German grammar
Encyclopedia
This page outlines the grammar
of the German language
.
for case and grammatical number. All nouns are capitalized.
of late Proto-Indo-European
—the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. Every German noun takes one of these genders. The grammatical gender of a German noun does not necessarily correspond with the real-life object's sex (or lack thereof). Nouns denoting a person, such as die Frau ("woman") or der Mann ("man"), generally agree with the natural gender of what is described. However, since every German noun ending with -chen or -lein is grammatically neuter, there exist several notable counterexamples such as das Mädchen ("girl") and das Fräulein ("miss"). Thus these are not illogical, whereas das Weib (old, regional or anthropological: woman) is really an exception. In addition, German assigns gender to nouns without natural gender, in fairly arbitrary fashion. For example, the three common pieces of cutlery all have different genders: das Messer ("knife") is neuter, die Gabel ("fork") is feminine, and der Löffel ("spoon") is masculine.
Students of German are often advised to learn German nouns with their accompanying definite article
, as the definite article of a German noun corresponds to the gender of the noun. However, the meaning or form, especially the ending, of a noun can be used to recognise 80% of noun genders. For instance, nouns ending in the suffixes -heit, -keit, -tät, -ung, -ik, or -schaft are feminine. As noted above, nouns ending in -chen or -lein take the neuter. A noun ending in –e is likely to be feminine; however, this is not a universal rule: die Katze ("cat"), die Blume ("flower"), and die Liebe ("love") are feminine, but der Bote ("delivery boy") is masculine, and das Ende ("end") is neuter. Similarly, a noun ending in –er is likely to be masculine (der Teller, der Stecker, der Computer); however, das Messer ("knife") and das Wasser ("water") are neuter, whereas die Mutter ("mother") can be feminine, as can die Butter ("butter") in many forms of High German, although it is der Butter in Swiss German
.
of nouns and adjectives, German still inflects nouns, adjectives and pronouns into four grammatical case
s. The cases are the nominative
(Nominativ/Werfall), genitive
(Genitiv/Wesfall), dative
(Dativ/Wemfall), and accusative
(Akkusativ/Wenfall). The case of a particular noun depends on the grammatical function of the noun in the sentence.
|-
| ||Singular:||Plural:
|-
|Nom:||der Tisch ||die Tische
|-
|Gen:||des Tisch(e)s||der Tische
|-
|Dat:||dem Tisch(e)||den Tischen
|-
|Acc:||den Tisch||die Tische
|}
Contrary to strongly inflected languages like Latin
, German expresses cases more through the word's article than the ending of the word, though especially the difference between plural and singular is also expressed by suffixes on the words' endings (der Tisch, die Tische). Other exceptions of a suffix expressing the case of a noun along with the article are the forms of genitive singular and dative plural. Yet, one could still say that transferring the case-information to the article preserved the German case system throughout its development from Old High German to contemporary German.
(spoken from 1350 to 1650). When Martin Luther translated the Bible into German, the use of the Genitive case (along with the Preterite) was already rather unusual in most of the German dialects. Nevertheless, Luther used the bureaucratic language of Saxony for his translations which still made extensive use of the Genitive (and other "archaic" elements more usual in Middle High German than in New High German) and thereby slowed down the loss of the Genitive to a certain extent. Today the use of the genitive case is still rare in spoken language - speakers often substitute the dative case for it in conversation, quite similar to the language's Germanic relative Faroese
. But the genitive case remains almost obligatory in written communication, public speeches and anything that is not explicitly colloquial in German and is still an important part of German Bildungssprache (language of education). Television programmes and movies often contain a mixing of both, dative substitution or regular genitive, depending on how formal or "artistic" the programme is intended to be. The use of the Dative substitution is more common in southern German dialects, whereas Germans from northern regions (where Luther's Bible-German had to be learned like a foreign language back then) use the genitive more regularly. Though it has become quite common not to use the genitive case when it would formally be required, great numbers of Germans know how to use it and generally do so. Especially among people of higher education, it is considered a minor embarrassment to be caught using the dative case incorrectly. Therefore, it is by no means recommended to avoid the genitive when learning German, since the decline of this case, which has been going on for about 600 years, is proceeding very slowly, because the historical development of German Standardsprache has reestablished this particular case in German language to some extent, and not necessarily just in written form.
Yet, a German book called Der Dativ ist dem Genitiv sein Tod
("The Dative is the Genitive its death") alludes to this phenomenon (being called "genitive's death struggle" by the author) in its title. In standard German, the title would be "Der Dativ ist der Tod des Genitivs" ("Dative is Genitive's Death"). As is apparent, the book uses an Upper German dialect way of speaking, i. e. by employing the dative case together with a possessive pronoun instead of the genitive, to poke fun at what the author perceives as a decline in the German language, since in written German a dative construction replacing the genitive is still considered a major error. This is, by the way, not how Standard German speakers would colloquially replace the genitive case; they would construct Der Dativ ist der Tod vom Genitiv, which is (being literally the English "of the Genitive") incorrect in the Standard as well, but far less incriminated.
Linguistically, the thesis of the genitive case dying out can easily be refuted. Indeed, the genitive case has been widely out of use in all dialects of the German language for centuries. The new phenomenon is only the replacement of dialects by a colloquial Standard German, which does not at all, however, affect the use of the genitive case in the written language.
