Gakhwangjeon Hall
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Gakhwangjeon Hall is a hall of worship at Hwaeomsa
, a Buddhist temple in Gurye
, Jeollanam-do
, South Korea
. It is one of the monastery's two principal halls and overlooks the northwest end of the courtyard. In addition to being one of the largest Buddhist halls in South Korea, Gakhwangjeon Hall is registered as National Treasure 67 by the Cultural Heritage Administration.
The largest edifice of Hwaeomsa from the Unified Silla
period until the mid-Joseon Dynasty
was Jangnyukjeon Hall, a multi-story wooden structure whose inner stone walls were inscribed with the Flower Garland Sutra. Jangnyukjeon Hall was destroyed in 1593 when the temple was burned to the ground by the Japanese during the Imjin War. The restoration of Hwaeomsa was begun in 1630 by the monk Byeogam Gakseong but at that time the cost of rebuilding Jangnyukjeon Hall was beyond the temple's means. From 1699 to 1702 the monk Gyepa Seongneung, one of Gakseong's disciples, oversaw the reconstruction of the hall, which was subsequently renamed Gakhwangjeon Hall. The majority of the funding was contributed by Lady Hwagyeong, a consort of King Sukjong
, and several noblemen holding senior positions in the government bureaucracy.
Gakhwangjeon Hall was one of the most important feats of mid-Joseon Buddhist architecture. Constructed from wood onto a stone base, the hall is two stories in height and measures seven bays
across. It underwent a major renovation in the Japanese colonial period
, during which the hall was completely disassembled and then rebuilt. The hall's inner sanctum contains seven altar statues executed in 1703 by the influential sculptor Saengnan. They include the seated Buddha
triad of Sakyamuni, Amitābha
and Prabhutaratna
, representing the Buddhas of the Three Periods, attended by standing Bodhisattva
statues of Avalokiteśvara
, Samantabhadra
, Manjusri
and Ksitigarbha
. Altar paintings of the three Buddhas were later completed in 1860, although one mistakenly depicts Bhaisajyaguru
instead of Prabhutaratna.
, in Gurye County
, Jeollanam-do
. The hall overlooks the northwest end of the courtyard, but although it is the most prominent structure, the adjacent Daeungjeon Hall is, in fact, the main hall. Gakhwangjeon Hall is accompanied in front by the temple's stone lantern (c. 9th century), the largest in the country.
period Hwaeomsa was a leading Buddhist monastery of the Flower Garland school. Its principle edifice was Jangnyukjeon Hall, a multi-story wooden structure whose inner sanctum had stone plates engraved with the entire Flower Garland Sutra attached to the walls. This building was lost however when Japanese soldiers burned Hwaeomsa to the ground in 1593 during the Imjin War. The temple was restored from 1630 to 1636 by the monk Byeogam Gakseong (1575–1660), who was also responsible for rebuilding some of the most important monasteries of the Joseon Dynasty
. Gakseong was the senior-most figure in the Righteous Monk Army and had close ties with the Joseon throne, both of which were assumed by successive generations of his disciples. At Hwaeomsa he erected Daeungjeon Hall and several other essential structures but the poor state of the post-war
economy made the cost of rebuilding Jangnyukjeon Hall prohibitive.
Records from Hwaeomsa and other monks nevertheless tell that the reconstruction of Jangnyukjeon Hall was Gakseong's dying wish. His cause was initially taken up by a disciple, the eminent monk and man of letters Baegam Seongchong (1631–1700). After a spell as abbot of Yungmusa Seongchong appears to have moved to Hwaeomsa sometime in the 1690s and wrote An Appeal for Alms to Sculpt Icons for and Rebuild Jangnyukjeon Hall of Hwaeomsa, Gurye to help solicit contributions. He brought along his student of three years, the monk Gyepa Seongneung (d.1745), whom Seongchong placed in charge of rebuilding the hall. Little has survived about Seongneung's early life. It is recorded in A Chronicle of the Great Temple Hwaeomsa of Jirisan, Honam, Haedong (henceforth Hwaeomsa Chronicle), a history of the temple compiled by Jeong Byeongheon (1891–1969), that Seongneung hailed from Yecheon.Like Gakseong, Seongneung was a great builder, acquiring the title Enlightening Hero of Adorning the Buddha Land (莊嚴佛國之開士). Following Hwaeomsa, he led the construction of the stupa at Tongdosa
(1705) and the fortification of Bukhansanseong (1711). He also appears to have been involved in the repair of Gwanchoksa at Nonsan
(1735), and Daeungjeon Hall at Ssanggyesa
in Eunjin (1738), where he exercised his formidable talents at soliciting contributions. He returned to Hwaeomsa in 1745 and died in November of that year after publishing Chronicles of Bukhan Fortress (北漢誌). See Lee 1997, pp.98–99
(r. 1674–1720), and her son Prince Yeoning, who was still but a young child. Records indicate that several notable members of the government were also contributors. These were: Choi Seokjeong (1646–1715), the senior-most member of the bureaucracy; Lee Sebaek (1635–1703), the Second State Councilor
; Sin Wan (1646–1707), a Supreme Councilor of the State Council
; Oh Doil (1645–1703), the Minister of War; Jo Sangu (b. 1640), a junior second grade official in the ministry of personnel
; a royal tutor to the crown prince surnamed Hong; a senior third grade official in the ministry of taxation named Hong Suju (1669–1731); Chae Paengyun (1669–1731), a royal scribe; and Lee Don (1642–1713), a junior second grade official in the ministry of rites.
In light of the fact that the typical benefactors of Buddhist institutions during this period were poor farmers and women their patronage proved essential, and yet odd given that by the late 17th century the Old Doctrine faction
had regained political dominance at court, fostering a renewed ostracism of Buddhism. Professor Lee Kang-geun argues that their support was part of the struggle over the royal succession. Since his birth, the Old Doctrine faction had secretly been supporting Yeoning as a possible rival to the son
of Jang Okjeong, the royal consort who had for a time supplanted Queen Inhyeon (1667–1701). Indeed, the motives of Hwagyeong, who made the donation on behalf of her son, now appear to have been more political than religious; according to Choi Wansu it was likely an attempt to extend her influence and that of her supporters in the Jeolla
region. Alternatively, Lee suggests that it might have been Inhyeon herself who was supporting the reconstruction on behalf of Hwagyeong and her son as an act of invocation for their future at court.The prince's name was incorrectly spelled on the sangnyangmun as Yeonin (延礽) instead of Yeoning (延礽). The error may have come about because his name and that of his mother appear to have been added to the document by monks at Hwaeomsa after it had already been written. See Choi 1994, p.55 Ultimately, the Old Doctrine faction would succeed in having Yeoning made crown prince in 1721, and he would later ascend the throne and rule as King Yeongjo
(r.1724–1776).
The "ridge beam scroll" (sangnyangmun), a document which describes the circumstances of a major building's construction, was penned by Chae Paengyun and placed into the ridge beam during a ceremony in 1701. According to this document the hall was designed by a crew of 45 draftsmen lead by master builder Neungo, a monk from the temple of Cheongwansa, in Jangheung. The assistant master builders were the monks Gakhe, who hailed from some unspecified temple on Mount Gyerongsan, and Wolwon, from Hongguksa, in Yeosu
. These were some of the leading Buddhist architects of the southern provinces. A further contingent of about 3000 monks from the Righteous Monk Army was mobilized from the surrounding temples in Jeollanam-do
and Gyeongsangnam-do
as manual labor, while about 150 monks from Hwaeomsa also had some direct or indirect involvement in the work. The eminent monk Muyong Suyeon (1651–1719), a disciple of Seongchong, also appears to have played a significant part in the hall's construction.At about the same time Muyong Suyeon was involved in the construction of a reliquary stupa at Tongdosa, which he wrote about in a document called To Felicitate the Construction of the Reliquary Stupa of Tongdosa, Yangsan, Gyeongsang-do and the Restoration of Jangnyukjeon Hall of Hwaeomsa, Gurye, Honam-do (慶尙道梁山通度寺聖骨靈塔及湖南求禮華嚴寺丈六重建慶讚疏). Sin Daehyeon claims that the role Suyeon played at Hwaeomsa was almost, if not equal in importance to that of Seongneung. See Sin 2009, pp.109–112 Construction of the hall was completed in 1702, for which seven altar statues were produced the following year and a week-long great dharma assembly held to commemorate their enshrinement. The building was renamed Gakhwangjeon Hall (Hall of the Enlightened Lord) after a new name table was sent from the capital. According to the inscription, it was produced in 1703 by Lee Jinhyu (1657–1710), a junior second grade official in the Ministry of Punishments.In 1705 Lee became a junior second grade official (champan) in the Ministry of Rites. An accomplished calligrapher, later examples of his work can be found on a monument adjoining the reliquary stupa at Tongdosa, and another at Seonamsa commemorating its repair. The presence of the official's signature is a seen as a clear indication that Lee was ordered to write the name tablet by the royal court.
, the later one of the major patrons of the work. The building was repaired again in 1847 to replace rotted wood, broken roof tiles and wall paintings. This was followed by more work in 1851, 1860 (when new altar paintings were enshrined), and again in 1885.
The hall then underwent significant renovation in the Japanese colonial period
, during which it was completely disassembled and then rebuilt. The only surviving accounts come from Fujishima Gaijiro (1899–2002), the Japanese architect who first proposed and was later appointed to lead the renovations. Gaijiro first visited Hwaeomsa in 1928, making two more visits during the same year to research and photograph the temple. He published his study in 1930,Published in 建築雑誌 (Journal of Architecture and Building Science) Vol. 44 No. 536, August 1930. emphasizing the urgency of making repairs to Gakhwangjeon Hall, the roof of which was so badly damaged that it was letting in rain while several collapsed columns had also caused the building to lean over. After becoming abbot of Hwaeomsa, Jeong Byeongheon petitioned for and received financial support from the Government General
to cover the substantial costs of the renovations, which would have otherwise been beyond the means of the temple. The renovations began in 1936, but as no report was ever published, the alterations made to the building have had to be deduced from surviving blueprints produced during the repairs as well as from photos taken immediately after the work was completed in May 1941.
The hall has been repaired several times since liberation. In 1961, repairs were made to the roof under the direction of Im Cheon (1908–1965), who had also participated in the restoration of the hall's wall paintings in 1939. More roof work was probably carried out in 1964. From 1966 to 1969, the building was restored again and a survey of the building was also carried out by the Bureau of Cultural Property. There was more roof work in 1983, while the altar was repaired in 1984. Another survey by the Bureau of Cultural Property, this time of all the temple buildings and stonework, was carried out from 1985 to 1986. In 2000 the roof was repaired again, as was the front stair case. A survey was conducted of Gakhwangjeon Hall from 2008 to 2009 by the Cultural Heritage Administration.
base once used by Jangnyukjeon Hall, constructed in the post and lintel
style (gagusikgidan) that was emblematic of late Unified Silla architecture. At a height of about 1 m (3.3 ft), its size is more comparable with Joseon palace architecture than contemporary Buddhist halls. The walls measure 30.9 m (101.4 ft) along the face and 22.48 m (73.8 ft) on the sides, their surfaces interrupted at regular intervals by post stones. Lintels are laid over top, forming nearly symmetrical eaves with the edges of the square slab stones the base rests on. The rectangular surface is covered in square inlaid blocks with a total area of 694 square metre. There are forty round column bases set on square pedestals, each about 1 m (3.3 ft) across and carved from single pieces of granite. After centuries of sinking under the weight of the building, the heights of the column bases have come to vary widely. Traces of the groves that once held in place the stone plates inscribed with the Flower Garland Sutra are also visible on many of their sides. Four smaller square column bases are found at the corners of the building for the poles buttressing the eaves of the roof. The staircases at the center of the face and rear, as well as toward the front on the sides, each have six steps and triangular slabs which form the railings. A culvert
runs around the rear and sides of the building.
