headwaters of the Altamaha, on Cumberland Island, and on Amelia Island. This coastal defense system was instrumental in the eventual successful defense of Georgia under Spanish attack in the 1740s. As such, the struggles and failures of Fort King George showed future empire builders a better way of defense, thus lending much credit to them for heeding the old adage
, "those who do not learn from history are destined to repeat it." Oglethorpe and his fellow Georgians did not repeat the mistakes made in the handling of Fort King George, though they did largely stick to a similar plan of defense. However, the plan was implemented with a much more effective, well-planned, and well-supported strategy.
, but it would be after Georgia's founding, and it was positioned north of the Savannah River rather than south of it. However, though the project did fail, it was successful in drawing greater attention throughout England to the area, and proved especially enticing to English philanthropists
looking to provide some sort of refuge for poor debtors.
This issue of defense coincided with a period of intense philanthropy in England. Certain members of Parliament and society aimed to improve the conditions of prisons in the country. One such gentleman, Sir James Edward Oglethorpe, while in Parliament, served on a committee
to investigate conditions at prisons in the country. What he and his committee uncovered were horrific conditions. Many prisoners were released as a result, but left with no employment and bereft of any livelihood. Oglethorpe was also interested in colonization and in defending Great Britain's vast holdings in North America.
From these two interests, the idea of Georgia was spawned. Once a group of Trustee
s was formed, they decided to use debtor-prisoners to people the colony of Georgia, which was to be nestled in the Savannah-Altamaha River region, formerly known as the Margravate of Azilla, based upon a previously failed settlement scheme in 1717. This would allow them to escape the misfortune of Britain's harsh penal
code and poverty, and to start over in a new land while simultaneously serving a valuable function for the British Crown
. However, by the time recruitment efforts were complete, and the ships were loaded for the voyage to Georgia, not a single colonists was in debt. In fact, most were middle class artisan
s and craftsmen
whose interests in starting life new abroad was so great, the earlier plan for a debtors’ colony ended up being quite changed. Nevertheless, the colony was to be established as a haven for citizen-soldiers whose primary purpose was in defending the empire, while simultaneously contributing to her mercantilist economy as well with the production of cash crops, timber, furs, and naval stores. Lawyers were forbidden, for obvious reasons, as were [slavery|slaves], for security reasons.
The colony had many early growing pains that included a harsh seasoning period when many settlers died, struggles over whether to admit slaves, conflicts with South Carolina over fur trading rights, and disputes over everything from legalization of rum consumption to land rights. Still, Oglethorpe was quite adept at using his Native American neighbors to facilitate the colony's initial success. He was also quite savvy at using previous history as a guide. Oglethorpe knew he had to establish a successful settlement on the Altamaha and the surrounding areas. In 1735 he had Captain George Dunbar visit the ruins of Fort King George. Though his report on the site is vague (it only talks about surveyor lines being laid out, probably done so by the soldiers earlier at Fort King George), Oglethorpe's later actions demonstrate his unhappiness with the site. Oglethorpe ordered the Highlanders to land at "Barnwell's Bluff", but later moved the settlement about 1 miles (2 km) farther up-river, probably due to the periodic flooding of the bluff and its proximity to the marsh, something attributable to malarial outbreaks in this time period Also, though it is not stated in records, it stands to reason that Oglethorpe was familiar with the earlier hardships endured at Fort King George. He may even have read Barnwell's journal and other records indicating the difficulties of settling the site on the Altamaha. The intense climate and harsh natural surroundings along the Altamaha, coupled with history, compelled Oglethorpe to seek a resilient group of people to settle the area. Also, he knew he had to use good logistics in how he established his fortification system along this vast stretch of coast, and that the Altamaha settlement would be a crucial cornerstone of his system.
The Georgia coast was as geologically
unique in the early 18th century as it is to this day. Approximately one-third of the all marsh
lands found on the east coast lie in coastal Georgia
, which dips away from the continental shelf considerably farther than any other section of eastern North America. This produces a funnel effect that causes Georgia's coastline to endure a greater concentration of tidal waters
. The results are excessive fluctuations in tides, sometimes as high as 10 to 12 feet. Over years, this dramatic tidal shift has produced dynamic currents that have created a labyrinth of rivers, inlets, shoals, sounds, and sandbars contained behind ever-changing barrier islands. From a military perspective, due to its geographical
complexity, the Georgia coast is the ideal place to build a defensive system.
In part due to this, Oglethorpe chose to use the barrier islands to his advantage for his defenses south of the Altamaha. Fort Frederica was placed on the inside [intercoastal waterway|intercoastal] side of St. Simons Island. On the south end of the Island he also placed Fort St. Simons and Delegal's Fort. With these forts and the others positioned among the barrier islands, the main focus was to keep enemies out of the Altamaha river system. In an era long before highways, interstates, planes, or even adequate trails, controlling a river system was tantamount to controlling all the lands adjacent to it, and the region surrounding it. The Altamaha River bordered vast swamp
s full of valuable resources such as timber and precious pine sap for naval stores. Furthermore, it was a fine artery of travel far into the colony thus facilitating trade with distant Native American tribes.
This is exactly why Oglethorpe was very careful in the people he chose to settle and defend the Altamaha. Oglethorpe's military experience and training had taught him that Scottish Highlanders were among the toughest people in the world. For generations they had forged a livelihood out of the mountainous ranges of the Highlands
with its rocky, stubborn soils, and cruel weather patterns. The Scots had been united with the English into the United Kingdom since the Act of Union in 1707 however it was hardly a relationship of equals. Scottish people over many centuries had endured many abuses from the English. When they weren't being exploited at home, Scottish troops were often hired mercenaries used to fight British wars abroad. With their broadsword
s, targe
s , and their dirk
s, they were the finest hand-to-hand combatants
in the world. Though clan
nish, often insular, and politically unstable at home, the Scots were a force to be reckoned with on the battlefield, a perfect ingredient for frontier defense in the wildernesses along the Georgia coast where conventional warfare was not going to be the norm.
Thus, in late 1735 Oglethorpe sent Captain Dunbar and Lt. Hugh MacKay to the Highlands of Scotland to recruit potential settlers for Georgia's Altamaha frontier settlement. Many Scots were eager to come. Home life was rough due to English oppression and a feudal system
that tied many Scottish families to small unproductive lands with limited opportunities; But North America offered plenty of hope. To lure them, the Trustees offered each family 50 acres (202,343 m²) allotments, something most Scotsmen never even dreamed of owning in their homeland. Also, recruiter
s told the Scots each man would be armed with a firelock
, a broadsword, and an axe. Recently, the English had passed laws disarming the Scots and making it unlawful for them to bear their traditional weapons. They were also to be given cattle, farming implements, and seed for crops. 177 Scots boarded the Prince of Wales in November 1735, en route to their new home in Georgia. Of these, most came from the Inverness
area, and were a part of the Chattan Confederation
. They consisted of McIntoshes, McDonalds, MacBeans, MacKays, Frasers, Forbes, Clarks, Baillies, Cameron, and a host of other traditional Highland clan names. They disembarked at Savannah in early January 1736, and a short time later made their way to the new settlement on the Altamaha. Their settlement began at "Barnwell's Bluff", near the old ruins of Fort King George. Oglethorpe visited the site the following February and was informed that the Scots had chosen to name their town Darien
. This was to honor the previous Scottish settlement of Darien
that had occurred earlier on the Isthmus of Panama in 1695, only to be subsequently destroyed by the Spanish. On his visit, Oglethorpe dressed in the traditional Highland kilt
to show his respect for the Scots. As an additional show of respect, he refused comfortable sleeping quarters and preferred to sleep with the Highlander men out under a large Oak tree
. One other issue probably addressed by Oglethorpe at this time was related to the place of settlement. He clearly must not have liked Lower Bluff where old Fort King George once was and at some point he ordered the Scots to move their town farther up the bluff (the modern-day site of the Darien bridge).
By the end of 1736, the Scots had moved their town and it began to thrive. Though there were definitely hardships along the way, the Scots of Darien went on to be Georgia's most useful settlers. In the ensuing years they were integral in establishing a timber industry in Georgia as thousands of feet of lumber were shipped down the Altamaha River and processed at sawmill
s in Darien. Also, key Scottish figures in Georgia were instrumental in establishing better trade relations with the Creek Native Americans. There were numerous other commercial and social contributions given by the Scots at Darien. However, their most crucial role was that of a military nature. When the Spanish invaded Georgia out of Florida in July 1742, it was the Scots of Darien who were instrumental in defeating the Spanish at the Battle of Bloody Marsh on St. Simons Island, July 7, 1742. This successful battle helped bring to an end the struggle for empire in the Southeast and worked to cement Great Britain's hold on the area, as the Spanish never again really posed a serious threat to Georgia.
Over the next many generations, the Scots of Darien branched out into other frontiers of North America. Today, many families of Scottish ancestry owe their existence in the United States to those Scots who came to Darien, Georgia, a major gateway of Scottish settlement in the colonial era.