There are, however, legitimate dative constructions to indicate possession, as in "Dem Knaben ist ein Buch zu eigen". The construction "zu eigen", however, doesn't practically appear but in Latin beginners' translations, as the sentence should indicate (puero liber est). Some dialects have "Dem Knaben ist ein Buch" which is literally a dativus possessivus. If a genitive is unmarked and without article (practically, in the plural), usage of von (and after it, a dative) is not only legitimate but required, as in: "Die Belange von Minderheiten sind zu schützen" (minorities' affairs are to be protected). In that case, Belange der Minderheiten would produce a definite article which is not intended, and Minderheiten itself is somewhat an unmarked plural.
Dative also focuses on location. (See Accusative or Dative Prepositions below). German makes a big difference between location and motion. Accusative will handle motion; Dative location. There are 4 main verbs to show this dichotomy. hängen/hängen, legen/liegen, stellen/stehen, setzen/sitzen. (motion/location). z.B. Ich hänge das Bild an die Wand. (I hang/am hanging the picture on the wall). Note the article of 'Wand' - this is motion, this is Accusative and 'die' remains 'die' in the Accusative. Now, the picture is on the wall. This is location. z.B. Das Bild hängt an der Wand. Here, the article of 'Wand' is 'der' - because 'die' in the Nominative and Accusative changes to 'der' in the Dative. This sentence is location and therefore, the case of the noun that follows the preposition must be Dative.
after a preposition is decided by that preposition. No prepositions require the nominative case, but any other case may follow one, for example, the preposition für (for) is followed by the accusative case, the word mit (with) is followed by the dative, and the word außerhalb (outside of) is followed by the genitive case. Certain prepositions, called "two way prepositions", have objects either in dative or accusative, depending on whether the use implies position (e.g. in der Küche = "in the kitchen", dative case) or direction (e.g. in die Küche ("into the kitchen", accusative case).
ENGLISH: The book is on the table. The poster is on the wall. "ON" is the preposition. In English, we understand 'on', in this context, to mean contact between two surfaces. The book and the table; the poster and the wall. German speakers are desperately interested in the relationship between the two objects in relation to their contact with each other. Note the German examples below (same sentences as the English example).
GERMAN: Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch. Das Poster hängt an der Wand. The meaning is the same - 'on'. However, we have two different prepositions, 'auf' and 'an'. Why two? Because 'auf' is used to express horizontal contact and 'an' is used to express vertical contact.
Furthermore, there are times when the English preposition is completely different than the German. For example, "Turn the lights OFF"/"Mach' die Lichter AUS." "aus" does not mean "off." It means "out."
In German, prepositions are powerful enough to change what immediately follows to be in subordination to the type of preposition.
For example, 'bei' is a Dative preposition. If 'bei' is used in a sentence, it will force what immediately follows it to be Dative. For example: Ich mache einen Besuch bei meiner Familie. (I'm visiting with my family). Notice "mein" has the Dative feminine ending because 'bei' requires it.
The following chart shows the cases associated with several prepositions.
* with dative colloquially and with pronouns.
** may take a "hypercorrect" genitive.
*** may take a colloquial dative: entlang des Weges (dem Weg) “along the way”, but with accusative in the afterposition with identical meaning: den Weg entlang.
“Unusual” prepositions, which exist in vast amount in bureaucratical style, as a rule take the genitive.
Declension of adjectives is mandatory even in proper name
s. The name of Kunsthistorisches Museum
in Vienna, for instance, changes into "das Kunsthistorische Museum" when predeceded by a definite article.
and an "e" or an umlaut and an "en", other plurals are the same as the singular, some add "er" or an umlaut and "er". Many loanwords borrowed from another language take a plural in "s" (e.g. das Restaurant → die Restaurants).
Although ancient German plurals called for morphologically distinct gender markings, this is no longer the case. With regard to the treatment of adjectives and articles, this amounts almost to the plural number behaving as a fourth gender. Textbooks and articles typically list the articles or adjectival endings for plurals in the next row or column where a fourth gender would be given if it existed. What this suggests is not completely true, but it is usually an effective approach for non-native speakers studying the language.
A German nominal phrase, in general, consists of the following components in the following order:
article
, number (cardinal
or ordinal
), adjective
(s), noun
, genitive attribute, position(s), relative clause
, reflexive pronoun
(the third stunning performance of the drama by Schiller this week in Hamburg)
Of course, most noun phrases are not this complicated; adjectives, numbers, genitive attributes, positions, relative clauses and emphasizers are always optional.
A nominal phrase contains at least a cardinal number, an adjective, a pronoun, or a noun. It always has an article, except if it is an indefinite plural noun or refers to an uncountable mass.
If the noun is uncountable, an article is not used; otherwise, the meaning of the sentence changes.
A nominal phrase can be regarded a single unit. It has a case, a number, and a gender. Case and number depend on the context, whereas the main noun determines the gender.
A direct translation of "Der Beruf des alten Mannes" would be "the profession of the old man."
"The old man's profession" could be translated directly and correctly as "Des alten Mannes Beruf", though this form is almost never used in modern German.
(See Adverbial phrases).
"Der während des Bürgerkrieges amtierende Premierminister" (literally: the during-the-civil-war office-holding prime minister) or "Die noch zu Anfang des Kurses relativ kleinen, aber doch merklichen Verständigungsschwierigkeiten" (literally: The still-at-the-beginning-of-the-course-relatively-small-but-nevertheless-noticeable communication difficulties).
These are a feature of written (particularly educated) German. One also might hear them in the context of formal oral communications as well (such as news broadcasts, speeches, etc.).
.