The base underwent extensive restoration during the colonial-era. Many sections had to be replaced with new masonry, in part due to the fire damage sustained during the Imjin War as well as from centuries of accumulated decay. Prior to restoration, the basic shape of the facade
had still been largely intact but the other three sides had lost nearly all form. Extant diagrams from the period indicate that the lintel stones were shattered while many of the walls had crumbled to pieces. Most of the square blocks presently covering the surface were also laid during this period, although they are known to have been part of the original design.
. The interior columns and the four central columns, which are 13.5 m (44.3 ft) high and positioned behind the altar, together support the roof of the second floor. Each of the columns were made from individual tree trunks, initially just stripped of their bark with the natural curvature largely left in. The outer columns and the upper part of the interior columns, though, were refashioned into more standard tapered columns during the colonial-era, and a few were replaced with new timber altogether.
The hall is seven bays
across and five deep. The central bays are the widest and grow narrower toward the extremities to draw attention to the center of the building. The bay lengths are the same across both floors except for the outermost of the second floor, which are half the length of the lower floor. The exterior and interior columns are connected laterally at the heads with mortise and tenon joints
, reinforced with thick lintels
that rest on the tenons, and to each other by a series of crossbeams.
The extensive latticework
installed between the columns allows light to flood the inner sanctuary and creates a more open environment than other contemporary structures. On the first floor, the three central bays of the facade have four-panel doors while the remainder have two-paneled doors. These doors open inwards and use the ornate gyeokjagyosal lattice—a combination of a vertical, horizontal and 45° diagonal lattice ribs—in the midsection, with a section of diagonal lattice (bitsalmun) above and a flat panel below. The use of gyeokjagyosal was exceptionally rare, earlier examples of which from the Joseon Dynasty are found only at Geungnakjeon Hall of Muwisa
and Daeungjeon Hall of Hongguksa. Outward opening door panels with comparatively modest belt-lattice (ddisalmun) occupy the first, third and fifth bays of the side walls and all but the outer-most bays of the rear wall, which have fixed wall panels of the same design instead. The mild degree of weathering seen in the side and rear doors compared to the front suggest that they were repaired or even replaced during the colonial-era. The spaces between the columns of the second floor have windows of vertical lattice (jeongjamun), the light passing through which illuminates the faces of the altar statues.
. Situated at the absolute center of the building, it occupies a space five bays long by one deep. Its three-tiered structure, with raised daises for altar statues, was widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries. Notably, the panels along the face and sides, which lack either painting or relief imagery, as well as the uncharacteristically simple borders, suggest that the altar was reconstructed along simpler lines during the colonial-era renovations. The absence of a canopy, however, is typical for halls of this size.
The coffered
ceiling of recessed panels is flat directly above the altar (an area equivalent to three by one bays) but otherwise slanted downwards. The central columns, which stretch across the hall, form a wall behind the altar from which the altar paintings hang. The rear side is covered in mortuary tablets for the deceased, at the center of which is a statue of the Buddha Amithaba dating to the modern era. The central position of the wall and altar appear to sharply reduce the size of the worship space when compared to the relatively large area at the rear of the hall. Red fences with spiked tops (hongsalchaek) had originally been used to block passage from the rear to the interior of the hall but these were removed during the colonial-era. The inlaid blocks of the stone base were visible until they were covered with wooden flooring in 1998.
on the first floor and hipped
on the second. Their double eaves appear to curl up at the edges, the exposed rafters spread evenly along the lengths and then fanning out at the corners (seonjayeon). The eight protruding corners are buttressed by poles that bend heavily under the weight. The ridge line is 24 m (78.7 ft) long, and the gables are 4.8 m (15.7 ft) high and 12.5 m (41 ft) across at their lowest points.
Underneath the eaves is a canopy of multiple interlocking brackets
. A total of 120 bracket
clusters distributed across both floors (64 above, 56 below) support a set of two purlins
on the interior and exterior of the building. There is one cluster atop each column and two intercolumnar clusters per bay, but only one in the outer bays of the first floor and none on the second because of their shorter length. The canopy is clearly functional rather than decorative, especially when contrasted to the great size of the roof and the greater elaborateness typically seen in one-story structures. The design of the each cluster's four brackets are identical on the exterior: the lower two curve upwards (angseohyeong), the third downward (suseohyeong), while the fourth spirals into cloud-shaped crockets (ungonghyeong). However, on the inside there are eight varieties of the upper two brackets, varying in design according to their position within the hall. The elephant-shaped appearance of the upper bracket crockets was common to 17th–century Buddhist halls, but the lower two brackets have an almost quarter circle-like curvature unlike the more commonly seen bowed shaped.
The roof has been re-tiled multiple times since the renovations of the 1930s. The tiles on the upper tier are of the traditional Korean style (guwa), and include a combination of hand-made and machine-made tiles, several of which notably bear a stamp that reads "Repaired in the 12th and 13th year of Shōwa
" (1937 to 1938); the lower tier has modern machine-made tiles only. The eaves alternate between crescent-shaped tiles (ammaksae) carved with double-headed dragons bisected by an inscription with their year of production (1967 or 1999), and circular tiles (sumaksae) with either a ten-leaf lotus flower or the syllable om
in Sanskrit
. Perched at the ends of the ridge line and the corners of the eaves are decorative tiles (mangwa) identical to the crescent-shaped eave tiles. The ones at the bottom of the gables, though dating to 1938, were modeled after the original tiles from 1700 and include the names of financial contributors to the roof work.
that once adorned the background has faded completely bare, the writing itself still retains its white coloring.
Verse couplets (juryun) written onto eight tablets hang from each of the first floor columns at the front of the building. Such verses are usually related to the icons enshrined inside, but in the case of Gakhwangjeon Hall the first stanza of four lines describes the monk Yeongi, the founder of Hwaeomsa, and was borrowed from the writings of National Preceptor Uicheon (1055–1101); meanwhile the second stanza is of unknown origin.
From right side of the building to left they read:
The year of their production is unknown but the signature indicates that the tablets were produced by Kim Yonggu (1907–1982), the same calligrapher who made the verse tablets for Daeungjeon Hall. The tablets are undecorated, measuring about 3.5 m (11.5 ft) in length and 0.4 m (1.3 ft) across.
Colonial-era wind bells hang from each of the eight protruding corners.
, or decorative paintwork, of Gakhwangjeon Hall's exterior has almost completely worn away. The remnants around the bracketing, and photos from Record of Ancient Sites and Monuments in Korea, however, indicate that the building had originally been painted in the sophisticated geumdancheong style. The triangular-shaped wall paintings between the bracket clusters of the first floor are the largest visible sections, alternating between potted lotus flowers and peony blossoms
. On the facade they are depicted in full bloom but on the side walls they can be seen growing smaller in size until towards the rear, where the lotuses are mere buds while the peonies appear as lilies of the valley
. The considerable fading make it impossible to see the flowers' original coloring except for some spots of barely visible white, crimson and green, and the outlines of the flower pots. It appears as though the design of the rear differed entirely from the front, as evidenced by the three remaining paintings of the egret
, depicted flying with great composure, wings completely extended, while their long and slender necks droop downwards and their legs are raised as if to take a step forward. The extant wall paintings on the second floor are exclusively lotus flowers.
The painted surfaces of the interior are in a relatively better state of preservation, revealing the hall to be a striking example of Jeolla-do regional dancheong, as well as representing a transition between 17th and 18th–century styles. A diversity of ornate patterns making great use of green, salmon, and red ocher cover every surface of the beams and brackets. The ceiling panels are decorated with floral patterns of lotus flowers, peony blossoms, crimson four-leaf flowers (juhwa), and floating lotuses. The panels on the flat portion of the ceiling each display floral patterns against a background of red ocher while surrounded by arabesques of green, blue and salmon. On the slanted portion of the ceiling the panels feature a lotus flower surrounded by flowers and arabesques, or with a Chinese character written in each of its eight petals. The spaces between the purlins are decorated with cloud patterns (unmun) on an earth-yellow background and outlined in green.
Wall panels depicting the arhats line the upper floor, between each of which dragon faces have been painted. Some arhats appear to face outwards with backs bent over like a crescent-shaped moon, or gaze skywards with a gaping mouth and hands folded in behind the back. Others are seen standing upright, wielding a cintamani
in one hand, or have their heads lowered and eyes closed, as if in silent meditation. Their colorless figures have been captured with simple but powerful brush strokes, while the trails of their robes almost appear to disappear as they flutter into the wind. The spaces between the bracket clusters each display a seated Buddha. Painted onto a background of red ocher, each figure has a nimbus
while the curled hair has been rendered in a heavily exaggerated manner. A gem is visible in the topknot while the oval face displays a crimson urna
on the forehead. Both hands are raised chest high with the trails of the robes draped over top.
Arhats are also painted onto many of the beams and walls of the lower floor, depicted by a stream under a green tree with a trunk colored brightly in red ocher, accompanied by a heavenly boy monk, dragon or tiger. Although drawn mostly in black ink against an earth-yellow background, the light coloring of the arhat's salmon skin, the tiger's white feet, and dragon's crimson tongue serve to accentuate the image. Visible elsewhere are images of apsaras carrying a janggu
around the neck and a drumstick in the right hand, their heavenly robes fluttering in the wind as if descending from the heavens. The seated Buddhas among the brackets appear on lotus pedestals surrounded by nimbuses of the five cardinal colors; the urna is flesh-colored, while some images omit the topknot gem entirely. The hands are mainly seen in the Vajra or Dharmacakra mudrā, while some are positioned in the Bhumisparsha mudrā or with hands held chest-high.
Written across the central tenons above the front entrance are His Majesty the Sovereign (主上殿下), Her Royal Highness the Queen Consort (王妃殿下), and His Royal Highness the Prince Successor (世子邸下).
as Buddha of the past, and Amitābha
as Buddha of the future (not to be confused with the triad of Sakyamuni, Dīpankara and Maitreya
in the Lotus Sutra
). This unusual combination of Buddha statues is unique to Hwaeomsa, but was frequently featured in gwebuls from the province of Jeolla
throughout the 18th century, including pieces from Naesosa (1700), Cheonggoksa (1722), Anguksa (1728), Unheungsa (1730), Dabosa (1745), and Gaeamsa (1749). The origin of the arrangement may not be scriptural, Buddhist scholar Oh Jinhee asserts, rather representing a visualization from The Collected Five Voices of the Brahma, a ceremonial book first published in 1661 used to wish the dead a peaceful afterlife. Its preface was written by Byeogam Gakseong, suggesting a role in the selection of icons decades before their realization. Four Bodhisattvas stand interspaced between the Buddhas. Viewing left to right, they are Avalokiteśvara
, the Bodhisattva of compassion; Samantabhadra
, the Bodhisattva of meditation; Manjusri
, the Bodhisattva of wisdom; and Ksitigarbha
, the Bodhisattva of hell.
To produce the icons, contributions of money, paddy fields, and grain were provided by eleven monks, seven laymen and one court lady. They were executed by a guild of twenty-three monks lead by the influential sculptor Saengnan, from the temple of Neungasa, in Goheung County.Saengnan may have begun sculpting as early as the 1660s, and was probably in his 50s or 60s when he produced the altar statues for Gakhwangjeon Hall. Other extant examples of his work can be found at Jeongsusa (1684), Cheoneunsa (1693), Ssangbongsa (1694), the hermitage of Chukseongam (1700), as well as the hermitage of Seongdoam. The other primary sculptors were Chungok, Ilgi, Eungwon, Chupyeong, and Chubung, of whom the later three were probably Saengnan's most gifted disciples, having worked under him for about twenty years. Saengnan personally sculpted the statue of Sakyamuni and worked with Chubung to produce Avalokiteśvara, both pieces representing his finest work. Prabhutaratna and Manjusri were sculpted by Chungok, a monk from Songgwangsa
who was working with Saengnan for the first time, but about whom little else is known. Amitabha was produced by Ilgi, of Naesosa, Samantabhadra by Eungwon, and Ksitigarbha by Chupyeong.
