The Gemma Augustea is a low-relief cameo engraved gem cut from a double-layered Arabian

Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia or the Arabian subcontinent, it is the world's largest peninsula and covers 3,237,500 km2...

 onyx

Onyx

Onyx is a banded variety of chalcedony. The colors of its bands range from white to almost every color . Commonly, specimens of onyx contain bands of black and/or white.-Etymology:...

 stone. It is commonly agreed that the gem cutter who created the Gemma Augustea was either Dioscurides or one of his disciples, in the second or third decade of the 1st century AD.

Creation and characteristics

The Gemma Augustea is a low-relief cameo gem cut from a double-layered Arabian onyx stone. One layer is white, while the other is bluish-brown. The painstaking method by which the stone was cut allowed minute detail with sharp contrast between the images and background, also allowing for a great deal of shadow play. The size of the gem also made for easier manipulation and a grander scene. It stands 7½ inches tall with a width of 9 inches and an average thickness of ½ inch.

It is commonly agreed that the gem cutter who created Gemma Augustea was either Dioscurides or one of his disciples. Dioscurides was Caesar Augustus’ favorite gem cutter, and his work and copies of it are seen from all over the ancient Roman world. The gemma was purported to have been created c. AD 10–20, although some scholars believe it to have been created decades later because of certain interpretations of the depicted scene.

If Dioscurides, or cutters following his example, made it, the gemma was probably made in the court of Caesar Augustus. At some time in antiquity it moved to Byzantium

Byzantium

Byzantium was an ancient Greek city, founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas . The name Byzantium is a Latinization of the original name Byzantion...

, perhaps after Constantine I had officially moved the capital of the empire there. It is important to note that Augustus, though fully accepting and encouraging cult worship of the emperor outside of Rome

Rome

Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...

, especially in the provinces, did not allow himself to be worshiped as a god inside Rome. If this gem were to have been made during his lifetime (he died in 14 CE), it would have to have been made to be sent to a respected family in a Roman province

Roman province

In Ancient Rome, a province was the basic, and, until the Tetrarchy , largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside of Italy...

 or client kingdom. Either that, or the gem was made after Augustus’ death, which could alter the identity of one or more of the portraits. Another viewpoint is that the gem does portray Augustus as a god, but the gem was cut specifically for a close friend or relative perhaps in Rome who would have been the only one to know of it.

Ages passed during which the whereabouts of the gemma is undocumented, though it still remained relatively intact. The gemma turned up in 1246 in the treasury

Treasury

A treasury is either*A government department related to finance and taxation.*A place where currency or precious items is/are kept....

 of the Basilique St-Sernin, Toulouse. Later, in 1533, Francis I of France

Francis I of France

Francis I was King of France from 1515 until his death. During his reign, huge cultural changes took place in France and he has been called France's original Renaissance monarch...

 appropriated it and moved it to Paris

Paris

Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...

, where it soon disappeared around 1590. Not long thereafter it was sold for 12,000 gold pieces to Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor. During the 17th century, it was set in German

Germany

Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...

 gold

Gold

Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...

. This setting shows that the gem must have been damaged, the upper left side being broken with at least one other figure missing, probably before Rudolph II bought it, but definitely before 1700. The gemma now resides in the Kunsthistorisches Museum

Kunsthistorisches Museum

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on Ringstraße, it is crowned with an octagonal dome...

 in Vienna

Vienna

Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...

.

Interpretations of the figures and scenes

Upper tier

The throned figure #1 is Augustus Caesar (Octavius), though in some interpretations, it could represent a later Roman ruler. Figure #3 is the most readily identifiable, having characteristics held by no other. The woman is Oikoumene

Oikoumene

Ecumene is a term originally used in the Greco-Roman world to refer to the inhabited universe . The term derives from the Greek , short for "inhabited world"...

 - the personification of the inhabited world. This inhabited or civilized world is either that of the early Roman Empire

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....

, or more likely the Mediterranean world conquered by Alexander the Great. She wears upon her head a mural crown

Mural crown

-Usage in ancient times:In Hellenistic culture, a mural crown identified the goddess Tyche, the embodiment of the fortune of a city, familiar to Romans as Fortuna...

 and veil

Veil

A veil is an article of clothing, worn almost exclusively by women, that is intended to cover some part of the head or face.One view is that as a religious item, it is intended to show honor to an object or space...