Aside from their highly inflected forms, German relative pronouns are less complicated than English. There are two varieties. The more common one is based on the definite article der, die, das, but with distinctive forms in the genitive (dessen, deren) and in the dative plural (denen). Historically this is related to English that. The second, which is more literary and used for emphasis, is the relative use of welcher, welche, welches, comparable with English which. As in most Germanic languages, including Old English, both of these inflect according to gender, case and number. They take their gender and number from the noun they modify, but the case from their function in their own clause.
The relative pronoun dem is neuter singular to agree with Haus, but dative because it follows a preposition in its own clause. On the same basis, it would be possible to substitute the pronoun welchem.
However, German uses the uninflecting was ('what') as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is alles, etwas or nichts ('everything', 'something', 'nothing'.), or when the antecedent is an entire clause.
In German, all relative clauses are marked with a comma.
The use of cardinal numbers requires the plural form of the noun or nominal phrase.
The cardinal number "one" is identical in form and inflection to the indefinite article. The number is distinguished from the article in speech by intonation and in writing sometimes by emphasis
(italics or spacing: "ein" or "e i n"). In dialects, the indefinite is much shortened to a Schwa
, equivalent to an unstressed e (varying into a short "a" when coming into Upper German regions), whereas the cardinal number isn't.
The numbers zwei (two) and drei (three) have case endings in some instances. Where an adjective would have weak endings, numbers do not have endings. If an adjective had strong endings, these numbers may also have strong endings in the genitive case
If there is no other word carrying the strong ending of the genitive plural, the numbers must carry it.
If these numbers are centre of a nominal phrase in the dative plural and no other word carries case markers, they may carry dative endings.
Special case for 'eins' in German: It can be represented as: "eins", "eine", "einer", "eines", "einem" or "einen" depending on the sentence.
Like articles, adjectives use the same plural endings for all three genders.
Participle
s may be used as adjectives and are treated in the same way.
In contrast to Romance languages
, adjectives are only declined in the attributive position (that is, when used in nominal phrases to describe a noun directly). Predicative adjectives, separated from the noun by "to be", for example, are not declined and are indistinguishable from adverb
s.
There are three degrees of comparison: positive
form, comparative
form and superlative
form. In contrast to Latin or Italian, there is no grammatical feature for the absolute superlative (elative).
s of the third person may be used to replace nominal phrases. These have the same gender
, number
and case as the original nominal phrase. This goes for other pronouns, too.
pronoun [position(s)] [relative clause]
The reflexive personal pronoun (engl. "myself" etc.) takes distinct forms only in the 3rd person (and 2nd p. formal address) dative and accusative, to wit, sich. (Uncapitalized also in the 2nd p. formal).
gradation (ablaut
). Both of these are regular systems. Most verb
s of both types are regular, though various subgroups and anomalies do arise. The only completely irregular verb
in the language is "sein" (to be). However, textbooks for foreign learners often class all strong verb
s as irregular. There are fewer than 200 strong and irregular verbs, and there is a gradual tendency for strong verbs to become weak.
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
of the German language
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
.
Nouns
A German noun has one of three specific grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter). Nouns are declinedDeclension
In linguistics, declension is the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and articles to indicate number , case , and gender...
for case and grammatical number. All nouns are capitalized.
Genders
German has all three gendersGrammatical gender
Grammatical gender is defined linguistically as a system of classes of nouns which trigger specific types of inflections in associated words, such as adjectives, verbs and others. For a system of noun classes to be a gender system, every noun must belong to one of the classes and there should be...
of late Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European language
The Proto-Indo-European language is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans...
—the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. Every German noun takes one of these genders. The grammatical gender of a German noun does not necessarily correspond with the real-life object's sex (or lack thereof). Nouns denoting a person, such as die Frau ("woman") or der Mann ("man"), generally agree with the natural gender of what is described. However, since every German noun ending with -chen or -lein is grammatically neuter, there exist several notable counterexamples such as das Mädchen ("girl") and das Fräulein ("miss"). Thus these are not illogical, whereas das Weib (old, regional or anthropological: woman) is really an exception. In addition, German assigns gender to nouns without natural gender, in fairly arbitrary fashion. For example, the three common pieces of cutlery all have different genders: das Messer ("knife") is neuter, die Gabel ("fork") is feminine, and der Löffel ("spoon") is masculine.
Students of German are often advised to learn German nouns with their accompanying definite article
Article (grammar)
An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the and a/an, and some...
, as the definite article of a German noun corresponds to the gender of the noun. However, the meaning or form, especially the ending, of a noun can be used to recognise 80% of noun genders. For instance, nouns ending in the suffixes -heit, -keit, -tät, -ung, -ik, or -schaft are feminine. As noted above, nouns ending in -chen or -lein take the neuter. A noun ending in –e is likely to be feminine; however, this is not a universal rule: die Katze ("cat"), die Blume ("flower"), and die Liebe ("love") are feminine, but der Bote ("delivery boy") is masculine, and das Ende ("end") is neuter. Similarly, a noun ending in –er is likely to be masculine (der Teller, der Stecker, der Computer); however, das Messer ("knife") and das Wasser ("water") are neuter, whereas die Mutter ("mother") can be feminine, as can die Butter ("butter") in many forms of High German, although it is der Butter in Swiss German
Swiss German
Swiss German is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in Switzerland and in some Alpine communities in Northern Italy. Occasionally, the Alemannic dialects spoken in other countries are grouped together with Swiss German as well, especially the dialects of Liechtenstein and Austrian Vorarlberg...
.