, the Buddha's upper body has rounded shoulders and a wide chest, while his hands are in the bhumisparsha mudrā. Characteristically, the size of the head is large compared to the body. The face appears flat and square in shape but the curvature in the chin and cheeks, as well as the soft smile formed from its thin lips, give the icon a genial countenance. The facial features, especially the prominent nose between the statue's long, half-open eyes are an example of a style that first became prevalent with the Trikaya
statues of Sinheungsa in 1651. There is an urna visible between the eyebrows, as well as an ushnisha
, denoted by the hair cropped in small spiral curls, and a half-moon shaped jewel (gyeju) protruding just above the forehead. The robes drape over the left shoulder only, wrapping around the front in a U-shape, leaving the statue exposed from the chest to the upper waist. The waistcoat is creased into the shape of five lotus petals, and the ends of the robes trail off over the left knee in the shape of a lotus bud.
The slightly smaller statues of Prabhutaratna and Amitābha closely resemble Sakyamuni, in addition to forming near mirror images of each other. Each is depicted with their hands in a variation of the vitarka mudrā, whereby the thumb and the middle finger touch while the remaining fingers are extended. In the case of Prabhutaratna, the left hand is raised while the right rests lightly over the knee, while on Amitābha this is reversed. Just above the legs there are two folds in the robes of Prabhutaratna compared to three for Amitābha, an example of the greater simplicity typically found in the attendant to the right in sculpture from this period. The two figures stand 3.2 m (10.5 ft) high and 2 m (6.6 ft) wide.
Despite the difference in their postures, the overall physical presentation and sculptural technique displayed by the Bodhisattvas are identical to that of the Buddha statues. The faces, in particular, have the same half-open eyes, protruding nose and thin lips characteristic of late 17th-century Buddhist sculpture. But in contrast to the relative simplicity of the seated Buddhas, the standing Bodhisattva statues are highly ornate, especially in their elaborate crowns and drapery.
The crown is positioned high atop the topknot from which billowing flames appear to be pouring down each side of the head. The upper section is adorned with five flame ornaments surrounding a small flower at the center, inside which are two birds who sit facing each other. A ten-leaf lotus flower surrounded by flames adorns the lower half of the crown along with several five-petaled flowers, while to each side sits a fenghuang
on a finely sculpted cloud. From underneath the crown, a strand of the Bodhisattva's minutely depicted hair can be seen twisting and meandering down each side of the head.
The drapery of Manjusri and Samantabhadra is largely identical. Their robes display an elaborate array of folds and creases that resemble lotus flowers around the waist and serrated blades of grass near the knees. The outer cloaks are rendered in the style of celestial garments, draped over both shoulders and flowing downward to the feet. Wide belts are wrapped around each figure's waist, the ends of which are tied in knots and flow down between the legs, twisting together at the feet. Unlike Manjusri, though, Samantha's belt is sumptuously decorated with flowers.
The drapery of Ksitigarbha and Avalokiteśvara is also identical. Their outer cloaks resemble those worn by monks, covering both of Ksitigarbha's shoulders but only the right of Avalokiteśvara. Shaped like a crescent on the right side, the cloaks are folded at the elbows and flow downward toward the feet. A waistcoat is worn over their robes, which are decoratively folded below the waist in what appears to be the shape of a letter U veering slightly to the right. The hems at the bottom are pointed like the trailing end of a bird's wing.
, the Buddha of healing and medicine, whom is depicted in the altar painting to the left. The true identity of the altar statue only became evident when the "chest concealed record" (bokjanggi) was retrieved from inside one of the statues in 1975. Although it is unknown how the statue's identity came to be forgotten, Hwang Hogyun suggests that the change to Bhaisajyaguru may simply reflect a development in belief structure that occurred over the 150 years separating the production of the statues and the paintings.
Each piece is largely identical in style and structure, with a seated Buddha surrounded by over twenty attendants arranged symmetrically in three rows that span the width of the canvas. The figures are painted in gold onto red silk (hongtaenghwa), each of the canvases made from attaching together eleven separate lengths of silk side by side. The delicate brush strokes and the effective use of contrasting color compensate in vividness for the size and uniformity of the paintings. The attendants decrease in size while the brightness of their skin increases from the bottom to the top of the paintings, adding perspective and creating a visual synergy characteristic of Joseon-era Buddhist art. They are in an excellent state of preservation except for some slight peeling along the edges, and are described by the Cultural Heritage Administration as "having significant historical value for their display of the main characteristics of Joseon Buddhist art."
On the wall to the left of the altar is a painting of the assembly of guardian deities (sinjungtaenghwa), executed in 1965 by Kim Uil (1901–1998), the best pupil of the Buddhist artist Kim Ilseop (1901–1975).
On the opposite side of the hall are portraits of Zen Master Reesandan Dogwang (1937–1984) and Patriarch Dongheondang Wongyu (1896–1983).
An assembly of twenty-eight deities surrounds the Buddha. At the forefront, making up the first row, are the Four Great Bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara, Manjusri, Samantabhadra and Mahāsthāmaprāpta. The halos of Manjusri and Samantabhadra are green and outlined in gold, in contrast to those of Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, which are done in gold only. Avalokiteśvara is holding a blue kundika, Manjusri a lotus bud, Samantabhadra a cintamani, while the hands of Mahāsthāmaprāpta are clasped together. Pedestals of blue lotus flowers can be seen beneath their feet. In the second row, Sakyamuni is flanked by the Buddhas Vipaśyin
and Śikhin (seen near Sakyamuni's head), below whom are the Eight Great Bodhisattvas arranged symmetrically in groups of four. They are depicted slightly smaller than the Bodhisattvas of the front row, and with brighter skin. Maitreya, Vajragarbha, Bhaisajyaraja and Mahêśvara
are on the left side while Dīpankara, Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin
, Bhaiṣajyasamudgata and Śakra are on the right. The bodies, robes, crowns, and halos are outlined in gold against the red background, while the hair is cobalt blue. At the rear of the assembly, the third row is made up of the ten principal disciples
, a pair of heavenly boy monks and another pair of apsaras. Except for their black hair and exposed flesh of their faces and hands, these figures are red and outlined in gold. The canvas measures 6.75 m (22.1 ft) by 3.945 m (12.9 ft).
style, from which auspicious beams of light stream out in three directions. Although the body is well-proportioned overall, the breadth of the knees appear small compared to the torso, in addition to being much smaller than the lower body of Sakyamuni. The Buddha's red robes display a rope curtain pattern of yellowish-white with a band of flowers and serrated half-circles embroidered along the ends. They are draped over the right shoulder, while an overcoat covers the left shoulder and has been lightly thrown over the right shoulder. The body is surrounded by a circular nimbus of cobalt blue and the head in a halo of green, both outlined in the five cardinal colors.
An assembly of twenty-two deities surrounds Bhaisajyaguru. Standing in the first row are the Bodhisattvas Suryaprabha and Candraprabha
, flanked, respectively, by the Heavenly Kings
of the south and west, Virūḍhaka
and Virūpākṣa
. The second row is made up of the Bodhisattvas Maitreya, Manjusri, and Vajragarbha on the right side of Bhaisajyaguru, while Avalokiteśvara, Samantabhadra, and Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin are on the left. In the third row, to the right of the of the Buddha's nimbus, are the Buddha Viśvabhū, a serpent spirit general
, and a heavenly boy-monk, while to the left are the Buddha Krakucchanda, another serpent spirit general, and an apsara. Like the painting of Sakyamuni, the size of the attendants grow smaller towards the rear and their skin color grows white. In addition, the skin color of Bhaisajyaguru and the eight Bodhisattvas surrounding him has been brightened to a yellowish-white hue, focusing the attention of the viewer on the center of the painting. The various attendants' bodies, robes and crowns are painted with strong steely lines, while items like the vajra
and jeweled sword are brightly painted in white-ultramarine to add contrasting color. The canvas measures 6.62 m (21.7 ft) by 4 m (13.1 ft).
An assembly of twenty-two deities surrounds Amitābha. The facial expressions of the four deities in the first row are depicted with great joy. To the left are the Bodhisattva Cundi
and the Heavenly King Dhṛtarāṣṭra playing a musical instrument, while to the right are Mahāsthāmaprāpta and the Heavenly King Vaiśravaṇa holding both a pagoda and a floral pennant. Six Bodhisattvas surround Bhaisajyaguru in the second row: the three to the left are probably Maitreya, Manjusri and Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin, while those to the right are Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra and Vajragarbha. In the third row, Amitābha is flanked, respectively, by the Buddhas of the past Kanakamuni and Kassapa
(visible by Amitābha's halo), behind whom are Sariputta, Subhuti
, Hogyedaesin, Yama
, Sarasvati towards the left, while Ananda
, Bokdeokdaesin, the Dragon King Sagara, and Lakshmi
are to the right (one figure has yet to be unidentified). At the very top, devas flank the white lotus canopy. The canvas measures 6.7 m (22 ft) by 4 m (13.1 ft).
, the Bodhisattva of the Protection of Buddhist Doctrine. To the left are Saraswati
, Hogyedaesin, Vaisravana and Dhrtarastra, and to the right are Lakshmi, Bokdeokdaesin, Vaiśravaṇa and Virūpākṣa. On the left side of the second row are Tojisin
, Garamsin, Panchika, Munhosin, the Water-ruling spirit, and Bangwisin; while to the right side are Doryangsin, Oktaeksin, Mahogara, Juhwasin, and Sijiksin. In the center of the third row is an Asura
, to whose left are Sikhin, Jusansin, a kinnara
, and Sūrya, and to whose right are Śakra, Garuda
, Jujosin, and Candra. The fourth row is composed of ten apsaras and heavenly boy monks. The canvas measures 2.07 m (6.8 ft) by 3.36 m (11 ft).
67 in 1962.
It is one of only four extant multi-story Buddhist halls dating to the 17th century; its contemporaries including Daeungbojeon Hall (1618) and Palsangjeon Hall
(1626) of Beopjusa
, as well as Mireukjeon Hall (1635) of Geumsansa
. Of these, Gakhwangjeon Hall most closely resembles Daeungbojeon Hall, the two halls being of the same size with nearly identical interiors. Examples of structures with seven-by-five bay dimensions are also exceedingly rare, Gakhwangjeon Hall being the sole to have been built during the late Joseon period.
Hwaeomsa
Hwaeomsa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism. It is located on the slopes of Jiri-san, in Masan-myeon, Gurye County, in the province of Jeollanam-do, South Korea...
, a Buddhist temple in Gurye
Gurye County
Gurye is a county in the province of Jeollanam-do, South Korea. Gurye is a small, picturesque farming town situated between Jirisan and the Seomjin River. Gurye is the sole designated special tourism and leisure zone in all of Jeollanam-do...
, Jeollanam-do
Jeollanam-do
Jeollanam-do is a province in the southwest of South Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the southern half of the former Jeolla province, remained a province of Korea until the country's division in 1945, then became part of South Korea...
, South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
. It is one of the monastery's two principal halls and overlooks the northwest end of the courtyard. In addition to being one of the largest Buddhist halls in South Korea, Gakhwangjeon Hall is registered as National Treasure 67 by the Cultural Heritage Administration.