. She is crowning figure #1 with the corona civica of oak

Oak

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...

 leaves - used to commend someone for saving the life of a Roman citizen. In this grand scale depiction, however, it is given to figure #1 because he saved a multitude of Roman citizens.

Figure #5 and #6 seem to be closely related. Figure #5 is Oceanus

Oceanus

Oceanus ; , Ōkeanós) was a pseudo-geographical feature in classical antiquity, believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the world-ocean, an enormous river encircling the world....

 or Neptune

Neptune (mythology)

Neptune was the god of water and the sea in Roman mythology and religion. He is analogous with, but not identical to, the Greek god Poseidon. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Neptune was the brother of Jupiter and Pluto, each of them presiding over one of the three realms of the universe,...

 whose significance is often seen as one balancing the scene across from #4 and #7, and also an important onlooker, as he represents the realm of water. Below him is a reclined personification of either Gaia

Gaia (mythology)

Gaia was the primordial Earth-goddess in ancient Greek religion. Gaia was the great mother of all: the heavenly gods and Titans were descended from her union with Uranus , the sea-gods from her union with Pontus , the Giants from her mating with Tartarus and mortal creatures were sprung or born...

 or Italia Turrita

Italia Turrita

Italia Turrita is the national personification or allegory of Italy, characterised by a mural crown typical of Italian civic heraldry of communal origin.. In broader terms, the crown symbolizes its mostly urban history.Italia Turrita is a woman with typical Mediterranean attributes...

. The scholars who see Gaia link her with the cornucopia

Cornucopia

The cornucopia or horn of plenty is a symbol of abundance and nourishment, commonly a large horn-shaped container overflowing with produce, flowers, nuts, other edibles, or wealth in some form...

 and the children surrounding her, who might represent seasons. It might be odd that Gaia holds the horn of plenty when it seems as if the horn is not presently producing anything. This supports an argument that she is not Gaia, but Italia, for historically there was famine at the scene’s event. Also, she wears a bulla, a locket of some sort, around her neck, which, again, would seem odd for Gaia to don. Either way, the children present seasons, probably summer and fall, as one of them carries ears of corn.

Figure #10 is the eagle

Eagle

Eagles are members of the bird family Accipitridae, and belong to several genera which are not necessarily closely related to each other. Most of the more than 60 species occur in Eurasia and Africa. Outside this area, just two species can be found in the United States and Canada, nine more in...

 of Jupiter. The eagle could be showing that figure #1 is seated in the role of Jupiter. Seated next to figure #1 is Roma

Roma (mythology)

In traditional Roman religion, Roma was a female deity who personifed the city of Rome and more broadly, the Roman state. Her image appears on the base of the column of Antoninus Pius.-Problems in earliest attestation:...

. The helmeted goddess holds a spear in her right arm while her left hand lightly touches the hilt of her sword, probably showing that Rome was always prepared for war. Besides showing her feet resting upon the armor of the conquered, Roma seems to look admiringly towards figure #1. Though there might be a dispute as to who #1 is, it is often said that the image of Roma strongly resembles Livia

Livia

Livia Drusilla, , after her formal adoption into the Julian family in AD 14 also known as Julia Augusta, was a Roman empress as the third wife of the Emperor Augustus and his adviser...

, Augustus’ long-lived wife. Not only was she his wife, but from a previous marriage, the mother of Tiberius

Tiberius

Tiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...

. The reason for the cutting of this gem is also called into question when it is noted that Roma was not worshiped inside Rome till around the rule of Hadrian

Hadrian

Hadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...

. Thus the gem might have been custom cut for a friend in the provinces.

Figure #4 is Victoria

Victoria (mythology)

In ancient Roman religion, Victoria was the personified goddess of victory. She is the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Nike, and was associated with Bellona. She was adapted from the Sabine agricultural goddess Vacuna and had a temple on the Palatine Hill...

 driving the chariot

Chariot

The chariot is a type of horse carriage used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Ox carts, proto-chariots, were built by the Proto-Indo-Europeans and also built in Mesopotamia as early as 3000 BC. The original horse chariot was a fast, light, open, two wheeled...

 that holds the descending figure #7. Obviously the deliverer of the victorious, but not necessarily there for celebration, as it seems she might be impatiently urging figure #7 on to his next campaign. In associating Victoria with the chariot

Chariot

The chariot is a type of horse carriage used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Ox carts, proto-chariots, were built by the Proto-Indo-Europeans and also built in Mesopotamia as early as 3000 BC. The original horse chariot was a fast, light, open, two wheeled...