General
Unlike English, which has lost almost all forms of declensionDeclension
In linguistics, declension is the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and articles to indicate number , case , and gender...
of nouns and adjectives, German still inflects nouns, adjectives and pronouns into four grammatical case
Grammatical case
In grammar, the case of a noun or pronoun is an inflectional form that indicates its grammatical function in a phrase, clause, or sentence. For example, a pronoun may play the role of subject , of direct object , or of possessor...
s. The cases are the nominative
Nominative case
The nominative case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or predicate adjective, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments...
(Nominativ/Werfall), genitive
Genitive case
In grammar, genitive is the grammatical case that marks a noun as modifying another noun...
(Genitiv/Wesfall), dative
Dative case
The dative case is a grammatical case generally used to indicate the noun to whom something is given, as in "George gave Jamie a drink"....
(Dativ/Wemfall), and accusative
Accusative case
The accusative case of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of prepositions...
(Akkusativ/Wenfall). The case of a particular noun depends on the grammatical function of the noun in the sentence.
- Nominative (Wer oder was?): The subject of a sentence, the thing doing the action
- Genitive (Wessen?): The possessor of something, or the object of certain prepositions.
- Dative (Wem?): The indirect object, as in when an object is given to someone, or the object of certain prepositions
- Accusative (Wen oder was?): The direct object, the thing which is directly receiving the action, or the object of certain prepositions
- Example: der Tisch (masc.)(engl. the table)
- {| class="wikitable"
|-
| ||Singular:||Plural:
|-
|Nom:||der Tisch ||die Tische
|-
|Gen:||des Tisch(e)s||der Tische
|-
|Dat:||dem Tisch(e)||den Tischen
|-
|Acc:||den Tisch||die Tische
|}
- In a sentence (using only one noun for understanding purposes):
- Der Tisch gab dem Tisch(e) des Tisch(e)s den Tisch
- The table gave (to) the table of the table the table.
- This sentence is an example of how cases are used in German (and in every other language with grammatical case). This differs from English, where the word order in a sentence has more meaning. In German, because the function of each noun is not marked by its position within the sentence but by the declined articles — and in case of genitive and dative also by a suffix at the end of the noun itself — the German sentence could also be:
-
- Der Tisch gab dem Tisch(e) den Tisch des Tisch(e)s.
- Der Tisch gab des Tisch(e)s Tisch dem Tisch(e)
- Den Tisch des Tisches gab dem Tisch der Tisch.
- Dem Tisch(e) gab den Tisch des Tisch(e)s der Tisch.
- Des Tisch(e)s Tisch gab dem Tisch(e) den Tisch.
- etc.
- Although some of these may sound exotic in modern day German, they are grammatically correct (and even rather unusual constructions are more regularly used in poetry). With a flexible word order like that it is very easy, for example, to put the most important part of a sentence in the front of the sentence.
Contrary to strongly inflected languages like Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
, German expresses cases more through the word's article than the ending of the word, though especially the difference between plural and singular is also expressed by suffixes on the words' endings (der Tisch, die Tische). Other exceptions of a suffix expressing the case of a noun along with the article are the forms of genitive singular and dative plural. Yet, one could still say that transferring the case-information to the article preserved the German case system throughout its development from Old High German to contemporary German.
Genitive
First evidence of a decline of the genitive case can already be found in colloquial language of Early New High GermanEarly New High German
Early New High German is a term for the period in the history of the German language, generally defined, following Wilhelm Scherer, as the period 1350 to 1650.Alternative periodisations take the period to begin later; e.g...
(spoken from 1350 to 1650). When Martin Luther translated the Bible into German, the use of the Genitive case (along with the Preterite) was already rather unusual in most of the German dialects. Nevertheless, Luther used the bureaucratic language of Saxony for his translations which still made extensive use of the Genitive (and other "archaic" elements more usual in Middle High German than in New High German) and thereby slowed down the loss of the Genitive to a certain extent. Today the use of the genitive case is still rare in spoken language - speakers often substitute the dative case for it in conversation, quite similar to the language's Germanic relative Faroese
Faroese language
Faroese , is an Insular Nordic language spoken by 48,000 people in the Faroe Islands and about 25,000 Faroese people in Denmark and elsewhere...
. But the genitive case remains almost obligatory in written communication, public speeches and anything that is not explicitly colloquial in German and is still an important part of German Bildungssprache (language of education). Television programmes and movies often contain a mixing of both, dative substitution or regular genitive, depending on how formal or "artistic" the programme is intended to be. The use of the Dative substitution is more common in southern German dialects, whereas Germans from northern regions (where Luther's Bible-German had to be learned like a foreign language back then) use the genitive more regularly. Though it has become quite common not to use the genitive case when it would formally be required, great numbers of Germans know how to use it and generally do so. Especially among people of higher education, it is considered a minor embarrassment to be caught using the dative case incorrectly. Therefore, it is by no means recommended to avoid the genitive when learning German, since the decline of this case, which has been going on for about 600 years, is proceeding very slowly, because the historical development of German Standardsprache has reestablished this particular case in German language to some extent, and not necessarily just in written form.
Yet, a German book called Der Dativ ist dem Genitiv sein Tod
Der Dativ ist dem Genitiv sein Tod
Der Dativ ist dem Genitiv sein Tod is a series of books by Bastian Sick which deal in an entertaining manner with areas of contention in grammar, orthography, and punctuation, and unappealing and clumsy uses of the German language.-Origins:The books are collections of the author’s column...