The largest edifice of Hwaeomsa from the Unified Silla
Unified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
period until the mid-Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
was Jangnyukjeon Hall, a multi-story wooden structure whose inner stone walls were inscribed with the Flower Garland Sutra. Jangnyukjeon Hall was destroyed in 1593 when the temple was burned to the ground by the Japanese during the Imjin War. The restoration of Hwaeomsa was begun in 1630 by the monk Byeogam Gakseong but at that time the cost of rebuilding Jangnyukjeon Hall was beyond the temple's means. From 1699 to 1702 the monk Gyepa Seongneung, one of Gakseong's disciples, oversaw the reconstruction of the hall, which was subsequently renamed Gakhwangjeon Hall. The majority of the funding was contributed by Lady Hwagyeong, a consort of King Sukjong
Sukjong of Joseon
Sukjong was the 19th king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1674 to 1720.- Biography :King Sukjong was born on 15 August 1661 to King Hyeonjong and Queen Myeongseong at Changdeok Palace. His given name was Yi Sun...
, and several noblemen holding senior positions in the government bureaucracy.
Gakhwangjeon Hall was one of the most important feats of mid-Joseon Buddhist architecture. Constructed from wood onto a stone base, the hall is two stories in height and measures seven bays
Bay (architecture)
A bay is a unit of form in architecture. This unit is defined as the zone between the outer edges of an engaged column, pilaster, or post; or within a window frame, doorframe, or vertical 'bas relief' wall form.-Defining elements:...
across. It underwent a major renovation in the Japanese colonial period
Korea under Japanese rule
Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Japanese rule ended in 1945 shortly after the Japanese defeat in World War II....
, during which the hall was completely disassembled and then rebuilt. The hall's inner sanctum contains seven altar statues executed in 1703 by the influential sculptor Saengnan. They include the seated Buddha
Buddha
In Buddhism, buddhahood is the state of perfect enlightenment attained by a buddha .In Buddhism, the term buddha usually refers to one who has become enlightened...
triad of Sakyamuni, Amitābha
Amitabha
Amitābha is a celestial buddha described in the scriptures of the Mahāyāna school of Buddhism...
and Prabhutaratna
Prabhutaratna
Prabhūtaratna , also known as Abundant Treasures, is the Buddha whom Shakyamuni is closely associated with in the Threefold Lotus Sutra, namely in the Lotus Sutra itself and the Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra.- In the Lotus Sutra :In...
, representing the Buddhas of the Three Periods, attended by standing Bodhisattva
Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened existence or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one for enlightenment ." The Pali term has sometimes been translated as "wisdom-being," although in modern publications, and...
statues of Avalokiteśvara
Avalokitesvara
Avalokiteśvara is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He is one of the more widely revered bodhisattvas in mainstream Mahayana Buddhism....
, Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra , is a bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism associated with Buddhist practice and meditation. Together with Shakyamuni Buddha and fellow bodhisattva Manjusri he forms the Shakyamuni trinity in Buddhism...
, Manjusri
Manjusri
Mañjuśrī is a bodhisattva associated with transcendent wisdom in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Esoteric Buddhism he is also taken as a meditational deity. The Sanskrit name Mañjuśrī can be translated as "Gentle Glory"...
and Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha is a bodhisattva primarily revered in East Asian Buddhism, usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient. The name may be translated as "Earth Treasury", "Earth Store", "Earth Matrix", or "Earth Womb"...
. Altar paintings of the three Buddhas were later completed in 1860, although one mistakenly depicts Bhaisajyaguru
Bhaisajyaguru
Bhaiṣajyaguru , formally Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabharāja , is the buddha of healing and medicine in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Commonly referred to as the "Medicine Buddha", he is described as a doctor who cures suffering using the medicine of his teachings.-Origin:...
instead of Prabhutaratna.
Location
Gakhwangjeon Hall is the largest hall of worship at the Korean Buddhist temple HwaeomsaHwaeomsa
Hwaeomsa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism. It is located on the slopes of Jiri-san, in Masan-myeon, Gurye County, in the province of Jeollanam-do, South Korea...
, in Gurye County
Gurye County
Gurye is a county in the province of Jeollanam-do, South Korea. Gurye is a small, picturesque farming town situated between Jirisan and the Seomjin River. Gurye is the sole designated special tourism and leisure zone in all of Jeollanam-do...
, Jeollanam-do
Jeollanam-do
Jeollanam-do is a province in the southwest of South Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the southern half of the former Jeolla province, remained a province of Korea until the country's division in 1945, then became part of South Korea...
. The hall overlooks the northwest end of the courtyard, but although it is the most prominent structure, the adjacent Daeungjeon Hall is, in fact, the main hall. Gakhwangjeon Hall is accompanied in front by the temple's stone lantern (c. 9th century), the largest in the country.
Background
During the Unified SillaUnified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
period Hwaeomsa was a leading Buddhist monastery of the Flower Garland school. Its principle edifice was Jangnyukjeon Hall, a multi-story wooden structure whose inner sanctum had stone plates engraved with the entire Flower Garland Sutra attached to the walls. This building was lost however when Japanese soldiers burned Hwaeomsa to the ground in 1593 during the Imjin War. The temple was restored from 1630 to 1636 by the monk Byeogam Gakseong (1575–1660), who was also responsible for rebuilding some of the most important monasteries of the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
. Gakseong was the senior-most figure in the Righteous Monk Army and had close ties with the Joseon throne, both of which were assumed by successive generations of his disciples. At Hwaeomsa he erected Daeungjeon Hall and several other essential structures but the poor state of the post-war
First Manchu invasion of Korea
The First Manchu invasion of Korea occurred in 1627, when Hong Taiji led the Manchu army against Korea's Joseon dynasty. It was followed by the Second Manchu invasion of Korea.-Background:...
economy made the cost of rebuilding Jangnyukjeon Hall prohibitive.
Records from Hwaeomsa and other monks nevertheless tell that the reconstruction of Jangnyukjeon Hall was Gakseong's dying wish. His cause was initially taken up by a disciple, the eminent monk and man of letters Baegam Seongchong (1631–1700). After a spell as abbot of Yungmusa Seongchong appears to have moved to Hwaeomsa sometime in the 1690s and wrote An Appeal for Alms to Sculpt Icons for and Rebuild Jangnyukjeon Hall of Hwaeomsa, Gurye to help solicit contributions. He brought along his student of three years, the monk Gyepa Seongneung (d.1745), whom Seongchong placed in charge of rebuilding the hall. Little has survived about Seongneung's early life. It is recorded in A Chronicle of the Great Temple Hwaeomsa of Jirisan, Honam, Haedong (henceforth Hwaeomsa Chronicle), a history of the temple compiled by Jeong Byeongheon (1891–1969), that Seongneung hailed from Yecheon.Like Gakseong, Seongneung was a great builder, acquiring the title Enlightening Hero of Adorning the Buddha Land (莊嚴佛國之開士). Following Hwaeomsa, he led the construction of the stupa at Tongdosa
Tongdosa
Tongdosa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism and in the southern part of Mt...
(1705) and the fortification of Bukhansanseong (1711). He also appears to have been involved in the repair of Gwanchoksa at Nonsan
Nonsan
Nonsan is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It is located at . Nonsan is also called Nolmoi, meaning dusk or yellow mountain ; "Nonsan" means rice paddies + mountain.-History:...
(1735), and Daeungjeon Hall at Ssanggyesa
Ssanggyesa
Ssanggyesa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism. It is located on the southern slopes of Jirisan, southwest of sacred Samshin-bong Peak, in the Hwagye-dong Valley of Hwagae-myeon, Hadong County, in the province of Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea.The temple was founded in 722 by two...
in Eunjin (1738), where he exercised his formidable talents at soliciting contributions. He returned to Hwaeomsa in 1745 and died in November of that year after publishing Chronicles of Bukhan Fortress (北漢誌). See Lee 1997, pp.98–99
Construction
Seongneung began construction work in 1699, although Seongchong himself died in 1700 before it could be completed. The reconstruction was made possible by a combination of the temple's influence, state patronage and royal interest. The principle patrons were Lady Hwagyeong (1670–1718), a royal consort to King SukjongSukjong of Joseon
Sukjong was the 19th king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1674 to 1720.- Biography :King Sukjong was born on 15 August 1661 to King Hyeonjong and Queen Myeongseong at Changdeok Palace. His given name was Yi Sun...
(r. 1674–1720), and her son Prince Yeoning, who was still but a young child. Records indicate that several notable members of the government were also contributors. These were: Choi Seokjeong (1646–1715), the senior-most member of the bureaucracy; Lee Sebaek (1635–1703), the Second State Councilor
Jwauijeong
Jwauijeong was the Second State Councillor of "Uijeongbu" which position was right below to Yeonguijeong during the Joseon Dynasty of Korea...
; Sin Wan (1646–1707), a Supreme Councilor of the State Council
State Council of Joseon
The State Council of Joseon or Uijeongbu was the highest organ of government under the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. It was led by three officials known as the High State Councillors...
; Oh Doil (1645–1703), the Minister of War; Jo Sangu (b. 1640), a junior second grade official in the ministry of personnel
Six Ministries of Joseon
The Six Ministries of Joseon were the major executive bodies of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. They included ministries of Personnel , Taxation , Rites , Military Affairs , Punishments , and Public works .It was established in 1298...
; a royal tutor to the crown prince surnamed Hong; a senior third grade official in the ministry of taxation named Hong Suju (1669–1731); Chae Paengyun (1669–1731), a royal scribe; and Lee Don (1642–1713), a junior second grade official in the ministry of rites.
In light of the fact that the typical benefactors of Buddhist institutions during this period were poor farmers and women their patronage proved essential, and yet odd given that by the late 17th century the Old Doctrine faction
Political factions in Joseon Dynasty
The Bungdang refers to political factionalism that was characteristic of Middle and Late Joseon Dynasty. Throughout the dynasty, various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance in the political system...
had regained political dominance at court, fostering a renewed ostracism of Buddhism. Professor Lee Kang-geun argues that their support was part of the struggle over the royal succession. Since his birth, the Old Doctrine faction had secretly been supporting Yeoning as a possible rival to the son
Gyeongjong of Joseon
Gyeongjong was the 20th king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. He was the son of Sukjong by Jang Hui-bin.In 1690, Gyeongjong's designation as heir to the throne precipitated a struggle between the Noron and the Soron faction, which supported Gyeongjong of Joseon...
of Jang Okjeong, the royal consort who had for a time supplanted Queen Inhyeon (1667–1701). Indeed, the motives of Hwagyeong, who made the donation on behalf of her son, now appear to have been more political than religious; according to Choi Wansu it was likely an attempt to extend her influence and that of her supporters in the Jeolla
Jeolla
Jeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
region. Alternatively, Lee suggests that it might have been Inhyeon herself who was supporting the reconstruction on behalf of Hwagyeong and her son as an act of invocation for their future at court.The prince's name was incorrectly spelled on the sangnyangmun as Yeonin (延礽) instead of Yeoning (延礽). The error may have come about because his name and that of his mother appear to have been added to the document by monks at Hwaeomsa after it had already been written. See Choi 1994, p.55 Ultimately, the Old Doctrine faction would succeed in having Yeoning made crown prince in 1721, and he would later ascend the throne and rule as King Yeongjo
Yeongjo of Joseon
Yeongjo was the twenty-first king of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. He was the second son of Sukjong by Lady Suk-bin of the Choi clan , succeeded his older brother Gyeongjong.-Reign:...
(r.1724–1776).