All these developments were made possible through the idea and existence of Fort King George. It served in some way as a blueprint toward the successful defense of Georgia, and consequently, inspired an economy and commerce that lent itself tremendously toward the colony's early success. Much of the colony's early structures were built out of cypress
and yellow pine
cut from swamps along the Altamaha River. This industry in timber became a staple element of Georgia's economy throughout the colonial period and on into the 20th century. It is rather ironic though that Fort King George had to fail in order for Georgia to succeed. It was the lessons wrought from experiences at the frontier fort that helped guide Oglethorpe in his defensive efforts of the colony. Also, had Fort King George succeeded, the colony of South Carolina would have been expanded to the Altamaha River and South Carolina would have progressed from there, leaving little reason or justification for the colony of Georgia. Of even greater import are the lessons Fort King George taught about the type of settlers necessary on the Georgia frontier. When Oglethorpe and the Trustees developed plans for the colony, they envisaged a colony of citizen-soldiers whose dual roles of defense and development would achieve success. Though they did serve as soldiers, it was the early colonists’ role as citizens that counted most toward the growth of the colony's commerce and economy. Families, as opposed to soldiers alone, proved more likely to develop a devout personal interest in defending their new home, especially as the economy developed and homesteads were established. Finally, the town of Darien owes its origins to Fort King George. The site is where the town and its sawmilling tradition began. Without Fort King George in the 1720s, the history of Darien may have been altogether different, or perhaps even non-existent.
Sometime in the 1930s, Darien's local historian Bessie Lewis, then a history teacher, read Crane's monumental work. She made many trips to Charleston to study British Public Records
for information about the former Fort King George. Lewis, or "Miss Bessie", as the locals fondly called her, discovered extensive material about the fort, including vital written records, descriptions, account ledgers, and several drawings with geographical details. This guided her in trying to locate the original site of the fort. Archeological excavations conducted later helped substantiate her claims. During the first excavations on the site in the 1940s, more than one dozen soldiers' graves were uncovered.
Miss Bessie and other locals organized the Fort King George Association, and worked to have the site developed for a state historic site
. In 1949, the state acquired the fort site from the Sea Island Company, a development organization. The Association envisioned a site with a museum
and re-constructed replica of Fort King George, but little development took place. In the 1950s, the state installed a monument
and headstones in the soldiers’ cemetery, and a few picnic tables. The Association continued to lobby for reconstruction of the fort.
In the late 1960s, the Georgia Historical Commission
acquired the site. Money was allotted for building a museum in 1967, and Fort King George Historic Site became a reality. In 1972, the site was taken over by the Department of Natural Resources, Parks, Recreation, and Historic Sites Division. In 1987, the site manager Ken Akins and the Lower Altamaha Historical Society teamed up in a drive to raise money to re-construct the fort's blockhouse. With a matching fund from the DNR
, the fort's reconstructed blockhouse was completed and dedicated in fall 1988. It was the center of the site's activities and programs until development in the late 1990s.
Georgia State Senator Renee Kemp, from 1999 to 2002, helped gain several hundred thousand dollars in capital investment for the site to reconstruct the fort's enlisted soldiers’ barracks, guardhouse, and officers’ quarters. Site staff re-constructed the fort's firing walls and firing steps. Over the years, site staff has added various other features. In 2004, with the installation of the fort's front and back gates, the fort was officially declared to be entirely re-constructed, something Miss Bessie had dreamed of more than five decades earlier but not lived to see.
Fort King George Historic Site has become one of Georgia's premier tourist attractions, with more than 30,000 visitors annually. Site personnel provide a wide range of award-winning living history programs dealing with Colonial Life and Military Science
. The site offers special living history programs for groups with fifteen or more persons and special discount rates for such groups.
Fortification
Fortifications are military constructions and buildings designed for defence in warfare and military bases. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs...
located in the U.S. state
U.S. state
A U.S. state is any one of the 50 federated states of the United States of America that share sovereignty with the federal government. Because of this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of domicile. Four states use the official title of...
of Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
. The fort was built in 1721 along the Altamaha River
Altamaha River
The Altamaha River is a major river of the American state of Georgia. It flows generally eastward for 137 miles from its origin at the confluence of the Oconee River and Ocmulgee River towards the Atlantic Ocean, where it empties into the ocean near Brunswick, Georgia. There are no dams...
and served as the southernmost outpost of the British Empire in the Americas
British colonization of the Americas
British colonization of the Americas began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout the Americas...
until 1727. The fort was constructed in what was then considered part of the colony
Colony
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception....
of South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
, but was territory later settled as Georgia. It was part of a defensive line intended to encourage settlement along the colony's southern frontier, from the Savannah River
Savannah River
The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the northernmost part of the border...
to the Altamaha River. Great Britain, France, and Spain were competing to control the American Southeast, especially the Savannah-Altamaha River region.
Fort King George was a hardship for troops assigned there. A total of 140 officers and soldiers died, mostly from camp diseases such as dysentery
Dysentery
Dysentery is an inflammatory disorder of the intestine, especially of the colon, that results in severe diarrhea containing mucus and/or blood in the faeces with fever and abdominal pain. If left untreated, dysentery can be fatal.There are differences between dysentery and normal bloody diarrhoea...
and malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
, due to poor sanitation. The soldiers made up The Independent Company of South Carolina, an "invalid" company of elderly British Regulars, one hundred in all, sent over from Great Britain. Their suffering was largely caused by their own poor health, and inadequate provisions due to poor funding. Problems such as periodic river flooding, indolence, starvation, excessive alcoholism, desertion, enemy threats, and potential mutiny exacerbated hardships at the fort.
The fort was a model for General James Oglethorpe
James Oglethorpe
James Edward Oglethorpe was a British general, member of Parliament, philanthropist, and founder of the colony of Georgia...
when he set up his southern defense system for Georgia, and established settlement along the Atlamaha River. In 1736, Ogelthorpe brought Scottish
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
colonists to settle the site of the abandoned Fort King George. They named their village Darien
Darien, Georgia
Darien is a city in McIntosh County, Georgia, United States. It lies on Georgia's coast at the mouth of the Altamaha River about 50 miles south of Savannah, and is part of the Brunswick, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population of Darien was 1,719 at the 2000 census. The city is the...
. That same year, Oglethorpe built Fort Frederica
Fort Frederica National Monument
Fort Frederica National Monument, on St. Simons Island, Georgia, preserves the archaeological remnants of a fort and town built by James Oglethorpe between 1736 and 1748 to protect the southern boundary of the British colony of Georgia from Spanish raids. About 630 British troops were stationed at...
on Saint Simons Island. Oglethorpe borrowed extensively from ideas laid out earlier when South Carolina imperialists, such as John Barnwell, Josheph Bowdler, and Francis Nicholson
Francis Nicholson
Francis Nicholson was a British military officer and colonial administrator. His military service included time in Africa and Europe, after which he was sent as leader of the troops supporting Sir Edmund Andros in the Dominion of New England. There he distinguished himself, and was appointed...
, planned Fort King George as part of a defensive system.
Operated by the state of Georgia as Fort King George Historical Site, the fort has been reconstructed and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation...
. It is open to the public for historical tours. Structures include a blockhouse
Blockhouse
In military science, a blockhouse is a small, isolated fort in the form of a single building. It serves as a defensive strong point against any enemy that does not possess siege equipment or, in modern times, artillery...
, officers' quarters, barracks
Barracks
Barracks are specialised buildings for permanent military accommodation; the word may apply to separate housing blocks or to complete complexes. Their main object is to separate soldiers from the civilian population and reinforce discipline, training and esprit de corps. They were sometimes called...
, a guardhouse
Guardhouse
A guardhouse is a building used to house personnel and security equipment...
, baking and brewing house, blacksmith
Blacksmith
A blacksmith is a person who creates objects from wrought iron or steel by forging the metal; that is, by using tools to hammer, bend, and cut...
shop, moat
Moat
A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that surrounds a castle, other building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places moats evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams and sluices...
, and palisades
Palisades
A palisade is a steel or wooden fence or wall of variable height, usually used as a defensive structure.Palisade or Palisades also may refer to:-Geology:United States...
. The park's museum focuses on the 18th-century cultural history of the area, including the Guale
Guale
Guale was an historic Native American chiefdom along the coast of present-day Georgia and the Sea Islands. Spanish Florida established its Roman Catholic missionary system in the chiefdom in the late 16th century. During the late 17th century and early 18th century, Guale society was shattered...
, the 17th-century Spanish mission Santo Domingo de Talaje, the fort, and the Scottish colonists. An exhibit explains the 19th century sawmilling at the site, and the remains of two sawmills and ruins. Tabby cement
Tabby (cement)
Tabby is a building material consisting of lime, sand, water, and crushed oyster shells. It was developed and used by English colonists in Beaufort County and on the Sea Islands of coastal South Carolina, in coastal Georgia, and in northern Florida in the Southern United States...
ruins, based on a regional building material, also can be found on the property. Site staff offers award-winning living history
Living history
Living history is an activity that incorporates historical tools, activities and dress into an interactive presentation that seeks to give observers and participants a sense of stepping back in time. Although it does not necessarily seek to reenact a specific event in history, living history is...
programs year-round.
Background information
For nearly 200 years before the establishment of Georgia in 1733, Europeans of various nations had struggled to claim footholds in this vast territory. At one time, it was one of the most coveted regions in all of North America. Its bountiful river systems, the Atlamaha, OgeecheeOgeechee River
Ogeechee River is a river in the U.S. state of Georgia. It heads at the confluence of its North and South Forks, about south-southwest of Crawfordville and flowing generally southeast to Ossabaw Sound about south of Savannah. Its largest tributary is the Canoochee River...
, and Savannah rivers, offered valuable conduits of transportation for empire building during the Age of Mercantilism
Mercantilism
Mercantilism is the economic doctrine in which government control of foreign trade is of paramount importance for ensuring the prosperity and security of the state. In particular, it demands a positive balance of trade. Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from...