, it is necessary to analyze some historical importance relating to the chariot and the horses around it. The two foreshortened horses in front of the chariot are part of the chariot team, whereas the single horse to the side cannot be, and might belong to figure #8. Historically, a victory chariot was driven by four horses forming a quadriga

Quadriga

A quadriga is a car or chariot drawn by four horses abreast . It was raced in the Ancient Olympic Games and other contests. It is represented in profile as the chariot of gods and heroes on Greek vases and in bas-relief. The quadriga was adopted in ancient Roman chariot racing...

, not the mere two represented on the gemma, a bigae. This might show that figure #7 is not a triumphator.

Lower tier

In the lower scene, the figures are less readily identifiable. In some interpretations of the scene, all the lower figures are anonymous. Other interpretations describe the figures as important and identifiable. At the left, figures combined in #11 are either Celts or Germans, as seen by their brutal fierceness. The seated man and woman depict prisoners of war, symbolizing the Roman victory. The man is bound with his hands behind his back, and both are apparently going to be tied to figure #19, a trophy of war. Figure #19 is a tropaion

Tropaion

A tropaion , whence English "trophy" is an ancient Greek and later Roman monument set up to commemorate a victory over one's foes. Typically this takes the shape of a tree, sometimes with a pair of arm-like branches upon which is hung the armour of a defeated and dead foe...

, a trophy displayed after a winning battle, usually at the point during a battle where victory was evident. The trophy is constructed out of wood to look like a rectangular human. A helmet is placed on top and arms of the enemy are placed upon it. In the scene, four young men are hoisting the trophy, eventually to its vertical position. Figure #18 has the least information, but the helmet upon his head leads some to believe that he might be a Macedonian

Ancient Macedonians

The Macedonians originated from inhabitants of the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, in the alluvial plain around the rivers Haliacmon and lower Axios...

 soldier of King Rhoemetalces

Rhoemetalces

- Thracian kings :* Rhoemetalces I, ruled from 12 BC to 12 AD* Rhoemetalces II, ruled from 19 AD to 26 AD* Rhoemetalces III, ruled from 26 AD to 46 AD- Other :* Remetalk Point on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, named for Rhoemetalces III...

, who helped Tiberius in Pannonia

Pannonia

Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia....

. Figure #15 is often identified as a personification of Mars

Mars (mythology)

Mars was the Roman god of war and also an agricultural guardian, a combination characteristic of early Rome. He was second in importance only to Jupiter, and he was the most prominent of the military gods worshipped by the Roman legions...

 with his armor and flowing cape. Though #16 and #17 seem less important, they look very much alike and might represent the constellation

Constellation

In modern astronomy, a constellation is an internationally defined area of the celestial sphere. These areas are grouped around asterisms, patterns formed by prominent stars within apparent proximity to one another on Earth's night sky....

 Gemini

Gemini (constellation)

Gemini is one of the constellations of the zodiac. It was one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. Its name is Latin for "twins", and it is associated with the twins Castor and Pollux in Greek mythology...

. Gemini is the more difficult constellation to pick out, and it might represent the hidden identity of figure #8. Two others, however, are more obvious. Figure #20 is a shield with a large scorpion

Scorpion

Scorpions are predatory arthropod animals of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. They have eight legs and are easily recognized by the pair of grasping claws and the narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger...

 emblazoned upon it. Tiberius was born in November, and thus would be represented with such an item. Figure #9 shows Augustus’ favorite sign, the Capricorn

Capricornus

Capricornus is one of the constellations of the zodiac; it is often called Capricorn, especially when referring to the corresponding astrological sign. Its name is Latin for "horned male goat" or "goat horn", and it is commonly represented in the form of a sea-goat: a mythical creature that is half...

. Though Augustus might have only been conceived during December, he claims the Capricorn as his. Not only is the Capricorn overshadowing, but also an image of the sun or moon, two ancient planets, which were necessary to show the full power of a constellation, is seen behind the sign. Though the Scorpion and Gemini are not directly associated with planets, Mars (#15) is, and figure #13 is often associated with [Diana], who is identified with the moon. Thus at least three major zodiacal signs are evident.