("The Dative is the Genitive its death") alludes to this phenomenon (being called "genitive's death struggle" by the author) in its title. In standard German, the title would be "Der Dativ ist der Tod des Genitivs" ("Dative is Genitive's Death"). As is apparent, the book uses an Upper German dialect way of speaking, i. e. by employing the dative case together with a possessive pronoun instead of the genitive, to poke fun at what the author perceives as a decline in the German language, since in written German a dative construction replacing the genitive is still considered a major error. This is, by the way, not how Standard German speakers would colloquially replace the genitive case; they would construct Der Dativ ist der Tod vom Genitiv, which is (being literally the English "of the Genitive") incorrect in the Standard as well, but far less incriminated.
Linguistically, the thesis of the genitive case dying out can easily be refuted. Indeed, the genitive case has been widely out of use in all dialects of the German language for centuries. The new phenomenon is only the replacement of dialects by a colloquial Standard German, which does not at all, however, affect the use of the genitive case in the written language.
There are, however, legitimate dative constructions to indicate possession, as in "Dem Knaben ist ein Buch zu eigen". The construction "zu eigen", however, doesn't practically appear but in Latin beginners' translations, as the sentence should indicate (puero liber est). Some dialects have "Dem Knaben ist ein Buch" which is literally a dativus possessivus. If a genitive is unmarked and without article (practically, in the plural), usage of von (and after it, a dative) is not only legitimate but required, as in: "Die Belange von Minderheiten sind zu schützen" (minorities' affairs are to be protected). In that case, Belange der Minderheiten would produce a definite article which is not intended, and Minderheiten itself is somewhat an unmarked plural.
Dative
The Dative case governs the indirect object of a sentence and location. The sentence "Ich gebe meinem Sohn einen Hund" (Eng. I give my son a dog) contains a subject "ich"; a verb "gebe"; an indirect object "meinem Sohn"; and a direct object "einen Hund". Why is "einen Hund" the direct object and not the indirect object? Because, "einen Hund" is the what that corresponds to the subject's action and "meinem Sohn" is the to whom or the destination of the object of the subject's action.Dative also focuses on location. (See Accusative or Dative Prepositions below). German makes a big difference between location and motion. Accusative will handle motion; Dative location. There are 4 main verbs to show this dichotomy. hängen/hängen, legen/liegen, stellen/stehen, setzen/sitzen. (motion/location). z.B. Ich hänge das Bild an die Wand. (I hang/am hanging the picture on the wall). Note the article of 'Wand' - this is motion, this is Accusative and 'die' remains 'die' in the Accusative. Now, the picture is on the wall. This is location. z.B. Das Bild hängt an der Wand. Here, the article of 'Wand' is 'der' - because 'die' in the Nominative and Accusative changes to 'der' in the Dative. This sentence is location and therefore, the case of the noun that follows the preposition must be Dative.
Cases after prepositions
The case of a nounNoun
In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition .Lexical categories are defined in terms of how their members combine with other kinds of...
after a preposition is decided by that preposition. No prepositions require the nominative case, but any other case may follow one, for example, the preposition für (for) is followed by the accusative case, the word mit (with) is followed by the dative, and the word außerhalb (outside of) is followed by the genitive case. Certain prepositions, called "two way prepositions", have objects either in dative or accusative, depending on whether the use implies position (e.g. in der Küche = "in the kitchen", dative case) or direction (e.g. in die Küche ("into the kitchen", accusative case).
Prepositions and cases
Prepositions in German can be difficult for English speakers to master. The simple reason is that prepositions are designed to give some direction, location, intensity, etc. to a sentence. The way an English speaker would indicate such things may be totally different than the way a German speaker would. Perhaps a few examples will clarify this:ENGLISH: The book is on the table. The poster is on the wall. "ON" is the preposition. In English, we understand 'on', in this context, to mean contact between two surfaces. The book and the table; the poster and the wall. German speakers are desperately interested in the relationship between the two objects in relation to their contact with each other. Note the German examples below (same sentences as the English example).
GERMAN: Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch. Das Poster hängt an der Wand. The meaning is the same - 'on'. However, we have two different prepositions, 'auf' and 'an'. Why two? Because 'auf' is used to express horizontal contact and 'an' is used to express vertical contact.
Furthermore, there are times when the English preposition is completely different than the German. For example, "Turn the lights OFF"/"Mach' die Lichter AUS." "aus" does not mean "off." It means "out."
In German, prepositions are powerful enough to change what immediately follows to be in subordination to the type of preposition.
For example, 'bei' is a Dative preposition. If 'bei' is used in a sentence, it will force what immediately follows it to be Dative. For example: Ich mache einen Besuch bei meiner Familie. (I'm visiting with my family). Notice "mein" has the Dative feminine ending because 'bei' requires it.
The following chart shows the cases associated with several prepositions.
| Accusative | Dative | Genitive | Accusative or Dative |
|---|---|---|---|
| bis | aus | anstatt* | an |
| durch | außer | statt* | auf |
| für | bei | außerhalb | hinter |
| gegen | gegenüber | innerhalb | in |
| ohne | mit | trotz* | neben |
| um | nach | während* | über |
| wider | seit | wegen* | unter |
| von | jenseits | vor | |
| zu | entlang*** | zwischen | |
| gemäß | seitens | ||
| laut** | anhand | ||
| mithilfe |
“Unusual” prepositions, which exist in vast amount in bureaucratical style, as a rule take the genitive.