. Europeans believed they could conquer its Native American
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
peoples. The area's coastline had a labyrinth
Labyrinth
In Greek mythology, the Labyrinth was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at Knossos...
of barrier island
Barrier island
Barrier islands, a coastal landform and a type of barrier system, are relatively narrow strips of sand that parallel the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen...
s, mud shoals, sandbars, and impassable rivers that afforded a great natural barrier system for whoever controlled it.
Over time, this territory would become a "debatable land" for which Europe's three mightiest countries of the time: Spain, France, and Great Britain, all competed. This international rivalry brought many outcomes. First, the Spanish founded St. Augustine, Florida
St. Augustine, Florida
St. Augustine is a city in the northeast section of Florida and the county seat of St. Johns County, Florida, United States. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorer and admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, it is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city and port in the continental United...
in 1565 to protect their shipping lanes for treasure-laden ships sailing up from South America. As the French sought newer fur trade
Fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of world market for in the early modern period furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most valued...
markets in the South, and ultimately the Southeast, French Louisiana was expanded in the late 17th century down the Mississippi and into the Gulf region. To curb French encroachment from the west, and to undermine Spain's traditional claims to areas north of Florida, the British colonists deemed it vital to expand and defend their southern borders, especially at the Savannah River
Savannah River
The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the northernmost part of the border...
. The resultant clash of European forces affected most of the regional Native American peoples, eventually destroying their traditional cultures and their independence.
The imperial struggle contributed in the 1720s to the establishment of Fort King George by the British, built at the headwaters of the Altamaha River, 3 miles (4.8 km) inland from Sapelo Island
Sapelo Island
Sapelo Island is a state-protected island located in McIntosh County, Georgia. The island is reachable only by airplane or boat, with the primary ferry coming from the Sapelo Island Visitors Center in McIntosh County, Georgia, a seven mile , twenty-minute trip.Approximately 97 percent of the...
. Trade was also a key aspect of founding the fort. In 2011, an old map, dated 1721 and drawn by John Barnwell
John Barnwell
John Barnwell is an English former football player and manager. He was until recently the chief executive of the League Managers Association....
, was found in the fort's storeroom. It shows two roads from the fort: one leading north and the other along the river to a Muscogee (Creek) path, the tribe who were the desired trading partners. Spain sought to protect its rich harvest of precious metals in the Americas. France and England competed for control over the lucrative fur trade
Fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of world market for in the early modern period furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most valued...
with the Native Americans. Additional resources such as timber
Timber
Timber may refer to:* Timber, a term common in the United Kingdom and Australia for wood materials * Timber, Oregon, an unincorporated community in the U.S...
, naval stores
Naval stores
Naval Stores is a broad term which originally applied to the resin-based components used in building and maintaining wooden sailing ships, a category which includes cordage, mask, turpentine, rosin, pitch and tar...
, and cash crops were also at stake for the British.
The British built Fort King George as a step toward settling the Atlamaha River region. The British needed to control the river systems in order to control economic activities and commerce in the Southeast, especially that pertaining to the fur trade
Fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of world market for in the early modern period furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most valued...
. The Altamaha River is one of the largest and far reaching rivers in the region, and it allowed passage throughout the territory, especially to the powerful tribes of the Creek/Muskogee
Creek people
The Muscogee , also known as the Creek or Creeks, are a Native American people traditionally from the southeastern United States. Mvskoke is their name in traditional spelling. The modern Muscogee live primarily in Oklahoma, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida...
found west of the river system. Fort King George was part of a plan by the British to control the Altamaha and to secure economic imperial superiority in the Southeast.
Contest for empire in the Southeast
The Spanish were the first to arrive in the Southeast, first with explorers, then with the settlement of St. AugustineSt. Augustine, Florida
St. Augustine is a city in the northeast section of Florida and the county seat of St. Johns County, Florida, United States. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorer and admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, it is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city and port in the continental United...
in present-day Florida in 1565. They started creating a mission
Mission
Mission may refer to:* Mission , variety of grape* Mission , base of missionary practice* Mission statement, a formal short written statement of an organization's value proposition...
system, converting the Native American tribes and using them as workers for agricultural production. The city became a base so that the Spanish could protect their treasure ships carrying gold and silver from the South. They used missions to expand the Catholic
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
faith to the numerous tribes found in the Southeast. The converted Native Americans were incorporated into the Spanish system of repartimento. They used an indigenous labor force capable of growing surplus grains for needy colonists in the Spanish-American Empire
Hispanic America
Hispanic America or Spanish America is the region comprising the American countries inhabited by Spanish-speaking populations.These countries have significant commonalities with each other and with Spain, whose colonies they formerly were...
.
By the mid-17th century, dozens of Spanish missions controlled the southeastern coastline with thousands of Native Americans drawn into and around them. This system centered on missions accompanied with troops occupying presidio
Presidio
A presidio is a fortified base established by the Spanish in North America between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. The fortresses were built to protect against pirates, hostile native Americans and enemy colonists. Other presidios were held by Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth...
s. They created four mission provinces: Tumucua (interior northern Florida), Apalachee
Apalachee
The Apalachee are a Native American people who historically lived in the Florida Panhandle, and now live primarily in the U.S. state of Louisiana. Their historical territory was known to the Spanish colonists as the Apalachee Province...
(northwestern Florida), Guale
Guale
Guale was an historic Native American chiefdom along the coast of present-day Georgia and the Sea Islands. Spanish Florida established its Roman Catholic missionary system in the chiefdom in the late 16th century. During the late 17th century and early 18th century, Guale society was shattered...
(Georgia coast north of the Altamaha River), and Mocama
Mocama
The Mocama were a Native American people who lived in the coastal areas of what are now northern Florida and southeastern Georgia. A Timucua group, they spoke the dialect known as Mocama, the best-attested dialect of the Timucua language. Their territory extended from about the Altamaha River in...
(from the Altamaha River south to the St. Johns River). The name Guale was possibly derived from a Native American chief of that name who was visited by Pedro Menéndez on St. Catherines Island
St. Catherines Island
St. Catherines Island, also known as Santa Catalina, is one of the Sea Islands or Golden Isles on the coast of the U.S. state of Georgia, 50 miles south of Savannah in Liberty County. The island is ten miles long and from one to three miles wide, located between St. Catherine's Sound and Sapelo...
in 1566. In that year, Menéndez established troops on that island. Santa Catalina de Guale
Santa Catalina de Guale
Santa Catalina de Guale was a Spanish Franciscan mission and town in Spanish Florida. Part of Spain's effort to convert the Native Americans to Catholicism, Santa Catalina served as the provincial headquarters of the Guale mission province. It also served various non-religious functions, such as...
would later become one of the largest and most productive missions by the mid-17th century.
Another successful mission was Santo Domingo de Talaje. Established sometime in the early 17th century, this mission was located on a large bluff 3 miles (5 km) up the north branch of the Altamaha River. Native Americans had inhabited the bluff for thousands of years. The English later used this site as the location for Fort King George in the 1720s.
Guale was threatened by the settlement of English Carolina immediately to the north, where Charlestown
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the second largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina. It was made the county seat of Charleston County in 1901 when Charleston County was founded. The city's original name was Charles Towne in 1670, and it moved to its present location from a location on the west bank of the...
was established in 1670. Through the late seventeenth century, Carolinian forces and their Indian allies were successful at destroying the Spanish mission system. Throughout the 1670s and 1680s, they attacked and destroyed missions on Saint Catherines Island, St Simons Island, Cumberland Island, and several interior missions situated close to the coast. San Joseph de Sapala on Sapelo Island was destroyed by pirates
Piracy
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence at sea. The term can include acts committed on land, in the air, or in other major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against persons traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator...
in 1683, leading to Spanish abandonment of the Guale and Mocama
Mocama
The Mocama were a Native American people who lived in the coastal areas of what are now northern Florida and southeastern Georgia. A Timucua group, they spoke the dialect known as Mocama, the best-attested dialect of the Timucua language. Their territory extended from about the Altamaha River in...
provinces. Likewise, the British and allied forces reduced the Apalachee mission province during the first decade of the 18th century. The surviving mission Indians retreated and aggregated farther south until their remnants were situated just north of the Saint Augustine base near the St. Johns River. During the 1680s, the Carolina colonists had effectively driven the Spanish entirely from the modern Georgia coast. This campaign intensified hostilities between the Spanish and the English, and catalyzed British interest in settling the Savannah-Altamaha River region.
Further west, the French were moving down the Mississippi
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
and into the Gulf region
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...
. In 1699 Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville pronounced as described in note] Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville pronounced as described in note] Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville pronounced as described in note] (16 July 1661 – 9 July 1702 (probable)was a soldier, ship captain, explorer, colonial administrator, knight of...
founded Biloxi
Biloxi, Mississippi
Biloxi is a city in Harrison County, Mississippi, in the United States. The 2010 census recorded the population as 44,054. Along with Gulfport, Biloxi is a county seat of Harrison County....
, and Mobile
Mobile, Alabama
Mobile is the third most populous city in the Southern US state of Alabama and is the county seat of Mobile County. It is located on the Mobile River and the central Gulf Coast of the United States. The population within the city limits was 195,111 during the 2010 census. It is the largest...
, the first capital of French Louisiana
French Louisiana
The term French Louisiana refers to two distinct regions:* first, to colonial French Louisiana, comprising the massive, middle section of North America claimed by France; and,...
, was settled in 1702. From these bases, French fur traders planned to move eastward to incorporate regional tribes, especially the Creek
Creek
Creek may refer to:*Creek, a small stream* Creek , an inlet of the sea, narrower than a cove * Creek, a narrow channel/small stream between islands in the Florida Keys*Muscogee , a native American people...