Figure #13 is probably Diana, though a few scholars believe her to be a mere auxiliary troop with #14. Diana holds in her left hand spears, and her right hand seems to rest upon the head of the man in figure #12, not gripping his hair as supposed my many. Another identifying feature of Diana is her bountiful hair, bound up for the hunt, and her hunting clothes. Figure #14 might be an auxiliary, but more likely he personifies Mercurius (Mercury/Hermes

Hermes

Hermes is the great messenger of the gods in Greek mythology and a guide to the Underworld. Hermes was born on Mount Kyllini in Arcadia. An Olympian god, he is also the patron of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them, of shepherds and cowherds, of the cunning of thieves, of orators and...

), identified by his rimmed hat. Mercurius seems to be dragging the female in figure #12 by her hair towards the trophy erection. The scene is more complicated than it seems. Many interpretations insist that the ‘auxiliaries’ are dragging the barbarian prisoners to join their kindred in being bound to the trophy. However, there are indications that this might not be the case at all. First, the man on his knees is begging for mercy from Diana, who does look down on him. That same man wears around his neck a torque, which often identified a Celtic or sometimes German tribesman with some authority. It may be significant that Diana has her back turned to the observer and possibly the scene itself. She is the only one as such, and perhaps to contrast the celebration of victory in battle, she shows instead mercy to one pleading for his life. In addition, since the man is a leader, it makes for better propaganda that he beg, as a leader, before a goddess supporting Rome. Mercurius might not be dragging the woman to be bound to the trophy, but might be bringing her to kneel before Diana to ask for mercy as well. She shows the sign of a truce by placing her hand upon her chest. Perhaps Diana and Mercurius are sheltering them – offering them salvation in the final moments of victory. Whatever the case, the couple in #12 are not the same as the despaired couple in #11. They seem to balance at the same time as contrast each other – balance by having barbarians on the right and left, literally balancing the picture, and contrast as one couple being doomed to be bound at the trophy, and the other begging for what looks like a good chance of mercy.

Overall scene

The upper and lower scenes take place at different times, and are basically cause and effect. The lower scene takes place at the northern frontiers, just after a battle won by the Romans, who erect a victory trophy. Gathered prisoners of war are waiting for their punishment in grief or begging for mercy at the hands of assisting gods. The triumph on the battlefield precedes the triumph on the upper plate.

The upper scene is a fusion of Rome, Olympus

Mount Olympus

Mount Olympus is the highest mountain in Greece, located on the border between Thessaly and Macedonia, about 100 kilometres away from Thessaloniki, Greece's second largest city. Mount Olympus has 52 peaks. The highest peak Mytikas, meaning "nose", rises to 2,917 metres...

, and the world of cities. Augustus is conspicuously above the birth sign he claimed, while the eagle personifying him as Jupiter sits below. He ended many years of internal strife for Rome and will forever wear the oak crown. In his right hand he holds a lituus – his augury stick in which he reads the signs and declares wars to be just. He faces Roma, representing all he united and saved from civil bloodshed. He sits equal to Roma, personifying a god. His feet lay upon armor, which could be identified with the newly conquered barbarians, or it may depict the descent of the Julian family from Mars through his human children Romulus

Romulus

- People:* Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome* Romulus Augustulus, the last Western Roman Emperor* Valerius Romulus , deified son of the Roman emperor Maxentius* Romulus , son of the Western Roman emperor Anthemius...

 and Remus

Remus

Remus is the twin brother of the mythical founder of Rome.Remus may also refer to:* Remus , a fictional planet in Star Trek* Remus , a moon of the asteroid 87 Sylvia...

. Unlike all the other figures, except for #7 and #8, the depiction of Augustus is considered to be an actual portrait because of the iris seen in his eye.

Tiberius, Augustus’ adopted son, recently having fought in the north, comes back momentarily – for Victoria anxiously urges that he continue on to fight new battles -to receive his triumph.

There are problems with this interpretation, however. The chariot is not one of victory. It would be unusual if his two-horsed chariot were to be used for the triumph. Also, Tiberius wears the toga

Toga

The toga, a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome, was a cloth of perhaps 20 ft in length which was wrapped around the body and was generally worn over a tunic. The toga was made of wool, and the tunic under it often was made of linen. After the 2nd century BC, the toga was a garment worn...