Declension of adjectives
The declension of an adjective depends not only on the gender, number and case of the noun it modifies, but also on whether the indefinite article, definite article or no article is used with it. The following table shows two examples which exemplify all three cases:| Masculine nominative singular | Feminine dative singular | |
|---|---|---|
| definite article | der schöne Mann (the/that handsome man) | vor der verschlossenen Tür (in front of the/that locked door) |
| indefinite article | ein schöner Mann (a handsome man) | vor einer verschlossenen Tür (in front of a locked door) [a specific door] |
| no article | schöner Mann (handsome man) | vor verschlossener Tür (in front of a locked door) [an undefined door or any door] |
Declension of adjectives is mandatory even in proper name
Proper name
"A proper name [is] a word that answers the purpose of showing what thing it is that we are talking about" writes John Stuart Mill in A System of Logic , "but not of telling anything about it"...
s. The name of Kunsthistorisches Museum
Kunsthistorisches Museum
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on Ringstraße, it is crowned with an octagonal dome...
in Vienna, for instance, changes into "das Kunsthistorische Museum" when predeceded by a definite article.
Plurals
The German language has twelve different ways of forming the plural. A student of German as a foreign language must learn the plural for each new noun learned; although many feminine nouns are very regular in the formation of the plural, many masculine and neuter nouns are not. For example, some plurals are formed with an "n", some with "en", some with an umlautUmlaut (diacritic)
The diaeresis and the umlaut are diacritics that consist of two dots placed over a letter, most commonly a vowel. When that letter is an i or a j, the diacritic replaces the tittle: ï....
and an "e" or an umlaut and an "en", other plurals are the same as the singular, some add "er" or an umlaut and "er". Many loanwords borrowed from another language take a plural in "s" (e.g. das Restaurant → die Restaurants).
| singular | plural |
|---|---|
| die Frau (woman) | die Frauen |
| der Mann (man) | die Männer |
| die Kuh (cow) | die Kühe |
| der Globus (globe) | die Globen |
| der Atlas (atlas) | die Atlanten |
| der Kuss (kiss) | die Küsse |
| der Bus (bus) | die Busse |
| das Kabel (cable) | die Kabel |
| das Auto (car) | die Autos |
| die Mitarbeiterin ((female) employee) | die Mitarbeiterinnen |
| der Kaktus (cactus ) | die Kakteen |
Although ancient German plurals called for morphologically distinct gender markings, this is no longer the case. With regard to the treatment of adjectives and articles, this amounts almost to the plural number behaving as a fourth gender. Textbooks and articles typically list the articles or adjectival endings for plurals in the next row or column where a fourth gender would be given if it existed. What this suggests is not completely true, but it is usually an effective approach for non-native speakers studying the language.
Nominal (or noun) phrases
(The content of this section is not yet applicable for proper names.)A German nominal phrase, in general, consists of the following components in the following order:
article
Article (grammar)
An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the and a/an, and some...
, number (cardinal
Cardinal number
In mathematics, cardinal numbers, or cardinals for short, are a generalization of the natural numbers used to measure the cardinality of sets. The cardinality of a finite set is a natural number – the number of elements in the set. The transfinite cardinal numbers describe the sizes of infinite...
or ordinal
Ordinal number
In set theory, an ordinal number, or just ordinal, is the order type of a well-ordered set. They are usually identified with hereditarily transitive sets. Ordinals are an extension of the natural numbers different from integers and from cardinals...
), adjective
Adjective
In grammar, an adjective is a 'describing' word; the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified....
(s), noun
Noun
In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition .Lexical categories are defined in terms of how their members combine with other kinds of...
, genitive attribute, position(s), relative clause
Relative clause
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly a noun. For example, the phrase "the man who wasn't there" contains the noun man, which is modified by the relative clause who wasn't there...
, reflexive pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun, adjective, adverb or pronoun to which it refers within the same clause. In generative grammar, a reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by its antecedent...
- "Die dritte umwerfende Vorstellung des Schillerdramas in dieser Woche in Hamburg"
(the third stunning performance of the drama by Schiller this week in Hamburg)
Of course, most noun phrases are not this complicated; adjectives, numbers, genitive attributes, positions, relative clauses and emphasizers are always optional.
A nominal phrase contains at least a cardinal number, an adjective, a pronoun, or a noun. It always has an article, except if it is an indefinite plural noun or refers to an uncountable mass.
- "Die Drei" (the three of them)
- "Der große Mann" (the tall man)
- "Der Mann" (the man)
If the noun is uncountable, an article is not used; otherwise, the meaning of the sentence changes.
- "Ich kaufe billiges Bier" (I buy cheap beer)
- "Ich kaufe ein billiges Bier" (I buy a bottle/can/glass/... of cheap beer)
- "Ich habe Geld" (I have money)
- "Ich habe das Geld" (I have the money) or (I have enough money to...)
A nominal phrase can be regarded a single unit. It has a case, a number, and a gender. Case and number depend on the context, whereas the main noun determines the gender.
Genitive attribute
A nominal phrase may have a genitive attribute, for example to express possession. This attribute may be seen as merely another nominal phrase in the genitive case which may hang off another nominal phrase.- "Der Beruf des alten Mannes" (The profession of the old man.)
- "Die Hütte des Häuptlings des Stammes" (The hut of the chief of the tribe)
-
- (genitive phrase has its own genitive phrase). This is uncommon in modern German. "Die Hütte des Stammeshäuptlings" (The hut of the tribe's chief) is preferred.
A direct translation of "Der Beruf des alten Mannes" would be "the profession of the old man."