, into their business enterprise. In 1718, they built Fort Toulouse
Fort Toulouse
Fort Toulouse is a historic fort near the city of Wetumpka, Alabama, United States, that is now maintained by the Alabama Historical Commission. The French founded the fort in 1717, naming it for Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse...
at the forks of the Coosa
Coosa River
The Coosa River is a tributary of the Alabama River in the U.S. states of Alabama and Georgia. The river is about long altogether.The Coosa River is one of Alabama's most developed rivers...
and Tallapoosa
Tallapoosa River
The Tallapoosa River runs from the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains in Georgia, in the United States, southward and westward into Alabama. It is formed by the confluence of McClendon Creek and Mud Creek in Paulding County, Georgia. Lake Martin at Alexander City, Alabama is a large and...
rivers, in the heart of Creek country. This settlement, designed to take business from Carolina traders, was close to the Creek capital of Coweta
Coweta
Coweta can refer to:* Coweta, one of the principal towns of the Creek Nation* Coweta, Oklahoma, United States**Coweta Public Schools**Coweta High School* Coweta County, Georgia, United States...
. The British perceived it as a threat to their plans to control trade networks throughout the Southeast, especially among the Creek and Cherokee
Cherokee
The Cherokee are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States . Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family...
. The tribes' geographical proximity to the Carolina colony made their stability vital. The British intended to expand their trade westward to other Southeast tribes, such as the Choctaw
Choctaw
The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States...
and Chickasaw
Chickasaw
The Chickasaw are Native American people originally from the region that would become the Southeastern United States...
.
Yamasee
The Yamasee were a multiethnic confederation of Native Americans that lived in the coastal region of present-day northern coastal Georgia near the Savannah River and later in northeastern Florida.-History:...
to settle in the Beaufort area just north of the Savannah River basin. Good relations with the Yamasee ensured a protective buffer along the southern borders of the colony. The British also worked to maintain relations with the Creek and Cherokee tribes to the west. "Projet Sur La Caroline," while never implemented, left the South Carolina colonists with high anxiety for many years, and convinced officials of the necessity to maintain good Indian alliances.
The Yamasee War
Yamasee War
The Yamasee War was a conflict between British settlers of colonial South Carolina and various Native American Indian tribes, including the Yamasee, Muscogee, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Catawba, Apalachee, Apalachicola, Yuchi, Savannah River Shawnee, Congaree, Waxhaw, Pee Dee, Cape Fear, Cheraw, and...
of 1715-1717 broke out. This war started because of grave injustices carried out by Carolina traders against their Native American clients. For many years the traders had been systematically cheating the Indians in the fur trade by using bogus weights and measures, applying tough credit standards, severely indebting Native American suppliers, and taking Indian slaves for unpaid debts. Finally, the Yamasee turned on South Carolina and nearly destroyed the colony. Virginia's support and Cherokee warriors helped deflect the Yamasee attacks.
Also, during this same period the amount of slaves in the colony was growing exponentially to the point that blacks outnumbered whites. The Spanish attempted to incite revolts by offering runaway slaves freedom and land in St. Augustine. They enrolled escaped slaves into the Spanish army.
In 1718, French colonists successfully attacked Pensacola
Pensacola, Florida
Pensacola is the westernmost city in the Florida Panhandle and the county seat of Escambia County, Florida, United States of America. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 56,255 and as of 2009, the estimated population was 53,752...
, a settlement controlled by Spanish Florida. By this time, Spain and France had started the War of the Quadruple Alliance
War of the Quadruple Alliance
The War of the Quadruple Alliance was a result of the ambitions of King Philip V of Spain, his wife, Elisabeth Farnese, and his chief minister Giulio Alberoni to retake territories in Italy and to claim the French throne. It saw the defeat of Spain by an alliance of Britain, France, Austria , and...
. The French success threatened Charlestown officials, who were convinced the French aimed to conquer the Southeast. They built Fort Toulouse had been built in the heart of Creek country earlier that year. The French were more active among the Creek and it appeared as though they had designs to expand further east.
Frightened and upset, the colonists finally exercised their own revolt. They rebelled against the ineffective rule of the Proprietors back in England. South Carolina, being a colony that was governed by eight proprietors from across the ocean, had suffered under proprietary rule. The economy of the colony was hampered by runaway inflation
Inflation
In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation also reflects an erosion in the purchasing power of money – a...
caused by reckless economic policies and unreasonable restrictions on land ownership and trade regulation
Trade regulation
Trade regulation is a field of law, often bracketed with antitrust , including government regulation of unfair methods of competition and unfair or deceptive business acts or practices. Antitrust law is often considered a subset of trade regulation law...
. Of graver concern were the issues related to defense. The colonists and their officials wanted greater protection from the enemies on their borders. The Proprietors were not willing to fund greater military development. In 1719, the colonists finally had enough. That year they ousted governor Robert Johnson, a proprietary governor, and chose James Moore
James Moore (South Carolina politician)
James Moore was the British governor of colonial South Carolina between 1700 and 1703. He is remembered for leading several invasions of Spanish Florida, including attacks in 1704 and 1706 which wiped out most of the Spanish missions in Florida....
, an outspoken opponent of proprietary rule, as his replacement. Secondly, they sent Carolina planter John Barnwell to petition British Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories, located in London...
that South Carolina become a Royal colony. It just so happened that Parliament had been taking a greater interest in the colony and the prospects of bringing it under royal dominion. Though the colony was having internal economic problems, overall it was one of the most productive in producing cash crops such as rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
and indigo
Indigofera
Indigofera is a large genus of about 700 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Fabaceae.The species are mostly shrubs, though some are herbaceous, and a few can become small trees up to tall. Most are dry-season or winter deciduous. The leaves are pinnate with 5–31 leaflets and the...
. Furthermore, the fur trade in the colony, creating nearly a fifth of its exports to Great Britain, was quite lucrative for merchants back in England. Finally, the Yamasee War had made many English officials realize that the preservation of South Carolina was principal in defending the British North American Empire. Without the colony and its economic activities, the empire would be significantly weakened. Therefore, the petition was granted and in August 1720, South Carolina became a royal colony
British overseas territories
The British Overseas Territories are fourteen territories of the United Kingdom which, although they do not form part of the United Kingdom itself, fall under its jurisdiction. They are remnants of the British Empire that have not acquired independence or have voted to remain British territories...
, though in name only as it would be nearly a decade later until the Proprietors were truly nullified and the colony was officially taken over by the Crown in practice. Many felt Royal control would improve defensive measures for the colony. However, things did not vastly improve, though Parliament did seem receptive to newer ideas and token measures were taken to aid the colony's defense.
Colonel John "Tuscarora Jack" Barnwell had come to South Carolina in 1699 from northern Ireland. He was a man of considerable talent and leadership skills. He gained a reputation during his successful fight against the Tuscarora
Tuscarora (tribe)
The Tuscarora are a Native American people of the Iroquoian-language family, with members in New York, Canada, and North Carolina...
Indians in North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
in 1712. He owned a large and successful plantation
Plantation
A plantation is a long artificially established forest, farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale, often in distant markets rather than for local on-site consumption...
in Beaufort, South Carolina
Beaufort, South Carolina
Beaufort is a city in and the county seat of Beaufort County, South Carolina, United States. Chartered in 1711, it is the second-oldest city in South Carolina, behind Charleston. The city's population was 12,361 in the 2010 census. It is located in the Hilton Head Island-Beaufort Micropolitan...
. Barnwell was influential in the colony and proposed defensive measures for it. He developed a plan that became the inspiration for Georgia. It involved building a series of forts in strategic locations along South Carolina's frontiers in order to check French and Spanish expansion. These forts would serve as launching points for towns where soldiers would receive land allotments and other furnishings to facilitate settlement. The settlements would be used to expand the colony's territory and trade with the Natives.
During his visit to Parliament in 1720, Barnwell petitioned the British Board of Trade
Board of Trade
The Board of Trade is a committee of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, originating as a committee of inquiry in the 17th century and evolving gradually into a government department with a diverse range of functions...
to help implement his plan. He emphasized the French threat as opposed to the Spanish one, since at the time the French seemed to be gaining considerable ground in the Southeast. Before the Board, Barnwell argued the strong possibility of a French attack on the colony and possible takeover of its southern borders, especially at the headwaters of the Altamaha River (called the River May by the French). To secure this area from French encroachment, his first proposal was for a fort to be built along the Altamaha River. The British Board of Trade approved of his plan in building this fort.
Due to the South Sea Bubble financial crisis, the British economy was in shambles. The government had minimal funds to spare and it showed in how Fort King George was operated, resourced, and funded. Barnwell requested "young, robust" soldiers to man the fort. He realized that the environment along the Altamaha would be a tough one. A long seasoning process was inevitable for the settler
Settler
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally people who take up residence on land and cultivate it, as opposed to nomads...
s and it would take time for them to adapt and properly outfit the settlement. Instead, the British sent elderly "invalids" from Colonel Felding's 41st Regiment
41st (Welsh) Regiment of Foot
The 41st Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, formed in 1719 and amalgamated into The Welch Regiment in 1881....
. This Independent Company, thereafter known as His Majesty's Independent Company of Foot of South Carolina, was composed of three sergeant
Sergeant
Sergeant is a rank used in some form by most militaries, police forces, and other uniformed organizations around the world. Its origins are the Latin serviens, "one who serves", through the French term Sergent....
s, three corporal
Corporal
Corporal is a rank in use in some form by most militaries and by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. It is usually equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-4....
s, two drummers, and one hundred privates
Private (rank)
A Private is a soldier of the lowest military rank .In modern military parlance, 'Private' is shortened to 'Pte' in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries and to 'Pvt.' in the United States.Notably both Sir Fitzroy MacLean and Enoch Powell are examples of, rare, rapid career...