The "ridge beam scroll" (sangnyangmun), a document which describes the circumstances of a major building's construction, was penned by Chae Paengyun and placed into the ridge beam during a ceremony in 1701. According to this document the hall was designed by a crew of 45 draftsmen lead by master builder Neungo, a monk from the temple of Cheongwansa, in Jangheung. The assistant master builders were the monks Gakhe, who hailed from some unspecified temple on Mount Gyerongsan, and Wolwon, from Hongguksa, in Yeosu
Yeosu
Yeosu is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Old Yeosu City, which was founded in 1949, Yeocheon City, founded in 1986, and Yeocheon County were merged into a new city in 1998....
. These were some of the leading Buddhist architects of the southern provinces. A further contingent of about 3000 monks from the Righteous Monk Army was mobilized from the surrounding temples in Jeollanam-do
Jeollanam-do
Jeollanam-do is a province in the southwest of South Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the southern half of the former Jeolla province, remained a province of Korea until the country's division in 1945, then became part of South Korea...
and Gyeongsangnam-do
Gyeongsangnam-do
Gyeongsangnam-do is a province in the southeast of South Korea. The provincial capital is located at Changwon. It contains the major metropolitan center and port of Busan. Located there is UNESCO World Heritage Site Haeinsa, a Buddhist temple that houses the Tripitaka Koreana and attracts many...
as manual labor, while about 150 monks from Hwaeomsa also had some direct or indirect involvement in the work. The eminent monk Muyong Suyeon (1651–1719), a disciple of Seongchong, also appears to have played a significant part in the hall's construction.At about the same time Muyong Suyeon was involved in the construction of a reliquary stupa at Tongdosa, which he wrote about in a document called To Felicitate the Construction of the Reliquary Stupa of Tongdosa, Yangsan, Gyeongsang-do and the Restoration of Jangnyukjeon Hall of Hwaeomsa, Gurye, Honam-do (慶尙道梁山通度寺聖骨靈塔及湖南求禮華嚴寺丈六重建慶讚疏). Sin Daehyeon claims that the role Suyeon played at Hwaeomsa was almost, if not equal in importance to that of Seongneung. See Sin 2009, pp.109–112 Construction of the hall was completed in 1702, for which seven altar statues were produced the following year and a week-long great dharma assembly held to commemorate their enshrinement. The building was renamed Gakhwangjeon Hall (Hall of the Enlightened Lord) after a new name table was sent from the capital. According to the inscription, it was produced in 1703 by Lee Jinhyu (1657–1710), a junior second grade official in the Ministry of Punishments.In 1705 Lee became a junior second grade official (champan) in the Ministry of Rites. An accomplished calligrapher, later examples of his work can be found on a monument adjoining the reliquary stupa at Tongdosa, and another at Seonamsa commemorating its repair. The presence of the official's signature is a seen as a clear indication that Lee was ordered to write the name tablet by the royal court.
Renovations
Gakhwangjeon Hall was repaired in 1768 by Great Zen Master Jaun Cheogwan. The nature of the work is unknown but the names and duties of the workers have survived in the Hwaeomsa Chronicle. Also participating were monks, soldiers and villagers from the nearby temples of Cheongyesa and Yeongoksa, in Gurye county, as well as Gamnosa, in NamwonNamwon
Namwon is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. Namwon is about 45 minutes from the provincial capital of Jeonju, which is three hours away from Seoul....
, the later one of the major patrons of the work. The building was repaired again in 1847 to replace rotted wood, broken roof tiles and wall paintings. This was followed by more work in 1851, 1860 (when new altar paintings were enshrined), and again in 1885.
The hall then underwent significant renovation in the Japanese colonial period
Korea under Japanese rule
Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Japanese rule ended in 1945 shortly after the Japanese defeat in World War II....
, during which it was completely disassembled and then rebuilt. The only surviving accounts come from Fujishima Gaijiro (1899–2002), the Japanese architect who first proposed and was later appointed to lead the renovations. Gaijiro first visited Hwaeomsa in 1928, making two more visits during the same year to research and photograph the temple. He published his study in 1930,Published in 建築雑誌 (Journal of Architecture and Building Science) Vol. 44 No. 536, August 1930. emphasizing the urgency of making repairs to Gakhwangjeon Hall, the roof of which was so badly damaged that it was letting in rain while several collapsed columns had also caused the building to lean over. After becoming abbot of Hwaeomsa, Jeong Byeongheon petitioned for and received financial support from the Government General
Governor-General of Korea
The post of Japanese Governor-General of Korea served as the chief administrator of the Japanese government in Korea while it was held as the Japanese colony of Chōsen from 1910 to 1945...
to cover the substantial costs of the renovations, which would have otherwise been beyond the means of the temple. The renovations began in 1936, but as no report was ever published, the alterations made to the building have had to be deduced from surviving blueprints produced during the repairs as well as from photos taken immediately after the work was completed in May 1941.
The hall has been repaired several times since liberation. In 1961, repairs were made to the roof under the direction of Im Cheon (1908–1965), who had also participated in the restoration of the hall's wall paintings in 1939. More roof work was probably carried out in 1964. From 1966 to 1969, the building was restored again and a survey of the building was also carried out by the Bureau of Cultural Property. There was more roof work in 1983, while the altar was repaired in 1984. Another survey by the Bureau of Cultural Property, this time of all the temple buildings and stonework, was carried out from 1985 to 1986. In 2000 the roof was repaired again, as was the front stair case. A survey was conducted of Gakhwangjeon Hall from 2008 to 2009 by the Cultural Heritage Administration.
Base
Gakhwangjeon Hall stands on the same graniteGranite
Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granite usually has a medium- to coarse-grained texture. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic...
base once used by Jangnyukjeon Hall, constructed in the post and lintel
Post and lintel
Post and lintel, or in contemporary usage Post and beam, is a simple construction method using a lintel, header, or architrave as the horizontal member over a building void supported at its ends by two vertical columns, pillars, or posts...
style (gagusikgidan) that was emblematic of late Unified Silla architecture. At a height of about 1 m (3.3 ft), its size is more comparable with Joseon palace architecture than contemporary Buddhist halls. The walls measure 30.9 m (101.4 ft) along the face and 22.48 m (73.8 ft) on the sides, their surfaces interrupted at regular intervals by post stones. Lintels are laid over top, forming nearly symmetrical eaves with the edges of the square slab stones the base rests on. The rectangular surface is covered in square inlaid blocks with a total area of 694 square metre. There are forty round column bases set on square pedestals, each about 1 m (3.3 ft) across and carved from single pieces of granite. After centuries of sinking under the weight of the building, the heights of the column bases have come to vary widely. Traces of the groves that once held in place the stone plates inscribed with the Flower Garland Sutra are also visible on many of their sides. Four smaller square column bases are found at the corners of the building for the poles buttressing the eaves of the roof. The staircases at the center of the face and rear, as well as toward the front on the sides, each have six steps and triangular slabs which form the railings. A culvert
Culvert
A culvert is a device used to channel water. It may be used to allow water to pass underneath a road, railway, or embankment. Culverts can be made of many different materials; steel, polyvinyl chloride and concrete are the most common...
runs around the rear and sides of the building.
The base underwent extensive restoration during the colonial-era. Many sections had to be replaced with new masonry, in part due to the fire damage sustained during the Imjin War as well as from centuries of accumulated decay. Prior to restoration, the basic shape of the facade
Facade
A facade or façade is generally one exterior side of a building, usually, but not always, the front. The word comes from the French language, literally meaning "frontage" or "face"....
had still been largely intact but the other three sides had lost nearly all form. Extant diagrams from the period indicate that the lintel stones were shattered while many of the walls had crumbled to pieces. Most of the square blocks presently covering the surface were also laid during this period, although they are known to have been part of the original design.
Structure
Gakhwangjeon Hall is two stories high, its wooden structure typical of late Joseon Buddhist architecture. The walls of the first floor are supported by twenty-four columns 4.2 m (13.8 ft) high, and measure 26.7 m (87.6 ft) along the length of the hall and 18.2 m (59.7 ft) along the sides. The second floor walls are 24.2 m (79.4 ft) by 15.9 m (52.2 ft) and made up of a further sixteen columns 10.4 m (34.1 ft) high that form a concentric rectangle surrounding the altarAltar
An altar is any structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes. Altars are usually found at shrines, and they can be located in temples, churches and other places of worship...
. The interior columns and the four central columns, which are 13.5 m (44.3 ft) high and positioned behind the altar, together support the roof of the second floor. Each of the columns were made from individual tree trunks, initially just stripped of their bark with the natural curvature largely left in. The outer columns and the upper part of the interior columns, though, were refashioned into more standard tapered columns during the colonial-era, and a few were replaced with new timber altogether.
The hall is seven bays
Bay (architecture)
A bay is a unit of form in architecture. This unit is defined as the zone between the outer edges of an engaged column, pilaster, or post; or within a window frame, doorframe, or vertical 'bas relief' wall form.-Defining elements:...
across and five deep. The central bays are the widest and grow narrower toward the extremities to draw attention to the center of the building. The bay lengths are the same across both floors except for the outermost of the second floor, which are half the length of the lower floor. The exterior and interior columns are connected laterally at the heads with mortise and tenon joints
Mortise and tenon
The mortise and tenon joint has been used for thousands of years by woodworkers around the world to join pieces of wood, mainly when the adjoining pieces connect at an angle of 90°. In its basic form it is both simple and strong. Although there are many joint variations, the basic mortise and tenon...
, reinforced with thick lintels
Lintel (architecture)
A lintel can be a load-bearing building component, a decorative architectural element, or a combined ornamented structural item. It is often found over portals, doors, and windows.-Structural uses:...
that rest on the tenons, and to each other by a series of crossbeams.
The extensive latticework
Latticework
Latticework is a framework consisting of a criss-crossed pattern of strips of building material, typically wood or metal. The design is created by crossing the strips to form a network...
installed between the columns allows light to flood the inner sanctuary and creates a more open environment than other contemporary structures. On the first floor, the three central bays of the facade have four-panel doors while the remainder have two-paneled doors. These doors open inwards and use the ornate gyeokjagyosal lattice—a combination of a vertical, horizontal and 45° diagonal lattice ribs—in the midsection, with a section of diagonal lattice (bitsalmun) above and a flat panel below. The use of gyeokjagyosal was exceptionally rare, earlier examples of which from the Joseon Dynasty are found only at Geungnakjeon Hall of Muwisa
Muwisa
Muwisa is a Buddhist temple in Gangjin County, South Jeolla province, South Korea. Though it was first constructed in the 7th century, much of the area was destroyed during the Seven Year War in the 16th century. Geungnakjeon Hall, National Treasure No. 13, is on the site....
and Daeungjeon Hall of Hongguksa. Outward opening door panels with comparatively modest belt-lattice (ddisalmun) occupy the first, third and fifth bays of the side walls and all but the outer-most bays of the rear wall, which have fixed wall panels of the same design instead. The mild degree of weathering seen in the side and rear doors compared to the front suggest that they were repaired or even replaced during the colonial-era. The spaces between the columns of the second floor have windows of vertical lattice (jeongjamun), the light passing through which illuminates the faces of the altar statues.
Inner sanctuary
The interior of the hall is a single open space of a size rarely seen at a Korean temple. The large wooden altar is named Sumidan after Mount SumeruSumeru
Sumeru or Sineru is the name of the central world-mountain in Buddhist cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru , to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru".The concept of Sumeru is closely related to the...
. Situated at the absolute center of the building, it occupies a space five bays long by one deep. Its three-tiered structure, with raised daises for altar statues, was widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries. Notably, the panels along the face and sides, which lack either painting or relief imagery, as well as the uncharacteristically simple borders, suggest that the altar was reconstructed along simpler lines during the colonial-era renovations. The absence of a canopy, however, is typical for halls of this size.