"The old man's profession" could be translated directly and correctly as "Des alten Mannes Beruf", though this form is almost never used in modern German.
Position
A nominal phrase may contain a "position phrase"; this may be seen as merely another nominal phrase with a preposition (or postposition) or a pronominal adverbPronominal adverb
A pronominal adverb is a type of adverb occurring in a number of Germanic languages, formed in replacement of a preposition and a pronoun by turning the latter into a locative adverb and the former into a prepositional adverb and joining them in reverse order....
(See Adverbial phrases).
- "Eine Wolke am Himmel" (a cloud in the sky)
- "Der Bundeskanzler während des Bürgerkriegs im Kongo" (the Chancellor during the civil war in the Congo)
-
- (position phrase has its own position phrase)
- "Der Regen im Dschungel im Sommer" (the rain in the jungle in the summer)
- (Several position phrases)
- "Der Berg dort" (that mountain over there)
- (position phrase has its own position phrase)
Extended attribute phrase
German permits lengthy nominal modifiers such as"Der während des Bürgerkrieges amtierende Premierminister" (literally: the during-the-civil-war office-holding prime minister) or "Die noch zu Anfang des Kurses relativ kleinen, aber doch merklichen Verständigungsschwierigkeiten" (literally: The still-at-the-beginning-of-the-course-relatively-small-but-nevertheless-noticeable communication difficulties).
These are a feature of written (particularly educated) German. One also might hear them in the context of formal oral communications as well (such as news broadcasts, speeches, etc.).
Relative clause
A nominal phrase will often have a relative clauseRelative clause
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly a noun. For example, the phrase "the man who wasn't there" contains the noun man, which is modified by the relative clause who wasn't there...
.
Aside from their highly inflected forms, German relative pronouns are less complicated than English. There are two varieties. The more common one is based on the definite article der, die, das, but with distinctive forms in the genitive (dessen, deren) and in the dative plural (denen). Historically this is related to English that. The second, which is more literary and used for emphasis, is the relative use of welcher, welche, welches, comparable with English which. As in most Germanic languages, including Old English, both of these inflect according to gender, case and number. They take their gender and number from the noun they modify, but the case from their function in their own clause.
- Das Haus, in dem ich wohne, ist sehr alt.
- The house in which I live is very old.
The relative pronoun dem is neuter singular to agree with Haus, but dative because it follows a preposition in its own clause. On the same basis, it would be possible to substitute the pronoun welchem.
However, German uses the uninflecting was ('what') as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is alles, etwas or nichts ('everything', 'something', 'nothing'.), or when the antecedent is an entire clause.
- Alles, was Jack macht, gelingt ihm.
- Everything that Jack does is a success.
- Jack vergaß sein Buch, was niemanden überraschte.
- Jack forgot his book, which surprised nobody.
In German, all relative clauses are marked with a comma.
Articles and article-like words
The inflected forms depend on the number, the case and the gender of the corresponding noun. Articles have the same plural forms for all three genders.Cardinal numbers
In relation to nouns, cardinal numbers are placed before adjectives, if any. If the number is relatively low, it is usually not combined with an indefinite plural article (e.g. einige or mehrere). Personal pronouns of the first and second person are placed before numbers. Personal pronouns of the third person cannot be used with numbers.- "Drei Hunde" (three dogs)
- "Die vier apokalyptischen Reiter" (the four horsemen of the Apocalypse)
- NOT: "Einige fünf Äpfel" BUT: "Einige Äpfel" or "Fünf Äpfel" (some apples, five apples)
- "Ein paar tausend Euro" (a couple of thousand euro)
- "Wir vier" (we four)
The use of cardinal numbers requires the plural form of the noun or nominal phrase.
- NOT: "Zehn Pferd" BUT: "Zehn Pferde" (ten horses)
- EXCEPTION: "Zehn Bier" and "Zehn Biere" are both acceptable, with respect to certain nouns such as beverages.
The cardinal number "one" is identical in form and inflection to the indefinite article. The number is distinguished from the article in speech by intonation and in writing sometimes by emphasis
Emphasis (typography)
In typography, emphasis is the exaggeration of words in a text with a font in a different style from the rest of the text—to emphasize them.- Methods and use :...
(italics or spacing: "ein" or "e i n"). In dialects, the indefinite is much shortened to a Schwa
Schwa
In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa can mean the following:*An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in some languages, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel...
, equivalent to an unstressed e (varying into a short "a" when coming into Upper German regions), whereas the cardinal number isn't.
- "Ein rotes Buch" may mean
- "a red book" - ein rotes Buch; or
- "one red book" - ein rotes Buch
The numbers zwei (two) and drei (three) have case endings in some instances. Where an adjective would have weak endings, numbers do not have endings. If an adjective had strong endings, these numbers may also have strong endings in the genitive case
- "das Haus zweier junger Frauen" (two young women's house)
If there is no other word carrying the strong ending of the genitive plural, the numbers must carry it.
- "die Reise dreier Schwestern" (three sisters' voyage)
If these numbers are centre of a nominal phrase in the dative plural and no other word carries case markers, they may carry dative endings.
- "Zweien habe ich Bananen gegeben" (I have given bananas to two (of them))
Special case for 'eins' in German: It can be represented as: "eins", "eine", "einer", "eines", "einem" or "einen" depending on the sentence.