, all older men well past their prime. Governor Francis Nicholson of South Carolina was commissioned Captain of the Independent Company with Barnwell later being named Colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
. Initial officers included Lt. Joseph Lambert, Lt. John Emmenes, Ensigns Thomas Merryman and John Bowdler, Robert Mason as surgeon, with Thomas Hesketh as Chaplain. Most of the soldiers and officers, including Barnwell, perished at the fort by 1727.
Battle of Bloody Marsh
The Battle of Bloody Marsh took place on July 18, 1742 between Spanish and British forces, and the latter were victorious. Part of the War of Jenkin's Ear, the battle was for control of the road between the British forts of Frederica and St. Simons, to control St. Simons Island and the forts'...
on St. Simons Island in 1742, several years after the fort had been abandoned. Though the fort was considered a failure in the near term, it ultimately contributed to Georgia's establishment and early success.
The Fort's construction and demise
From the time of its construction in 1721 to its abandonment in 1727, Fort King George was beset by one miserable experience after another. When the Independent Company embarked from London in November 1720, there may have been some room for optimism among the soldiers. Each was to receive many acres of land surrounding the fort, something unimaginable in the class driven societies of England. Additionally, they would be given cattle and seed for growing crops to develop farms. Also, resources necessary for developing new homes and farms would be available. However, such possible optimism probably soon faded beneath a very harsh reality. All the soldiers contracted scurvyScurvy
Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of collagen in humans. The chemical name for vitamin C, ascorbic acid, is derived from the Latin name of scurvy, scorbutus, which also provides the adjective scorbutic...
on the voyage over to South Carolina. Immediately upon landing the following March, the soldiers were placed in a hospital in Port Royal, South Carolina
Port Royal, South Carolina
Port Royal is a town in Beaufort County, South Carolina, United States. Largely because of annexation of surrounding areas , the population of Port Royal rose from 3,950 in 2000 to 10,678 in 2010, a 170% increase. As defined by the U.S...
, where they would spend time recovering throughout the remainder of that year.
Navy
A navy is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake- or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions...
for the colony. Their role was akin to marines, to patrol the waterways in scout boats up and down the coast between Beaufort and St. Augustine, and engage the enemy from their boats if necessary. They were also charged with the task of provisioning outlying forts on the frontier. Many scouts may have been former pirates as South Carolina was a den for many in the 1680s and 1690s when the colony started cracking down on piracy, arresting pirates, and then offering them clemency in exchange for their oath to the King and services in the colony. Though they may have been good seamen, they were hardly good at following directions on land. Barnwell complained bitterly in his journal about all his troubles with them. He referred to them as "Continually (sic) sotting" and described them as "a wild Idle (sic) people" who were highly disobedient. In one incident, during a bout of drunkenness, one prankster scout actually picked Barnwell up and heaved him over his shoulder pretending to carry Barnwell to his boat. Instead, he dropped the colonel in the water, forcing Barnwell to lie all night in wet clothes on his boat, something Barnwell later attributed to a sickness he soon contracted. Barnwell, ill tempered, no doubt got his revenge somehow, but the incident goes to show there was little formal discipline in the wild frontiers of South Carolina. Barnwell needed the scouts to get the fort underway, and they were noted for being highly prone toward dissension and possible mutiny
Mutiny
Mutiny is a conspiracy among members of a group of similarly situated individuals to openly oppose, change or overthrow an authority to which they are subject...
. Given the proximity to St. Augustine and the likeliness of desertion
Desertion
In military terminology, desertion is the abandonment of a "duty" or post without permission and is done with the intention of not returning...
Barnwell, no doubt, had to be quite a bit more tolerant than most Colonels dealing with troops on the front lines of Europe.
Logistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of destination in order to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and...
advantage of this island and decided to propose moving the fort there. He was repeatedly denied by the legislature due to cost prohibitions.
Cattle
Cattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
supplied for the troops, and to grow crops. A lack of development made life even more miserable. A few soldiers deserted to St. Augustine. Still, others stayed though death from the elements was nearly a certainty. By later that year the fort's guardhouse was being called a hospital for "treating the sick".
Some excitement did occur periodically. In 1722 Indian agent
Indian agent
In United States history, an Indian agent was an individual authorized to interact with Native American tribes on behalf of the U.S. government.-Indian agents:*Leander Clark was agent for the Sac and Fox in Iowa beginning in 1866....
Theophilus Hastings reported to the legislature
Legislature
A legislature is a kind of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures usually have exclusive authority to raise or lower taxes and adopt the budget and...
that 170 Yamasee Indians were prepared to attack Fort King George. It seems, he indicated, that the Spanish "were playing their old game". Apparently, it was presumed that the Spanish were inciting the attack to test the fort's defensibility. Unfortunately, the records do not indicate whether or not the attack actually happened, however, if it did the fort must have survived unabated.
Later on that year, some unexpected visitors arrived at the fort. A company of "Switzers", Swiss soldiers
Swiss mercenaries
Swiss mercenaries were notable for their service in foreign armies, especially the armies of the Kings of France, throughout the Early Modern period of European history, from the Later Middle Ages into the Age of the European Enlightenment...
, had deserted a settlement on the Mississippi River and had made their way to Fort King George where they sought asylum. Switzers were under the employ of the French government in their colony of Louisiana. These men were charged with the toilsome duty of digging canal
Canal
Canals are man-made channels for water. There are two types of canal:#Waterways: navigable transportation canals used for carrying ships and boats shipping goods and conveying people, further subdivided into two kinds:...
s and were often overworked and mistreated. This was probably the reason for their desertion. It also indicates that the French were quite aware of Britain's occupation at the mouth of the Altamaha and were apparently discussing it openly among all Louisiana settlers. Interestingly, even though Carolina officials were having a hard time getting much-needed recruits at the fort, to replace the dying soldiers, they did not let all the Switzers stay there. Instead, they allowed them to "disperse themselves into the colony as they pleased". However, they did request that any skilled Switzers, up to six total, stay behind to assist with construction. One of them obviously was a skilled artist and penned one of the fort's most descriptive drawings entitled, "A Plan of Fort King George at Allatamaha South Carolina". The drawing clearly displays intentions for the fort to be a triangular shaped structure with only one bastion jutting out on the northwestern side, the only direction in which the fort could most likely be attacked by land. The eastern and southern sides of the fort were fully protected by natural wetlands thus making a land assault from those directions impossible. Also, the fort was designed to include a barracks, ninety feet long and fourteen feet wide, a guardhouse, an officers’ quarters, several indigenous huts, a very impressive parapet, a house of office (privy), and a dock for the scout boat, in addition to the blockhouse discussed previously.>.
More drawings of the fort indicate that the fort was developing even though hardships seemed abundant. A 1726 drawing reveals the fort was fortified with a parapet
Parapet
A parapet is a wall-like barrier at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony or other structure. Where extending above a roof, it may simply be the portion of an exterior wall that continues above the line of the roof surface, or may be a continuation of a vertical feature beneath the roof such as a...
that, in critical places, consisted of firing steps, a firing wall held against a breastwork
Breastwork (fortification)
A breastwork is a fortification. The term is usually applied to temporary fortifications, often an earthwork thrown up to breast height to provide protection to defenders firing over it from a standing position...
made of earth, a palisade
Palisade
A palisade is a steel or wooden fence or wall of variable height, usually used as a defensive structure.- Typical construction :Typical construction consisted of small or mid sized tree trunks aligned vertically, with no spacing in between. The trunks were sharpened or pointed at the top, and were...
fence, and a moat
Moat
A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that surrounds a castle, other building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places moats evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams and sluices...
. Fronting the river to the south, the fort was protected from naval assault by nine cannon
Cannon
A cannon is any piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive-based propellents to launch a projectile. Cannon vary in caliber, range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees,...
emplacements. Each emplacement had a six-pounder cannon mounted on it. Also, several swivel gun
Swivel gun
The term swivel gun usually refers to a small cannon, mounted on a swiveling stand or fork which allows a very wide arc of movement. Another type of firearm referred to as a swivel gun was an early flintlock combination gun with two barrels that rotated along their axes to allow the shooter to...
s were positioned throughout the fort, primarily around the gates. Most important, the fort was positioned on the closed end of a horseshoe-shaped bend in the river. Typical of the time period, this positioning prevented passing enemy ships a convenient firing of broadside
Broadside
A broadside is the side of a ship; the battery of cannon on one side of a warship; or their simultaneous fire in naval warfare.-Age of Sail:...
s on the fort. Instead, all ships would have to approach the fort bow (nose) first, thus making it harder for enemy sailors to position the boat sideways so as to fire through cannon ports at the fort. The fort was by all appearances a standard "pallisado" fort very typical of the type built on frontiers during the time period. They were primarily designed to be temporary until something more substantial could be built. Such forts, made from earthen materials and indigenous wood, were very practical for frontier defense as the materials were relatively easy to gather and transport to site. Also, these fortifications could easily be repaired if damaged, as materials were relatively available and indigenous to the area.