. The toga represents civility and peace, not war. Perhaps this is a way in which to hand the victory to Augustus’ auguries. Tiberius steps down from the chariot, doing obeisance to Augustus, giving his adoptive parent the triumph and victory. If all this is true, then figure #8 could still be one of two persons, Drusus

Drusus

Drusus was a cognomen in Ancient Rome originating with the Livii. Under the Republic, it was the intellectual property and diagnostic of the Livii Drusi. Under the empire and owing to the influence of an empress, Livia Drusilla, the name was used for a branch of the Claudii into which she had...

 or Germanicus

Germanicus

Germanicus Julius Caesar , commonly known as Germanicus, was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and a prominent general of the early Roman Empire. He was born in Rome, Italia, and was named either Nero Claudius Drusus after his father or Tiberius Claudius Nero after his uncle...

. By this age, Drusus was probably already dead, having fallen from his horse and sustaining irreparable injuries. It could be, then a representation of Drusus, and his memory, since he was fondly looked at by almost all. Since he is clad in fighting garb, helmet probably beside him under the chariot, and coincidentally standing next to a horse, this could very well be Drusus. In addition, there are three constellations relating to the three portraits. Drusus would claim Gemini, though the Gemini is quite covert. If the portrait represented Drusus as alive, however, the gem would have been made about the same time as the Ara Pacis

Ara Pacis

The Ara Pacis Augustae is an altar to Peace, envisioned as a Roman goddess...

and the Altar of Augustus, sometime before 9 B.C., the year of Drusus’ death.

Others, though, think that #8 is Germanicus, son of Drusus. If the gem had been commissioned in A.D. 12, referring to Tiberius’ triumph over the Germans and the Pannonians, or later, it would be quite logical to assume that the young Germanicus, born in 13 B.C., was old enough to don his gear and prepare for war, years after his father’s death. Germanicus was also looked upon quite fondly by Augustus and others. The dispute carries on.

Gemma Augustea is a beautiful work of art that seems to be based on dramatic Hellenistic compositions. The refined style of execution was more common in the late Augustan or earlier Tiberian age, though more likely Augustan. It is said that the image of Augustus as Jupiter is linked to future Roman triumphs by Horace

Horace

Quintus Horatius Flaccus , known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus.-Life:...

 in his Odes

Odes

Odes may refer to:*The plural of ode, a type of poem*Odes , a collection of poems by the Roman author Horace, circa 65 - 8 BC*Odes of Solomon, a pseudepigraphic book of the Bible*Book of Odes , a Deuterocanonical book of the Bible...

:

He be brave who has trusted himself to perfidious foes,

and he will crush the Carthaginians in a second war

who has tamely felt the throngs upon his fettered

arms and has stood in fear of death.

Such a one unknowing how to live life secure

he has mixed peace with war

Oh mighty Carthage, you raise

higher upon Italian ruins!

Tis said he put away his chase wife’s kisses and his

little children, as one bereft of civil rights,

and sternly bend his manly gaze upon the ground

till he should strengthen the Senate’s wavering purpose

by advice ne’er given before,

and amid sorrowing friends should hurry forth a glorious exile.

Full well he knew what the barbarian torturer was making

ready for him; and yet he pushed aside the kinsmen

who blocked his path and the people who would stay his going,

with no less unconcern than if some case in court

had been decided, and he were leaving the tedious

business of his clients, speeding to Venafran fields,

or to Lacedaemonian Tarentum.

Horace, Odes III 5.

Sources

• Clayton, Peter, Treasures of Ancient Rome, New Jersey, 1995, pp. 163–165.
• Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction, Princeton University Press
  Princeton University Press
  -Further reading:* "". Artforum International, 2005.-External links:* * * * *...
  
  , Princeton, New Jersey, 1996. pp. 53, 120-121.
• Hanfmann, George M.A. Roman Art: A Modern Survey of the Art of Imperial Rome. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1975, pp. 248–249
• Horace: The Odes and Epodes. Loeb Classical Library. Great Britain, 1914. Odes III, 5.
• Internet: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/users/morford/augimage.html
• Pollini, John. "Ideology, Rhetorical imagery and the creation of a dynastic narrative", in Narrative and Event in Ancient Art, Peter J.Holliday, ed. (Cambridge Studies in New Art History) 1993.
• Ramage, Nancy H. and Andrew Ramage. Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, 1991. pp. 106–107.
• Schäfer, Jürgen. Die Gemma Augustea (Anfang 1. Jh. n. Chr.) Inv. A 158, uni-muenster.de (1999).
• Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History: Volume One. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, 1995. p. 249.

External links

• Kunsthistorisches Museum | Gemma Augustea
• The original form of Gemma Augustea on the homepage of gemmarius-sculptor