The coffered
Coffer
A coffer in architecture, is a sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault...
ceiling of recessed panels is flat directly above the altar (an area equivalent to three by one bays) but otherwise slanted downwards. The central columns, which stretch across the hall, form a wall behind the altar from which the altar paintings hang. The rear side is covered in mortuary tablets for the deceased, at the center of which is a statue of the Buddha Amithaba dating to the modern era. The central position of the wall and altar appear to sharply reduce the size of the worship space when compared to the relatively large area at the rear of the hall. Red fences with spiked tops (hongsalchaek) had originally been used to block passage from the rear to the interior of the hall but these were removed during the colonial-era. The inlaid blocks of the stone base were visible until they were covered with wooden flooring in 1998.
Roof
The two-tiered roof is gabledGable
A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of a sloping roof. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the structural system being used and aesthetic concerns. Thus the type of roof enclosing the volume dictates the shape of the gable...
on the first floor and hipped
Hip roof
A hip roof, or hipped roof, is a type of roof where all sides slope downwards to the walls, usually with a fairly gentle slope. Thus it is a house with no gables or other vertical sides to the roof. A square hip roof is shaped like a pyramid. Hip roofs on the houses could have two triangular side...
on the second. Their double eaves appear to curl up at the edges, the exposed rafters spread evenly along the lengths and then fanning out at the corners (seonjayeon). The eight protruding corners are buttressed by poles that bend heavily under the weight. The ridge line is 24 m (78.7 ft) long, and the gables are 4.8 m (15.7 ft) high and 12.5 m (41 ft) across at their lowest points.
Underneath the eaves is a canopy of multiple interlocking brackets
Dougong
Dougong is a unique structural element of interlocking wooden brackets, one of the most important elements in traditional Chinese architecture....
. A total of 120 bracket
Bracket (architecture)
A bracket is an architectural member made of wood, stone, or metal that overhangs a wall to support or carry weight. It may also support a statue, the spring of an arch, a beam, or a shelf. Brackets are often in the form of scrolls, and can be carved, cast, or molded. They can be entirely...
clusters distributed across both floors (64 above, 56 below) support a set of two purlins
Purlin
In architecture or structural engineering or building, a purlin is a horizontal structural member in a roof. Purlins support the loads from the roof deck or sheathing and are supported by the principal rafters and/or the building walls, steel beams etc...
on the interior and exterior of the building. There is one cluster atop each column and two intercolumnar clusters per bay, but only one in the outer bays of the first floor and none on the second because of their shorter length. The canopy is clearly functional rather than decorative, especially when contrasted to the great size of the roof and the greater elaborateness typically seen in one-story structures. The design of the each cluster's four brackets are identical on the exterior: the lower two curve upwards (angseohyeong), the third downward (suseohyeong), while the fourth spirals into cloud-shaped crockets (ungonghyeong). However, on the inside there are eight varieties of the upper two brackets, varying in design according to their position within the hall. The elephant-shaped appearance of the upper bracket crockets was common to 17th–century Buddhist halls, but the lower two brackets have an almost quarter circle-like curvature unlike the more commonly seen bowed shaped.
The roof has been re-tiled multiple times since the renovations of the 1930s. The tiles on the upper tier are of the traditional Korean style (guwa), and include a combination of hand-made and machine-made tiles, several of which notably bear a stamp that reads "Repaired in the 12th and 13th year of Shōwa
Showa period
The , or Shōwa era, is the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of the Shōwa Emperor, Hirohito, from December 25, 1926 through January 7, 1989.The Shōwa period was longer than the reign of any previous Japanese emperor...
" (1937 to 1938); the lower tier has modern machine-made tiles only. The eaves alternate between crescent-shaped tiles (ammaksae) carved with double-headed dragons bisected by an inscription with their year of production (1967 or 1999), and circular tiles (sumaksae) with either a ten-leaf lotus flower or the syllable om
Om
Om is a sacred syllable of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.OM and similar may also refer to:-Music:* Om , a stoner metal band* Om , a 1965 album* OM , a 2006 album* Om...
in Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
. Perched at the ends of the ridge line and the corners of the eaves are decorative tiles (mangwa) identical to the crescent-shaped eave tiles. The ones at the bottom of the gables, though dating to 1938, were modeled after the original tiles from 1700 and include the names of financial contributors to the roof work.
Adornments
The name tablet of Gakhwangjeon Hall is affixed between the lintel and the rafters of the central bay on the second floor. Measuring 4 m (13.1 ft) across and 1.83 m (6 ft) tall, the tablet is composed of vertical planks of wood attached side by side and encased in a frame. Although the gold leafGold leaf
right|thumb|250px|[[Burnishing]] gold leaf with an [[agate]] stone tool, during the water gilding processGold leaf is gold that has been hammered into extremely thin sheets and is often used for gilding. Gold leaf is available in a wide variety of karats and shades...
that once adorned the background has faded completely bare, the writing itself still retains its white coloring.
Verse couplets (juryun) written onto eight tablets hang from each of the first floor columns at the front of the building. Such verses are usually related to the icons enshrined inside, but in the case of Gakhwangjeon Hall the first stanza of four lines describes the monk Yeongi, the founder of Hwaeomsa, and was borrowed from the writings of National Preceptor Uicheon (1055–1101); meanwhile the second stanza is of unknown origin.
From right side of the building to left they read:
1. 偉論雄經罔不通 Mastering both the Mahayana and the Avatamsaka,
2. 一生弘護有深功 His merits vast from a life of defending the dharma.
3. 三千義學分燈後 Having shared the light of the Buddha's teaching with his 3000 disciples,
4. 圓敎宗風滿海東 The precepts of the Avatamsaka have spread across the land.
5. 西來一燭傳三世 This one eastern light taught to the past, present and future,
6. 南國千年闡五宗 Over a thousand years diffusing from the south into the five schools.
7. 遊償此增淸淨債 For one to surpass such immaculate merits,
8. 白雲回首與誰同 It is as the head of a cloud turns, who could do the same?
The year of their production is unknown but the signature indicates that the tablets were produced by Kim Yonggu (1907–1982), the same calligrapher who made the verse tablets for Daeungjeon Hall. The tablets are undecorated, measuring about 3.5 m (11.5 ft) in length and 0.4 m (1.3 ft) across.
Colonial-era wind bells hang from each of the eight protruding corners.
Dancheong
The dancheongDancheong
Dancheong refers to Korean traditional decorative coloring on wooden buildings and artifacts for the purpose of style. It literally means "cinnabar and blue-green" in Korean....
, or decorative paintwork, of Gakhwangjeon Hall's exterior has almost completely worn away. The remnants around the bracketing, and photos from Record of Ancient Sites and Monuments in Korea, however, indicate that the building had originally been painted in the sophisticated geumdancheong style. The triangular-shaped wall paintings between the bracket clusters of the first floor are the largest visible sections, alternating between potted lotus flowers and peony blossoms
Paeonia suffruticosa
Paeonia suffruticosa, the tree peony, is a species of peony native to China. It is known as 牡丹 "mǔdān" in Chinese and is an important symbol in Chinese culture. It was first described by Henry Charles Andrews....
. On the facade they are depicted in full bloom but on the side walls they can be seen growing smaller in size until towards the rear, where the lotuses are mere buds while the peonies appear as lilies of the valley
Lily of the Valley
Convallaria majalis , commonly known as the lily-of-the-valley, is a poisonous woodland flowering plant native throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere in Asia and Europe....
. The considerable fading make it impossible to see the flowers' original coloring except for some spots of barely visible white, crimson and green, and the outlines of the flower pots. It appears as though the design of the rear differed entirely from the front, as evidenced by the three remaining paintings of the egret
Chinese Egret
The Chinese Egret or Swinhoe's Egret, Egretta eulophotes, is a full-crested, white egret with yellow bill. It breeds in Russia, North Korea, South Korea and mainland China, and then migrates south through Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia...
, depicted flying with great composure, wings completely extended, while their long and slender necks droop downwards and their legs are raised as if to take a step forward. The extant wall paintings on the second floor are exclusively lotus flowers.
The painted surfaces of the interior are in a relatively better state of preservation, revealing the hall to be a striking example of Jeolla-do regional dancheong, as well as representing a transition between 17th and 18th–century styles. A diversity of ornate patterns making great use of green, salmon, and red ocher cover every surface of the beams and brackets. The ceiling panels are decorated with floral patterns of lotus flowers, peony blossoms, crimson four-leaf flowers (juhwa), and floating lotuses. The panels on the flat portion of the ceiling each display floral patterns against a background of red ocher while surrounded by arabesques of green, blue and salmon. On the slanted portion of the ceiling the panels feature a lotus flower surrounded by flowers and arabesques, or with a Chinese character written in each of its eight petals. The spaces between the purlins are decorated with cloud patterns (unmun) on an earth-yellow background and outlined in green.
Wall panels depicting the arhats line the upper floor, between each of which dragon faces have been painted. Some arhats appear to face outwards with backs bent over like a crescent-shaped moon, or gaze skywards with a gaping mouth and hands folded in behind the back. Others are seen standing upright, wielding a cintamani
Cintamani
Cintamani also spelled as Chintamani is a wish-fulfilling jewel within both Hindu and Buddhist traditions, equivalent to the philosopher's stone in Western alchemy....
in one hand, or have their heads lowered and eyes closed, as if in silent meditation. Their colorless figures have been captured with simple but powerful brush strokes, while the trails of their robes almost appear to disappear as they flutter into the wind. The spaces between the bracket clusters each display a seated Buddha. Painted onto a background of red ocher, each figure has a nimbus
Halo (religious iconography)
A halo is a ring of light that surrounds a person in art. They have been used in the iconography of many religions to indicate holy or sacred figures, and have at various periods also been used in images of rulers or heroes...
while the curled hair has been rendered in a heavily exaggerated manner. A gem is visible in the topknot while the oval face displays a crimson urna
Urna
For the Mongolian singer see Urna The Urna, more correctly ūrṇā or ūrṇākośa is a spiral or circular dot placed on the forehead of Buddhist images as an auspicious mark...
on the forehead. Both hands are raised chest high with the trails of the robes draped over top.
Arhats are also painted onto many of the beams and walls of the lower floor, depicted by a stream under a green tree with a trunk colored brightly in red ocher, accompanied by a heavenly boy monk, dragon or tiger. Although drawn mostly in black ink against an earth-yellow background, the light coloring of the arhat's salmon skin, the tiger's white feet, and dragon's crimson tongue serve to accentuate the image. Visible elsewhere are images of apsaras carrying a janggu
Janggu
The janggu or sometimes called seyogo is the most widely used drum used in the traditional music of Korea. It is available in most kinds, and consists of an hourglass-shaped body with two heads made from animal skin...
around the neck and a drumstick in the right hand, their heavenly robes fluttering in the wind as if descending from the heavens. The seated Buddhas among the brackets appear on lotus pedestals surrounded by nimbuses of the five cardinal colors; the urna is flesh-colored, while some images omit the topknot gem entirely. The hands are mainly seen in the Vajra or Dharmacakra mudrā, while some are positioned in the Bhumisparsha mudrā or with hands held chest-high.
Written across the central tenons above the front entrance are His Majesty the Sovereign (主上殿下), Her Royal Highness the Queen Consort (王妃殿下), and His Royal Highness the Prince Successor (世子邸下).