In 1724, Colonel Barnwell died at his plantation in Beaufort due to failing health, probably brought on by hardships during his tenure at the fort. Earlier, he had been declared to be Governor
Governor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
of the territory in addition to being the fort's commander. Though his dreams of seeing South Carolina bounded by a barrier of defensive settlements had been initiated, by the time of his death the reality of its successful fruition seemed bleak. Though dead, his legacy lived on later through General James Oglethorpe
James Oglethorpe
James Edward Oglethorpe was a British general, member of Parliament, philanthropist, and founder of the colony of Georgia...
who borrowed heavily from Colonel Barnwell's ideas.
In late 1725 or early 1726, the fort burned under mysterious circumstances. It was suggested by the fort's reporting officer, Capt. Edward Massey, that the men stationed there may have been responsible for it, or at least, they did not rush to put the fires out "in hopes by the destruction of the Fort (sic) they should be delivered from the Miseries (sic) they had so long suffered." The soldiers probably desperately wanted to go back home or anywhere but Fort King George, three days away from Beaufort. If this was the case, their wishes did not come true. The fort was ordered rebuilt, this time with inferior cypress
Cypress
Cypress is the name applied to many plants in the cypress family Cupressaceae, which is a conifer of northern temperate regions. Most cypress species are trees, while a few are shrubs...
deal planking. Life did not improve.
Finally, in 1727, British Parliament ordered that Fort King George be abandoned and that the Independent Company be moved to Port Royal, South Carolina. In all, one hundred and forty soldiers and officers lost their lives at the fort, probably mostly from the diseases. The fort's officer, Lt. Emmenes, writing the justification of the fort's evacuation, sited the unwholesome climate and the ineffectiveness of the fort's location. He stated that the fort would be no more useful to the safety of the colony if it had been "placed in Japan." Writing with a clear hint of indignation, Massey complained about the poor provisions and indicated grave concern that the men may mutiny if "they have no hopes of being relieved." Also, the fort was prone to periodic flooding which worsened conditions. Yamasee Indian raids were still occurring along the southern borders thus illustrating the failure of Fort King George's intent to secure the southern border.
Six years after its establishment the fort was abandoned with two lookouts left behind. South Carolina colonists and officials were gravely disappointed and even more so alarmed by the diplomatic sensitivities it had flared. Until Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
was settled, expansionists were determined to re-establish some settlement on the Altamaha. By 1730, the issue of southern border defense had become an even more vexing and contentious one. Around this time, Governor Robert Johnson ordered that several towns be settled along the Altamaha in order to maintain Britain's claim to the area. Also, the South Carolina legislature relayed desires to have another fort or settlement built along the Altamaha. However, these measures never came to fruition. The demise of Fort King George once again brought an increase in anxieties over South Carolina's security.
Though the outlook may have seemed disappointing, there were a few silver linings. Fort King George actually did serve the colony well, not for its effectiveness, because it was largely ineffective, but for what it taught British imperialists. First, the hardships suffered by the Company of "Invalids" at Fort King George taught imperialists the necessity of peopling the Altamaha with a young, tough, and hardy people. It was a harsh, dangerous environment that could not be tamed by the weak-of-heart or faint-in-design. Settlers there would have to be able to withstand a harsh seasoning period. Also, being so far removed from civilization
Civilization
Civilization is a sometimes controversial term that has been used in several related ways. Primarily, the term has been used to refer to the material and instrumental side of human cultures that are complex in terms of technology, science, and division of labor. Such civilizations are generally...
, Altamaha settlers would have to be thrifty, self reliant, and industrious. Furthermore, these people would need incentives to develop a strong settlement and establish industry. Secondly, diplomatic entanglements with the Spanish over Fort King George shifted much focus away from the French and problems of western defense, and more toward defenses on the southern frontier. As such, there was a greater focus on protecting the colony with fortresses and settlements along the coastal area, especially the barrier islands and their surrounding inlet
Inlet
An inlet is a narrow body of water between islands or leading inland from a larger body of water, often leading to an enclosed body of water, such as a sound, bay, lagoon or marsh. In sea coasts an inlet usually refers to the actual connection between a bay and the ocean and is often called an...
s. This is why General Oglethorpe later borrowed from Barnwell's idea for a fort to be built on St. Simons Island, where Fort Frederica, Oglethorpe's military base, was constructed in 1736.
Adage
An adage is a short but memorable saying which holds some important fact of experience that is considered true by many people, or that has gained some credibility through its long use....
, "those who do not learn from history are destined to repeat it." Oglethorpe and his fellow Georgians did not repeat the mistakes made in the handling of Fort King George, though they did largely stick to a similar plan of defense. However, the plan was implemented with a much more effective, well-planned, and well-supported strategy.
Fort King George's legacy for Georgia
During Fort King George's existence and demise, the South Carolina Legislature, Governor, and other imperialists started developing other alternatives for defending the colony's vulnerable southern border. During the 1720s, Swiss gentleman, entrepreneur, and colonial adventurer Jean-Pierre de Pury started planning for a settlement of Swiss colonists in the area between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers. Proclaiming its location to be in the Earth's ideal climate region, near 33 degrees latitude, he proposed that the name of the colony be Georgia. Though this settlement looked quite promising at first, it fell apart at the last moment due to a lack of adequate funding and support from the Proprietors. Eventually, however, Purry would settle PurrysburgPurrysburg, South Carolina
Purrysburg was a colonial town in Jasper County, South Carolina. While the town itself was abandoned, the settlers were successful. The town was located on the South Carolina bank of the Savannah River....
, but it would be after Georgia's founding, and it was positioned north of the Savannah River rather than south of it. However, though the project did fail, it was successful in drawing greater attention throughout England to the area, and proved especially enticing to English philanthropists
Philanthropy
Philanthropy etymologically means "the love of humanity"—love in the sense of caring for, nourishing, developing, or enhancing; humanity in the sense of "what it is to be human," or "human potential." In modern practical terms, it is "private initiatives for public good, focusing on quality of...
looking to provide some sort of refuge for poor debtors.
Committee
A committee is a type of small deliberative assembly that is usually intended to remain subordinate to another, larger deliberative assembly—which when organized so that action on committee requires a vote by all its entitled members, is called the "Committee of the Whole"...
to investigate conditions at prisons in the country. What he and his committee uncovered were horrific conditions. Many prisoners were released as a result, but left with no employment and bereft of any livelihood. Oglethorpe was also interested in colonization and in defending Great Britain's vast holdings in North America.
From these two interests, the idea of Georgia was spawned. Once a group of Trustee
Trustee
Trustee is a legal term which, in its broadest sense, can refer to any person who holds property, authority, or a position of trust or responsibility for the benefit of another...
s was formed, they decided to use debtor-prisoners to people the colony of Georgia, which was to be nestled in the Savannah-Altamaha River region, formerly known as the Margravate of Azilla, based upon a previously failed settlement scheme in 1717. This would allow them to escape the misfortune of Britain's harsh penal
Penal colony
A penal colony is a settlement used to exile prisoners and separate them from the general populace by placing them in a remote location, often an island or distant colonial territory...
code and poverty, and to start over in a new land while simultaneously serving a valuable function for the British Crown
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
The monarchy of the United Kingdom is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The present monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 6 February 1952. She and her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial and representational duties...
. However, by the time recruitment efforts were complete, and the ships were loaded for the voyage to Georgia, not a single colonists was in debt. In fact, most were middle class artisan
Artisan
An artisan is a skilled manual worker who makes items that may be functional or strictly decorative, including furniture, clothing, jewellery, household items, and tools...
s and craftsmen
Master craftsman
A master craftsman or master tradesman was a member of a guild. In the European guild system, only masters were allowed to be members of the guild....
whose interests in starting life new abroad was so great, the earlier plan for a debtors’ colony ended up being quite changed. Nevertheless, the colony was to be established as a haven for citizen-soldiers whose primary purpose was in defending the empire, while simultaneously contributing to her mercantilist economy as well with the production of cash crops, timber, furs, and naval stores. Lawyers were forbidden, for obvious reasons, as were [slavery|slaves], for security reasons.
The colony had many early growing pains that included a harsh seasoning period when many settlers died, struggles over whether to admit slaves, conflicts with South Carolina over fur trading rights, and disputes over everything from legalization of rum consumption to land rights. Still, Oglethorpe was quite adept at using his Native American neighbors to facilitate the colony's initial success. He was also quite savvy at using previous history as a guide. Oglethorpe knew he had to establish a successful settlement on the Altamaha and the surrounding areas. In 1735 he had Captain George Dunbar visit the ruins of Fort King George. Though his report on the site is vague (it only talks about surveyor lines being laid out, probably done so by the soldiers earlier at Fort King George), Oglethorpe's later actions demonstrate his unhappiness with the site. Oglethorpe ordered the Highlanders to land at "Barnwell's Bluff", but later moved the settlement about 1 miles (2 km) farther up-river, probably due to the periodic flooding of the bluff and its proximity to the marsh, something attributable to malarial outbreaks in this time period Also, though it is not stated in records, it stands to reason that Oglethorpe was familiar with the earlier hardships endured at Fort King George. He may even have read Barnwell's journal and other records indicating the difficulties of settling the site on the Altamaha. The intense climate and harsh natural surroundings along the Altamaha, coupled with history, compelled Oglethorpe to seek a resilient group of people to settle the area. Also, he knew he had to use good logistics in how he established his fortification system along this vast stretch of coast, and that the Altamaha settlement would be a crucial cornerstone of his system.
The Georgia coast was as geologically
Geology
Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...
unique in the early 18th century as it is to this day. Approximately one-third of the all marsh
Marsh
In geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of wetland that is subject to frequent or continuous flood. Typically the water is shallow and features grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, other herbaceous plants, and moss....
lands found on the east coast lie in coastal Georgia
Colonial Coast
Southeastern Georgia's Lower Coastal Plain is a subregion that encompasses the lowest lying areas of the Atlantic coastal plain in the state, containing barrier islands, marshes, and swampy lowlands, as well as flat plains and low terraces. It differs from Georgia's Upper Coastal Plain in that it...