Adjectives
To correctly inflect German adjectives, the case, number and gender of the nominal phrase must be considered along with the article of the noun. German adjectives normally go before the noun which they are changing. German adjectives have an ending before the noun. The ending is normally the letter "-e" in the singular form and "-en" in the plural form.Like articles, adjectives use the same plural endings for all three genders.
- "Ein lauter Krach" (a loud noise)
- "Der laute Krach" (the loud noise)
- "Der große, schöne Mond" (the big, beautiful moon)
Participle
Participle
In linguistics, a participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It can be used in compound verb tenses or voices , or as a modifier...
s may be used as adjectives and are treated in the same way.
In contrast to Romance languages
Romance languages
The Romance languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family, more precisely of the Italic languages subfamily, comprising all the languages that descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of ancient Rome...
, adjectives are only declined in the attributive position (that is, when used in nominal phrases to describe a noun directly). Predicative adjectives, separated from the noun by "to be", for example, are not declined and are indistinguishable from adverb
Adverb
An adverb is a part of speech that modifies verbs or any part of speech other than a noun . Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives , clauses, sentences, and other adverbs....
s.
- NOT: "Die Musik ist laute" BUT "Die Musik ist laut" ((the) music is loud) or, less frequently, "Die Musik ist eine laute" ((the) music is a loud one)
There are three degrees of comparison: positive
Positive (linguistics)
Positive is the form of an adjective or adverb on which comparative and superlative are formed, in English, with the suffixes -ier, -lier, -iest, or -liest, or the forms more/less for polysyllabic adjectives/adverbs. In English, good is a positive adjectival form corresponding to the comparative...
form, comparative
Comparative
In grammar, the comparative is the form of an adjective or adverb which denotes the degree or grade by which a person, thing, or other entity has a property or quality greater or less in extent than that of another, and is used in this context with a subordinating conjunction, such as than,...
form and superlative
Superlative
In grammar, the superlative is the form of an adjective that indicates that the person or thing modified has the quality of the adjective to a degree greater than that of anything it is being compared to in a given context. English superlatives are typically formed with the suffix -est In...
form. In contrast to Latin or Italian, there is no grammatical feature for the absolute superlative (elative).
Pronouns
The pronounPronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun , such as, in English, the words it and he...
s of the third person may be used to replace nominal phrases. These have the same gender
Grammatical gender
Grammatical gender is defined linguistically as a system of classes of nouns which trigger specific types of inflections in associated words, such as adjectives, verbs and others. For a system of noun classes to be a gender system, every noun must belong to one of the classes and there should be...
, number
Grammatical number
In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions ....
and case as the original nominal phrase. This goes for other pronouns, too.
pronoun [position(s)] [relative clause]
Personal pronouns
| 1st sg. | 2nd sg. | |3rd sg. | 1st pl. | 2nd pl. | 3rd pl. | 2nd formal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ich | du | er | sie | es | wir | ihr | sie | Sie |
| Genitive | meiner | deiner | seiner | ihrer | seiner | unser | euer | ihrer | Ihrer |
| Dative | mir | dir | ihm | ihr | ihm | uns | euch | ihnen | Ihnen |
| Accusative | mich | dich | ihn | sie | es | uns | euch | sie | Sie |
The reflexive personal pronoun (engl. "myself" etc.) takes distinct forms only in the 3rd person (and 2nd p. formal address) dative and accusative, to wit, sich. (Uncapitalized also in the 2nd p. formal).
Verbs
German verbs may be classified as either weak, with a dental consonant inflection, or strong, showing a vowelVowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
gradation (ablaut
Indo-European ablaut
In linguistics, ablaut is a system of apophony in Proto-Indo-European and its far-reaching consequences in all of the modern Indo-European languages...
). Both of these are regular systems. Most verb
Verb
A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word that in syntax conveys an action , or a state of being . In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive...
s of both types are regular, though various subgroups and anomalies do arise. The only completely irregular verb
Irregular verb
In contrast to regular verbs, irregular verbs are those verbs that fall outside the standard patterns of conjugation in the languages in which they occur. The idea of an irregular verb is important in second language acquisition, where the verb paradigms of a foreign language are learned...
in the language is "sein" (to be). However, textbooks for foreign learners often class all strong verb
Germanic strong verb
In the Germanic languages, a strong verb is one which marks its past tense by means of ablaut. In English, these are verbs like sing, sang, sung...
s as irregular. There are fewer than 200 strong and irregular verbs, and there is a gradual tendency for strong verbs to become weak.
Split verbs
German has many verbs that have a separable prefix that can be unattached to its root. Examples are aussehen, to appear or look, and vorstellen, to imagine, or to introduce.- Peter sieht spitze in seinem Anzug aus. Peter looks handsome (lit sharp) in his suit.
- Lori, kennst du meine Frau? Ja? Wer stellte euch vor? Lori, do you know my wife? Yeah? Who introduced you?
Modal particles
Modal particles (Abtönungspartikel) are a part of speech used frequently in spoken German. These words affect the tone of a sentence instead of conveying a specific literal meaning. Typical examples of this kind of word in German are doch, mal, halt, eben, nun, schon, eh or ja. Many of these words also have a more basic, specific meaning (e.g. ja "yes", schon "already"), but in their modal use, this meaning is not directly expressed.Sentences
German sentence structure is somewhat more complex than that in other languages, with phrases regularly inverted for both questions and subordinate phrases.External links
- www.canoo.net – Comprehensive German grammar in English
- German Grammar – Toms Deutschseite - German grammar explained by a native speaker (in English)
- German Grammar Lessons – German grammar lessons along with exercises