Altar statues
Seven statues are enshrined on the altar of Gakhwangjeon Hall. The primary icons are a seated triad depicting the Buddhas of the Three Periods giving salvation to sentient beings across all time, with Sakyamuni as the Buddha of the present, PrabhutaratnaPrabhutaratna
Prabhūtaratna , also known as Abundant Treasures, is the Buddha whom Shakyamuni is closely associated with in the Threefold Lotus Sutra, namely in the Lotus Sutra itself and the Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra.- In the Lotus Sutra :In...
as Buddha of the past, and Amitābha
Amitabha
Amitābha is a celestial buddha described in the scriptures of the Mahāyāna school of Buddhism...
as Buddha of the future (not to be confused with the triad of Sakyamuni, Dīpankara and Maitreya
Maitreya
Maitreya , Metteyya , or Jampa , is foretold as a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, he or she is referred to as Ajita Bodhisattva.Maitreya is a bodhisattva who in the Buddhist tradition is to appear on...
in the Lotus Sutra
Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sūtra is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sūtras, and the basis on which the Tiantai and Nichiren sects of Buddhism were established.-Title:...
). This unusual combination of Buddha statues is unique to Hwaeomsa, but was frequently featured in gwebuls from the province of Jeolla
Jeolla
Jeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
throughout the 18th century, including pieces from Naesosa (1700), Cheonggoksa (1722), Anguksa (1728), Unheungsa (1730), Dabosa (1745), and Gaeamsa (1749). The origin of the arrangement may not be scriptural, Buddhist scholar Oh Jinhee asserts, rather representing a visualization from The Collected Five Voices of the Brahma, a ceremonial book first published in 1661 used to wish the dead a peaceful afterlife. Its preface was written by Byeogam Gakseong, suggesting a role in the selection of icons decades before their realization. Four Bodhisattvas stand interspaced between the Buddhas. Viewing left to right, they are Avalokiteśvara
Avalokitesvara
Avalokiteśvara is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He is one of the more widely revered bodhisattvas in mainstream Mahayana Buddhism....
, the Bodhisattva of compassion; Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra , is a bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism associated with Buddhist practice and meditation. Together with Shakyamuni Buddha and fellow bodhisattva Manjusri he forms the Shakyamuni trinity in Buddhism...
, the Bodhisattva of meditation; Manjusri
Manjusri
Mañjuśrī is a bodhisattva associated with transcendent wisdom in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Esoteric Buddhism he is also taken as a meditational deity. The Sanskrit name Mañjuśrī can be translated as "Gentle Glory"...
, the Bodhisattva of wisdom; and Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha is a bodhisattva primarily revered in East Asian Buddhism, usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient. The name may be translated as "Earth Treasury", "Earth Store", "Earth Matrix", or "Earth Womb"...
, the Bodhisattva of hell.
To produce the icons, contributions of money, paddy fields, and grain were provided by eleven monks, seven laymen and one court lady. They were executed by a guild of twenty-three monks lead by the influential sculptor Saengnan, from the temple of Neungasa, in Goheung County.Saengnan may have begun sculpting as early as the 1660s, and was probably in his 50s or 60s when he produced the altar statues for Gakhwangjeon Hall. Other extant examples of his work can be found at Jeongsusa (1684), Cheoneunsa (1693), Ssangbongsa (1694), the hermitage of Chukseongam (1700), as well as the hermitage of Seongdoam. The other primary sculptors were Chungok, Ilgi, Eungwon, Chupyeong, and Chubung, of whom the later three were probably Saengnan's most gifted disciples, having worked under him for about twenty years. Saengnan personally sculpted the statue of Sakyamuni and worked with Chubung to produce Avalokiteśvara, both pieces representing his finest work. Prabhutaratna and Manjusri were sculpted by Chungok, a monk from Songgwangsa
Songgwangsa
Songgwangsa , one of the three jewels of Korean Buddhism, is located in Jeollanam-do on the Korean Peninsula...
who was working with Saengnan for the first time, but about whom little else is known. Amitabha was produced by Ilgi, of Naesosa, Samantabhadra by Eungwon, and Ksitigarbha by Chupyeong.
Buddhas
The Buddha statues were crafted to appear colossal in size so as to overwhelm worshipers. Sakyamuni, the largest of the three, is 3.5 m (11.5 ft) high and 2.5 m (8.2 ft) wide at the knees. Seated in the lotus positionLotus position
The Lotus Position is a cross-legged sitting posture originating in meditative practices of ancient India, in which the feet are placed on the opposing thighs. It is an established posture, commonly used for meditation, in the Hindu Yoga and Buddhist contemplative traditions...
, the Buddha's upper body has rounded shoulders and a wide chest, while his hands are in the bhumisparsha mudrā. Characteristically, the size of the head is large compared to the body. The face appears flat and square in shape but the curvature in the chin and cheeks, as well as the soft smile formed from its thin lips, give the icon a genial countenance. The facial features, especially the prominent nose between the statue's long, half-open eyes are an example of a style that first became prevalent with the Trikaya
Trikaya
The Trikāya doctrine is an important Mahayana Buddhist teaching on both the nature of reality and the nature of a Buddha. By the 4th century CE the Trikāya Doctrine had assumed the form that we now know...
statues of Sinheungsa in 1651. There is an urna visible between the eyebrows, as well as an ushnisha
Ushnisha
The ushnisha is a three dimensional oval at the top of the head of the Buddha. It symbolizes his attainment of reliance in the spiritual guide....
, denoted by the hair cropped in small spiral curls, and a half-moon shaped jewel (gyeju) protruding just above the forehead. The robes drape over the left shoulder only, wrapping around the front in a U-shape, leaving the statue exposed from the chest to the upper waist. The waistcoat is creased into the shape of five lotus petals, and the ends of the robes trail off over the left knee in the shape of a lotus bud.
The slightly smaller statues of Prabhutaratna and Amitābha closely resemble Sakyamuni, in addition to forming near mirror images of each other. Each is depicted with their hands in a variation of the vitarka mudrā, whereby the thumb and the middle finger touch while the remaining fingers are extended. In the case of Prabhutaratna, the left hand is raised while the right rests lightly over the knee, while on Amitābha this is reversed. Just above the legs there are two folds in the robes of Prabhutaratna compared to three for Amitābha, an example of the greater simplicity typically found in the attendant to the right in sculpture from this period. The two figures stand 3.2 m (10.5 ft) high and 2 m (6.6 ft) wide.
Bodhisattvas
The statues of Manjusri and Samantabhadra are to the direct left and right, respectively, of Sakyamuni. Towards the extremities of the altar, Avalokiteśvara is to the right of Amitābha and Ksitigarbha to the left of Prabhutaratna. The mudras of the figures are symmetrical across the altar: on the right side, the hands of Samantabhadra and Avalokiteśvara are positioned the same as Amitābha; while on the opposite side, those of Ksitigarbha and Manjusri match Prabhutaratna. Each Bodhisattva stands 3 m (9.8 ft) high and 70 cm (27.6 in) across at the shoulders.Despite the difference in their postures, the overall physical presentation and sculptural technique displayed by the Bodhisattvas are identical to that of the Buddha statues. The faces, in particular, have the same half-open eyes, protruding nose and thin lips characteristic of late 17th-century Buddhist sculpture. But in contrast to the relative simplicity of the seated Buddhas, the standing Bodhisattva statues are highly ornate, especially in their elaborate crowns and drapery.
The crown is positioned high atop the topknot from which billowing flames appear to be pouring down each side of the head. The upper section is adorned with five flame ornaments surrounding a small flower at the center, inside which are two birds who sit facing each other. A ten-leaf lotus flower surrounded by flames adorns the lower half of the crown along with several five-petaled flowers, while to each side sits a fenghuang
Fenghuang
Fenghuang are mythological birds of East Asia that reign over all other birds. The males are called Feng and the females Huang. In modern times, however, such a distinction of gender is often no longer made and the Feng and Huang are blurred into a single feminine entity so that the bird can be...
on a finely sculpted cloud. From underneath the crown, a strand of the Bodhisattva's minutely depicted hair can be seen twisting and meandering down each side of the head.
The drapery of Manjusri and Samantabhadra is largely identical. Their robes display an elaborate array of folds and creases that resemble lotus flowers around the waist and serrated blades of grass near the knees. The outer cloaks are rendered in the style of celestial garments, draped over both shoulders and flowing downward to the feet. Wide belts are wrapped around each figure's waist, the ends of which are tied in knots and flow down between the legs, twisting together at the feet. Unlike Manjusri, though, Samantha's belt is sumptuously decorated with flowers.
The drapery of Ksitigarbha and Avalokiteśvara is also identical. Their outer cloaks resemble those worn by monks, covering both of Ksitigarbha's shoulders but only the right of Avalokiteśvara. Shaped like a crescent on the right side, the cloaks are folded at the elbows and flow downward toward the feet. A waistcoat is worn over their robes, which are decoratively folded below the waist in what appears to be the shape of a letter U veering slightly to the right. The hems at the bottom are pointed like the trailing end of a bird's wing.
Altar paintings
Three altar paintings depicting the Buddhas of the Three Periods (samsebulhoedo) were executed in 1860 by the monks Haeun, Punggok, Seoun, Cheoru, Wolheo, Haemyeong and Seoam. The artists, though, mistook Prabhutaratna for BhaisajyaguruBhaisajyaguru
Bhaiṣajyaguru , formally Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabharāja , is the buddha of healing and medicine in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Commonly referred to as the "Medicine Buddha", he is described as a doctor who cures suffering using the medicine of his teachings.-Origin:...
, the Buddha of healing and medicine, whom is depicted in the altar painting to the left. The true identity of the altar statue only became evident when the "chest concealed record" (bokjanggi) was retrieved from inside one of the statues in 1975. Although it is unknown how the statue's identity came to be forgotten, Hwang Hogyun suggests that the change to Bhaisajyaguru may simply reflect a development in belief structure that occurred over the 150 years separating the production of the statues and the paintings.
Each piece is largely identical in style and structure, with a seated Buddha surrounded by over twenty attendants arranged symmetrically in three rows that span the width of the canvas. The figures are painted in gold onto red silk (hongtaenghwa), each of the canvases made from attaching together eleven separate lengths of silk side by side. The delicate brush strokes and the effective use of contrasting color compensate in vividness for the size and uniformity of the paintings. The attendants decrease in size while the brightness of their skin increases from the bottom to the top of the paintings, adding perspective and creating a visual synergy characteristic of Joseon-era Buddhist art. They are in an excellent state of preservation except for some slight peeling along the edges, and are described by the Cultural Heritage Administration as "having significant historical value for their display of the main characteristics of Joseon Buddhist art."
On the wall to the left of the altar is a painting of the assembly of guardian deities (sinjungtaenghwa), executed in 1965 by Kim Uil (1901–1998), the best pupil of the Buddhist artist Kim Ilseop (1901–1975).
On the opposite side of the hall are portraits of Zen Master Reesandan Dogwang (1937–1984) and Patriarch Dongheondang Wongyu (1896–1983).
Sakyamuni
Sakyamuni is enshrined on a lotus throne high atop an altar of Sumeru colored in wood grain and highly detailed. He is seated right leg over left in the lotus position at the center of the painting, his hands in the bhumisparsha mudra and the right shoulder left bare. His crimson robes display elaborate drapery, the folds emphasized with steely, yet buoyant lines. The cross striped hems of the garment are decorated in a pattern of scattered flowers outlined in gold. The spirals in Sakyamuni's conch shaped hair are minutely detailed, and auspicious beams of light ascend towards the heavens from his crimson colored ushnisha. The facial features are perfectly centered on his large face, which, like the bare arms and chest, are painted in a light yellowish-white hue. His large nose protrudes out from between the small eyes and thin eyebrows, while the red lips create an appearance of benevolence. Comparatively small for his size, the oval shaped nimbus surrounding Sakyamuni's body and head is green, outlined in seven different colors and golden flames.An assembly of twenty-eight deities surrounds the Buddha. At the forefront, making up the first row, are the Four Great Bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara, Manjusri, Samantabhadra and Mahāsthāmaprāpta. The halos of Manjusri and Samantabhadra are green and outlined in gold, in contrast to those of Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, which are done in gold only. Avalokiteśvara is holding a blue kundika, Manjusri a lotus bud, Samantabhadra a cintamani, while the hands of Mahāsthāmaprāpta are clasped together. Pedestals of blue lotus flowers can be seen beneath their feet. In the second row, Sakyamuni is flanked by the Buddhas Vipaśyin
Vipassī Buddha
Vipassi was one of the Twenty-Eight Buddhas. It was the first of the seven past Buddhas who are closest to us which Shakyamuni was the last. He was the last third Buddha among the thousand Buddhas of the decorated kalpa, but Shakyamuni was the fourth among the thousand Buddhas of the benevolent...
and Śikhin (seen near Sakyamuni's head), below whom are the Eight Great Bodhisattvas arranged symmetrically in groups of four. They are depicted slightly smaller than the Bodhisattvas of the front row, and with brighter skin. Maitreya, Vajragarbha, Bhaisajyaraja and Mahêśvara
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
are on the left side while Dīpankara, Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin
Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin
Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin is a bodhisattva revered in Mahāyāna Buddhism...