, which dips away from the continental shelf considerably farther than any other section of eastern North America. This produces a funnel effect that causes Georgia's coastline to endure a greater concentration of tidal waters
Tide
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the sun and the rotation of the Earth....
. The results are excessive fluctuations in tides, sometimes as high as 10 to 12 feet. Over years, this dramatic tidal shift has produced dynamic currents that have created a labyrinth of rivers, inlets, shoals, sounds, and sandbars contained behind ever-changing barrier islands. From a military perspective, due to its geographical
Geography
Geography is the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes...
complexity, the Georgia coast is the ideal place to build a defensive system.
In part due to this, Oglethorpe chose to use the barrier islands to his advantage for his defenses south of the Altamaha. Fort Frederica was placed on the inside [intercoastal waterway|intercoastal] side of St. Simons Island. On the south end of the Island he also placed Fort St. Simons and Delegal's Fort. With these forts and the others positioned among the barrier islands, the main focus was to keep enemies out of the Altamaha river system. In an era long before highways, interstates, planes, or even adequate trails, controlling a river system was tantamount to controlling all the lands adjacent to it, and the region surrounding it. The Altamaha River bordered vast swamp
Swamp
A swamp is a wetland with some flooding of large areas of land by shallow bodies of water. A swamp generally has a large number of hammocks, or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic vegetation, or vegetation that tolerates periodical inundation. The two main types of swamp are "true" or swamp...
s full of valuable resources such as timber and precious pine sap for naval stores. Furthermore, it was a fine artery of travel far into the colony thus facilitating trade with distant Native American tribes.
This is exactly why Oglethorpe was very careful in the people he chose to settle and defend the Altamaha. Oglethorpe's military experience and training had taught him that Scottish Highlanders were among the toughest people in the world. For generations they had forged a livelihood out of the mountainous ranges of the Highlands
Scottish Highlands
The Highlands is an historic region of Scotland. The area is sometimes referred to as the "Scottish Highlands". It was culturally distinguishable from the Lowlands from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Scots replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands...
with its rocky, stubborn soils, and cruel weather patterns. The Scots had been united with the English into the United Kingdom since the Act of Union in 1707 however it was hardly a relationship of equals. Scottish people over many centuries had endured many abuses from the English. When they weren't being exploited at home, Scottish troops were often hired mercenaries used to fight British wars abroad. With their broadsword
Broadsword
Broadsword may refer to:*Broadsword , a military sword used by heavy cavalry during the 17th to early 19th centuriesIn more modern times, it has also been used to refer to:...
s, targe
Targe
Targe was a general word for shield in late Old English. Its diminutive, target, came to mean an object to be aimed at in the 18th century....
s , and their dirk
Dirk
A dirk is a short thrusting dagger, sometimes a cut-down sword blade mounted on a dagger hilt rather than a knife blade. It was historically used as a personal weapon for officers engaged in naval hand-to-hand combat during the Age of Sail.-Etymology:...
s, they were the finest hand-to-hand combatants
Hand to hand combat
Hand-to-hand combat is a lethal or nonlethal physical confrontation between two or more persons at very short range that does not involve the use of firearms or other distance weapons...
in the world. Though clan
Clan
A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clan members may be organized around a founding member or apical ancestor. The kinship-based bonds may be symbolical, whereby the clan shares a "stipulated" common ancestor that is a...
nish, often insular, and politically unstable at home, the Scots were a force to be reckoned with on the battlefield, a perfect ingredient for frontier defense in the wildernesses along the Georgia coast where conventional warfare was not going to be the norm.
Thus, in late 1735 Oglethorpe sent Captain Dunbar and Lt. Hugh MacKay to the Highlands of Scotland to recruit potential settlers for Georgia's Altamaha frontier settlement. Many Scots were eager to come. Home life was rough due to English oppression and a feudal system
Feudalism
Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.Although derived from the...
that tied many Scottish families to small unproductive lands with limited opportunities; But North America offered plenty of hope. To lure them, the Trustees offered each family 50 acres (202,343 m²) allotments, something most Scotsmen never even dreamed of owning in their homeland. Also, recruiter
Recruiter
A recruiter is someone engaging in recruitment, or the solicitation of individuals to fill jobs or positions within a corporation, nonprofit organization, sports team, the military, etc. Recruiters may work within an organization's human resources department or on an outsourced basis...
s told the Scots each man would be armed with a firelock
Flintlock
Flintlock is the general term for any firearm based on the flintlock mechanism. The term may also apply to the mechanism itself. Introduced at the beginning of the 17th century, the flintlock rapidly replaced earlier firearm-ignition technologies, such as the doglock, matchlock and wheellock...
, a broadsword, and an axe. Recently, the English had passed laws disarming the Scots and making it unlawful for them to bear their traditional weapons. They were also to be given cattle, farming implements, and seed for crops. 177 Scots boarded the Prince of Wales in November 1735, en route to their new home in Georgia. Of these, most came from the Inverness
Inverness
Inverness is a city in the Scottish Highlands. It is the administrative centre for the Highland council area, and is regarded as the capital of the Highlands of Scotland...
area, and were a part of the Chattan Confederation
Chattan Confederation
Clan Chattan or the Chattan Confederation is a confederation of 16 Scottish clans who joined for mutual defence or blood bonds. Its leader was the chief of Clan Mackintosh.-Origins:The origin of the name Chattan is disputed...
. They consisted of McIntoshes, McDonalds, MacBeans, MacKays, Frasers, Forbes, Clarks, Baillies, Cameron, and a host of other traditional Highland clan names. They disembarked at Savannah in early January 1736, and a short time later made their way to the new settlement on the Altamaha. Their settlement began at "Barnwell's Bluff", near the old ruins of Fort King George. Oglethorpe visited the site the following February and was informed that the Scots had chosen to name their town Darien
Darien, Georgia
Darien is a city in McIntosh County, Georgia, United States. It lies on Georgia's coast at the mouth of the Altamaha River about 50 miles south of Savannah, and is part of the Brunswick, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population of Darien was 1,719 at the 2000 census. The city is the...
. This was to honor the previous Scottish settlement of Darien
Darién scheme
The Darién scheme was an unsuccessful attempt by the Kingdom of Scotland to become a world trading nation by establishing a colony called "New Caledonia" on the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s...
that had occurred earlier on the Isthmus of Panama in 1695, only to be subsequently destroyed by the Spanish. On his visit, Oglethorpe dressed in the traditional Highland kilt
Kilt
The kilt is a knee-length garment with pleats at the rear, originating in the traditional dress of men and boys in the Scottish Highlands of the 16th century. Since the 19th century it has become associated with the wider culture of Scotland in general, or with Celtic heritage even more broadly...
to show his respect for the Scots. As an additional show of respect, he refused comfortable sleeping quarters and preferred to sleep with the Highlander men out under a large Oak tree
Oak Tree
Oak Tree may refer to:*Oak, the tree*Oak Tree, County Durham, a village in County Durham, England*The Oaktree Foundation, a youth-run aid and development agency*Oak Tree National, golf club in Edmond, Oklahoma...
. One other issue probably addressed by Oglethorpe at this time was related to the place of settlement. He clearly must not have liked Lower Bluff where old Fort King George once was and at some point he ordered the Scots to move their town farther up the bluff (the modern-day site of the Darien bridge).
Sawmill
A sawmill is a facility where logs are cut into boards.-Sawmill process:A sawmill's basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago; a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end....
s in Darien. Also, key Scottish figures in Georgia were instrumental in establishing better trade relations with the Creek Native Americans. There were numerous other commercial and social contributions given by the Scots at Darien. However, their most crucial role was that of a military nature. When the Spanish invaded Georgia out of Florida in July 1742, it was the Scots of Darien who were instrumental in defeating the Spanish at the Battle of Bloody Marsh on St. Simons Island, July 7, 1742. This successful battle helped bring to an end the struggle for empire in the Southeast and worked to cement Great Britain's hold on the area, as the Spanish never again really posed a serious threat to Georgia.
Over the next many generations, the Scots of Darien branched out into other frontiers of North America. Today, many families of Scottish ancestry owe their existence in the United States to those Scots who came to Darien, Georgia, a major gateway of Scottish settlement in the colonial era.
All these developments were made possible through the idea and existence of Fort King George. It served in some way as a blueprint toward the successful defense of Georgia, and consequently, inspired an economy and commerce that lent itself tremendously toward the colony's early success. Much of the colony's early structures were built out of cypress
Cypress
Cypress is the name applied to many plants in the cypress family Cupressaceae, which is a conifer of northern temperate regions. Most cypress species are trees, while a few are shrubs...
and yellow pine
Yellow pine
Yellow pine may refer to the following:*Certain pines in the subgenus Pinus subgenus Pinus:**In American forestry, a term for several closely related species of pine with yellow tinted wood, including the Southern Yellow Pines , and the non-Southern yellow pines and several others...
cut from swamps along the Altamaha River. This industry in timber became a staple element of Georgia's economy throughout the colonial period and on into the 20th century. It is rather ironic though that Fort King George had to fail in order for Georgia to succeed. It was the lessons wrought from experiences at the frontier fort that helped guide Oglethorpe in his defensive efforts of the colony. Also, had Fort King George succeeded, the colony of South Carolina would have been expanded to the Altamaha River and South Carolina would have progressed from there, leaving little reason or justification for the colony of Georgia. Of even greater import are the lessons Fort King George taught about the type of settlers necessary on the Georgia frontier. When Oglethorpe and the Trustees developed plans for the colony, they envisaged a colony of citizen-soldiers whose dual roles of defense and development would achieve success. Though they did serve as soldiers, it was the early colonists’ role as citizens that counted most toward the growth of the colony's commerce and economy. Families, as opposed to soldiers alone, proved more likely to develop a devout personal interest in defending their new home, especially as the economy developed and homesteads were established. Finally, the town of Darien owes its origins to Fort King George. The site is where the town and its sawmilling tradition began. Without Fort King George in the 1720s, the history of Darien may have been altogether different, or perhaps even non-existent.
Fort King George Historic Site development
For nearly two centuries after its evacuation, little was written about or known of Fort King George. Occasionally, there are references to a "Barnwell's Bluff", "Old Fort", or "First Landing", in the records, but Fort King George seemed to have faded into history. In the early 20th century there was groundbreaking research into the early history of the state, and much work was published about the early struggles for empire in the colonial era. In 1929 historian Verner Crane published his monumental book, The Southern Frontier, which comprehensively covered the period from 1670 to 1732. Other works, such as Herbert Bolton and Mary Ross's The Debatable Land helped shed light on the military struggles of the Southeast during the colonial period. Also, a plethora of articles on Georgia's early colonial struggles were written during this period. Crane's work about the contentious southern frontier was the first to describe the context for Fort King George and Barnwell's scheme of settling the Altamaha River region.Sometime in the 1930s, Darien's local historian Bessie Lewis, then a history teacher, read Crane's monumental work. She made many trips to Charleston to study British Public Records
Public Record Office
The Public Record Office of the United Kingdom is one of the three organisations that make up the National Archives...
for information about the former Fort King George. Lewis, or "Miss Bessie", as the locals fondly called her, discovered extensive material about the fort, including vital written records, descriptions, account ledgers, and several drawings with geographical details. This guided her in trying to locate the original site of the fort. Archeological excavations conducted later helped substantiate her claims. During the first excavations on the site in the 1940s, more than one dozen soldiers' graves were uncovered.
Miss Bessie and other locals organized the Fort King George Association, and worked to have the site developed for a state historic site
Historic site
A historic site is an official location where pieces of political, military or social history have been preserved. Historic sites are usually protected by law, and many have recognized with the official national historic site status...
. In 1949, the state acquired the fort site from the Sea Island Company, a development organization. The Association envisioned a site with a museum
Museum
A museum is an institution that cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are located in major cities...
and re-constructed replica of Fort King George, but little development took place. In the 1950s, the state installed a monument
Monument
A monument is a type of structure either explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, or simply as an example of historic architecture...
and headstones in the soldiers’ cemetery, and a few picnic tables. The Association continued to lobby for reconstruction of the fort.
In the late 1960s, the Georgia Historical Commission
Georgia Historical Commission
The Georgia Historical Commission was an organization created by the U.S. state of Georgia for purposes of historic preservation. The Georgia legislature created the commission in February 1951 to promote and increase knowledge and understanding of the history of Georgia...
acquired the site. Money was allotted for building a museum in 1967, and Fort King George Historic Site became a reality. In 1972, the site was taken over by the Department of Natural Resources, Parks, Recreation, and Historic Sites Division. In 1987, the site manager Ken Akins and the Lower Altamaha Historical Society teamed up in a drive to raise money to re-construct the fort's blockhouse. With a matching fund from the DNR
Georgia Department of Natural Resources
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources is an administrative agency of the U.S. state of Georgia. The agency has statewide responsibilities for managing and conserving Georgia’s natural, cultural, and historical resources, and is divided into six divisions:...
, the fort's reconstructed blockhouse was completed and dedicated in fall 1988. It was the center of the site's activities and programs until development in the late 1990s.
Georgia State Senator Renee Kemp, from 1999 to 2002, helped gain several hundred thousand dollars in capital investment for the site to reconstruct the fort's enlisted soldiers’ barracks, guardhouse, and officers’ quarters. Site staff re-constructed the fort's firing walls and firing steps. Over the years, site staff has added various other features. In 2004, with the installation of the fort's front and back gates, the fort was officially declared to be entirely re-constructed, something Miss Bessie had dreamed of more than five decades earlier but not lived to see.
Fort King George Historic Site has become one of Georgia's premier tourist attractions, with more than 30,000 visitors annually. Site personnel provide a wide range of award-winning living history programs dealing with Colonial Life and Military Science
Military science
Military science is the process of translating national defence policy to produce military capability by employing military scientists, including theorists, researchers, experimental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers, test technicians, and military personnel responsible for...
. The site offers special living history programs for groups with fifteen or more persons and special discount rates for such groups.
See also
- Georgia State Parks
- Darien, GeorgiaDarien, GeorgiaDarien is a city in McIntosh County, Georgia, United States. It lies on Georgia's coast at the mouth of the Altamaha River about 50 miles south of Savannah, and is part of the Brunswick, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population of Darien was 1,719 at the 2000 census. The city is the...
- McIntosh County, GeorgiaMcIntosh County, GeorgiaMcIntosh County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. It is part of the Brunswick, Georgia, Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of McIntosh, Glynn, and Brantley counties. As of 2010, the population is 14,333. The county seat is Darien.-History:McIntosh County was split...
- Fort Frederica National MonumentFort Frederica National MonumentFort Frederica National Monument, on St. Simons Island, Georgia, preserves the archaeological remnants of a fort and town built by James Oglethorpe between 1736 and 1748 to protect the southern boundary of the British colony of Georgia from Spanish raids. About 630 British troops were stationed at...
External links
Sources cited
- Barnwell, Joseph W. ed. "Fort King George – Journal of Col. John Barnwell", South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 27 (Oct. 1926)
- Barnwell, Stephen B. The Story of An American Family, Marquette: Privately printed, 1969.
- Bolton Herbert, and Mary Ross. The Debatable Land: A Sketch of the Anglo-Spanish Contest for the Georgia Country. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1925.
- Cook, Jeannine. Fort King George: Step One to Statehood. Darien: The Darien News, 1990
- Coleman, Kenneth. A History of Georgia. The University of Georgia, 1991
- Corkran, David H. The Creek Frontier, 1540-1783. New York, Norman Press, 1967.
- Edward Cashin. Lachlan McGillivray, Indian Trader: The Shaping of the Southern Colonial Frontier. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992.
- Foote, William. "The South Carolina Independents", The South Carolina Historical Magazine 112 (1961)
- Gober, Sarah B. Temple, Kenneth Coleman. Georgia Journeys: Being an Account of the Lives of Georgia's Original Settlers and Many Other Early Settlers from the Founding of the Colony in 1732 until the Institution of Royal Government in 1754. Athens: University of Georgia, 1961
- Hughson, Shirley Carter. The Carolina Pirates and Colonial Commerce, 1670–1740. Spartanburg: The Reprint Company, 1992.
- Ivers, Larry, British Drums on the Southern Frontier. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1974.
- Ivers, Larry. "Scouting the Inland Passage, 1685-1737", The South Carolina Historical Magazine 73 (1972)
- Jefferies Richard and Christopher R. Moore. "Recent Mission Period Archaeological Investigations on Sapelo Island, Georgia", Paper presented at the Spring Meeting of the Society for Georgia Archaeology Fernbank Museum of Natural History Atlanta, Georgia April 26, 2008.
- Lewis, Bessie. They Called Their Town Darien. Darien: The Darien News, 2002
- Manucy, Albert C. ed., The History of Castillo de San Marcos & Fort Matanzas: From Contemporary Narratives and Letters. Washington: National Park Service, 1945.
- Moore, Rowland, Alexander and George C. Rogers, Jr. The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina: Volume 1, 1514-1861. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996.
- Oatis, Steven J. A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
- Parker, Anthony. Scottish Highlanders in Colonial Georgia: The Recruitment, Emigration, and Settlement at Darien. Athens: The University of Georgia, 1997.
- Schaitberger, Lillian B. The Scots of McIntosh. Darien: The Lower Altamaha Historical Society, n.d.
- Schuttle, Taylor, A Guide to a Georgia Barrier Island. St. Simons: Watermarks Publishing, 2001
- Sullivan, Buddy. Early Days on the Georgia Tidewater: The Story of McIntosh County and Sapelo. Darien: Darien Printing & Graphics, 2001.
- Temple, Sarah B. Gober, Kenneth Coleman, Georgia Journeys: Being an Account of the Lives of Georgia's Original Settlers and Many Other Early Settlers from the Founding of the Colony in 1732 until the Institution of Royal Government in 1754. Athens: University of Georgia, 1961.
- Thomas, David Hurst. "The Spanish Mission Experience in La Florida", in Jeannine Cook, ed. Columbus and the Land of Ayllon: The Exploration and Settlement of the Southeast. Darien: The Lower Altamaha Historical Society, 1992.
- Waselkov, Gregory A. "The French on the Southern Colonial Frontier", paper delivered at Drums Along the Altamaha: A Historic Symposium Held at Fort King George State Historic Site November 10, 1996 Darien, Ga.
- Weir, Robert M. Colonial South Carolina: A History. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997.
- Williams, W. R. "British-American Officers 1720 to 1763", The South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine, 33 (1932).
- Worth, John. The Struggle for the Georgia Coast: An 18th Century Spanish Retrospective of Guale and Mocama. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 75 New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1995.