, Bhaiṣajyasamudgata and Śakra are on the right. The bodies, robes, crowns, and halos are outlined in gold against the red background, while the hair is cobalt blue. At the rear of the assembly, the third row is made up of the ten principal disciples
The ten principal disciples
The ten principal disciples were the main disciples of Shakyamuni Buddha. Depending on the scripture, the disciples included in this group vary. Vimalakirti Sutra includes;#Śāriputra...
, a pair of heavenly boy monks and another pair of apsaras. Except for their black hair and exposed flesh of their faces and hands, these figures are red and outlined in gold. The canvas measures 6.75 m (22.1 ft) by 3.945 m (12.9 ft).
Bhaisajyaguru
The painting of Bhaisajyaguru is substantially the same as Sakyamuni in composition and color tone. The Buddha is enthroned on a lotus throne atop a wood grain colored altar of Sumidan, seated in the lotus position underneath a white lotus canopy. Like the statue of Prabhutaratna before him, Bhaisajyaguru's hands are in the vitarka mudrā, with the thumb and middle finger touching while the remaining fingers are extended, the left hand raised while the right rests on the leg. A medicine box is held in the left hand, the lower half decorated in a fret and the upper half colored green. The facial features match Sakyamuni, but the head and ushinisha have been rendered in lamaLama
Lama is a title for a Tibetan teacher of the Dharma. The name is similar to the Sanskrit term guru .Historically, the term was used for venerated spiritual masters or heads of monasteries...
style, from which auspicious beams of light stream out in three directions. Although the body is well-proportioned overall, the breadth of the knees appear small compared to the torso, in addition to being much smaller than the lower body of Sakyamuni. The Buddha's red robes display a rope curtain pattern of yellowish-white with a band of flowers and serrated half-circles embroidered along the ends. They are draped over the right shoulder, while an overcoat covers the left shoulder and has been lightly thrown over the right shoulder. The body is surrounded by a circular nimbus of cobalt blue and the head in a halo of green, both outlined in the five cardinal colors.
An assembly of twenty-two deities surrounds Bhaisajyaguru. Standing in the first row are the Bodhisattvas Suryaprabha and Candraprabha
Candraprabha
Candraprabha Bodhisattva, or Gakkō Bosatsu in Japanese, is a bodhisattva often seen with Nikkō Bosatsu , as the two siblings serve Yakushi or the Medicine Buddha. Statues of Nikkō and Gakko closely resemble each other and are commonly found together, sometimes flanking temple doors...
, flanked, respectively, by the Heavenly Kings
Four Heavenly Kings
In the Buddhist faith, the Four Heavenly Kings are four gods, each of whom watches over one cardinal direction of the world.The Kings are collectively named as follows:...
of the south and west, Virūḍhaka
Virūḍhaka
Virūḍhaka is one of the Four Heavenly Kings and an important figure in Buddhist mythology. He is part of the Buddhist Pantheon of Esoteric Buddhism....
and Virūpākṣa
Virūpākṣa
Virūpākṣa is one of the Four Heavenly Kings representing the cardinal direction of the west in Buddhist cosmology.His followers are the Nāga. His name means 'He who sees all'....
. The second row is made up of the Bodhisattvas Maitreya, Manjusri, and Vajragarbha on the right side of Bhaisajyaguru, while Avalokiteśvara, Samantabhadra, and Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin are on the left. In the third row, to the right of the of the Buddha's nimbus, are the Buddha Viśvabhū, a serpent spirit general
Snake (zodiac)
The Snake is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Snake is associated with the earthly branch symbol 巳.-Years and the Five Elements:...
, and a heavenly boy-monk, while to the left are the Buddha Krakucchanda, another serpent spirit general, and an apsara. Like the painting of Sakyamuni, the size of the attendants grow smaller towards the rear and their skin color grows white. In addition, the skin color of Bhaisajyaguru and the eight Bodhisattvas surrounding him has been brightened to a yellowish-white hue, focusing the attention of the viewer on the center of the painting. The various attendants' bodies, robes and crowns are painted with strong steely lines, while items like the vajra
Vajra
Vajra is a Sanskrit word meaning both thunderbolt and diamond...
and jeweled sword are brightly painted in white-ultramarine to add contrasting color. The canvas measures 6.62 m (21.7 ft) by 4 m (13.1 ft).
Amitābha
The painting of Amitābha appears symmetrical to that of Bhaisajyaguru. Its composition and form, patterns and coloring are identical, as are the shape of the face and mudra. However, while the drapery is also the same, unlike Bhaisajyaguru the fluttering sleeve of Amitābha's right arm leaves the skin exposed from below the elbow. This is meant to distinguish the different roles of the two Buddhas.An assembly of twenty-two deities surrounds Amitābha. The facial expressions of the four deities in the first row are depicted with great joy. To the left are the Bodhisattva Cundi
Cundi (Buddhism)
Cundī is a buddha or bodhisattva venerated in the Mahāyāna Buddhist schools, with emphasis of her practice in the Esoteric Buddhist schools. She is known as a bhagavati, or "mother of buddhas", and is often equated with the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara...
and the Heavenly King Dhṛtarāṣṭra playing a musical instrument, while to the right are Mahāsthāmaprāpta and the Heavenly King Vaiśravaṇa holding both a pagoda and a floral pennant. Six Bodhisattvas surround Bhaisajyaguru in the second row: the three to the left are probably Maitreya, Manjusri and Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin, while those to the right are Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra and Vajragarbha. In the third row, Amitābha is flanked, respectively, by the Buddhas of the past Kanakamuni and Kassapa
Kassapa
Kassapa may refer to:*Kassapa Buddha, also known as Kāśyapa Buddha, an ancient buddha*Mahākāśyapa, also known as Mahakassapa, a disciple of Śakyamuni Buddha...
(visible by Amitābha's halo), behind whom are Sariputta, Subhuti
Subhuti
Subhūti was one of the Ten Great Śrāvakas of Śākyamuni Buddha, and foremost in the understanding of emptiness. In Sanskrit, his name literally means "Good Existence" . He is also sometimes referred to as or "Elder Subhūti"...
, Hogyedaesin, Yama
Yama
Yama , also known as Yamarāja in India and Nepal, Shinje in Tibet, Yanluowang or simply Yan in China, Yeomla Daewang in South Korea and Enma Dai-Ō in Japan, is the lord of death, in Hinduism and then adopted into Buddhism and then further into Chinese mythology and Japanese mythology. First...
, Sarasvati towards the left, while Ananda
Ananda
Ānanda was one of the principal disciples and a devout attendant of the Buddha. Amongst the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda had the most retentive memory and most of the suttas in the Sutta Pitaka are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during the First Buddhist Council...
, Bokdeokdaesin, the Dragon King Sagara, and Lakshmi
Lakshmi
Lakshmi or Lakumi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, prosperity , light, wisdom, fortune, fertility, generosity and courage; and the embodiment of beauty, grace and charm. Representations of Lakshmi are also found in Jain monuments...
are to the right (one figure has yet to be unidentified). At the very top, devas flank the white lotus canopy. The canvas measures 6.7 m (22 ft) by 4 m (13.1 ft).
Assembly of Guardian Deities
The figures making up the assembly of guardian deities are arranged into four rows spread across the painting. At the center of the first row is SkandaSkanda (Buddhism)
Skanda is a Mahayana bodhisattva regarded as a devoted guardian of Buddhist monasteries who guards the Buddhist teachings...
, the Bodhisattva of the Protection of Buddhist Doctrine. To the left are Saraswati
Saraswati
In Hinduism Saraswati , is the goddess of knowledge, music, arts, science and technology. She is the consort of Brahma, also revered as His Shakti....
, Hogyedaesin, Vaisravana and Dhrtarastra, and to the right are Lakshmi, Bokdeokdaesin, Vaiśravaṇa and Virūpākṣa. On the left side of the second row are Tojisin
Tu Di Gong
Tu Di Gong , also known as Tu Di , Tu Gong , and Dabo Gong , is a Chinese earth god worshipped by Chinese folk religion worshippers and Taoists. A formal name for Tu Di Gong is , meaning the earth god of wealth and merit....
, Garamsin, Panchika, Munhosin, the Water-ruling spirit, and Bangwisin; while to the right side are Doryangsin, Oktaeksin, Mahogara, Juhwasin, and Sijiksin. In the center of the third row is an Asura
Asura (Buddhism)
Asura in Buddhism is the name of the lowest ranks of the deities or demigods of the Kāmadhātu.-Origins and etymology:...
, to whose left are Sikhin, Jusansin, a kinnara
Kinnara
In Buddhist mythology and Hindu mythology, a kinnara is a paradigmatic lover, a celestial musician, half-human and half-horse or half-bird...
, and Sūrya, and to whose right are Śakra, Garuda
Garuda
The Garuda is a large mythical bird or bird-like creature that appears in both Hindu and Buddhist mythology.From an Indian perspective, Garuda is the Hindu name for the constellation Aquila and...
, Jujosin, and Candra. The fourth row is composed of ten apsaras and heavenly boy monks. The canvas measures 2.07 m (6.8 ft) by 3.36 m (11 ft).
Legacy
Gakhwangjeon Hall is an outstanding example of Joseon Dynasty Buddhist architecture, and was designated National TreasureNational treasures of South Korea
The National Treasures of Korea are a numbered set of tangible treasures, artifacts, sites, and buildings which are recognized by South Korea as having exceptional artistic, cultural and historical value...
67 in 1962.
It is one of only four extant multi-story Buddhist halls dating to the 17th century; its contemporaries including Daeungbojeon Hall (1618) and Palsangjeon Hall
Palsangjeon
Palsangjeon is a worship hall found on a Korean Buddhist temple complex that contains the "Palsang", the series of painted murals depicting the eight stages in the life of the historic Buddha, Sakyamuni....
(1626) of Beopjusa
Beopjusa
Beopjusa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism. It is situated on the slopes of Songnisan in Naesongni-myeon, Boeun County, in the province of Chungcheongbuk-do, South Korea. It was initially constructed in 653 by the Silla monk Uisin...
, as well as Mireukjeon Hall (1635) of Geumsansa
Geumsansa
Geumsansa is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism. It stands on the slopes of Moaksan in Gimje City, Jeollabuk-do, South Korea.-History:...
. Of these, Gakhwangjeon Hall most closely resembles Daeungbojeon Hall, the two halls being of the same size with nearly identical interiors. Examples of structures with seven-by-five bay dimensions are also exceedingly rare, Gakhwangjeon Hall being the sole to have been built during the late Joseon period.
External links
- Hwaeomsa official site
- Gakhwangjeon Hall, Hwaeomsa Entry at the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea