Gladstone-Dale relation
Encyclopedia
The Gladstone–Dale relation (J. H. Gladstone and T. P. Dale, 1864) is used for optical analysis (the determination of composition from optical measurements), or to calculate the density
of a liquid for use in fluid dynamics
(e.g., flow visualization; Merzkirch 1987).The relation has also been used to calculate refractive index
of glass and minerals in optical mineralogy
(Mandarino 2007).
In the Gladstone–Dale relation, (n-1)/ρ = sum(km), the index of refraction (n) or the density
(ρ in g/cm3) of miscible liquids that are mixed in mass fraction (m) can be calculated from characteristic optical constants (the molar refractivity k in cm3/g) of pure molecular end-members. For example, for any mass (m) of ethanol added to a mass of water, the alcohol content is determined by measuring density or index of refraction (Brix
refractometer
).
Mass (m) per unit volume (V) is the density m/V. Mass is conserved on mixing, but the volume of 1 cm3 of ethanol mixed with 1 cm3 of water is reduced to less than 2 cm3 due to the formation of ethanol-water bonds. The plot of volume or density versus molecular fraction of ethanol in water is a quadratic curve. However, the plot of index of refraction versus molecular fraction of ethanol in water is linear, and the weight fraction equals the fractional density (d; Teertstra 2005).
The Gladstone–Dale relation can be expressed as an equation of state by re-arranging the terms to (n-1)V = sum(kdm). The macroscopic values (n) and (V) determined on bulk material are now calculated as a sum of atomic or molecular properties. Each molecule has a characteristic mass (due to the atomic weights of the elements) and atomic or molecular volume that contributes to the bulk density, and a characteristic refractivity due to a characteristic electric structure that contributes to the net index of refraction.
The refractivity of a single molecule is the refractive volume k(MW)/An in nm3, where MW is the molecular weight and An is Avogadro's number. To calculate the optical properties of materials using the polarizability or refractivity volumes in nm3, the Gladstone–Dale relation competes with the Kramers–Kronig relation and Lorentz–Lorenz relation but differs in optical theory (Jaffe 1988).
The index of refraction (n) is calculated from the change of angle of a collimated monochromatic beam of light from vacuum into liquid using Snell's law
for refraction
. Using the theory of light as an electromagnetic wave (Iksander 1992), light takes a straight-line path through water at reduced speed (v) and wavelength (λ). The ratio v/λ is a constant equal to the frequency (ν) of the light, as is the quantized (photon) energy using Planck's constant and E = hν. Compared to the constant speed of light in a vacuum (c), the index of refraction of water is n = c/v.
The Gladstone–Dale term (n-1) is the non-linear optical path length or time delay. Using Isaac Newton
's theory of light as a stream of particles refracted locally by (electric) forces acting between atoms, the optic path length is due to refraction at constant speed by displacement about each atom. For light passing through 1 m of water with n = 1.33, light traveled an extra 0.33 m compared to light that traveled 1 m in a straight line in vacuum. As the speed of light
is a ratio (distance per unit time in m/s), light also took an extra 0.33 s to travel through water compared to light traveling 1 s in vacuum.
The Gladstone–Dale relation requires a particle model of light because the continuous wave-front required by wave theory cannot be maintained if light encounters atoms or molecules that maintain a local electric structure with a characteristic refractivity. Similarly, the wave theory cannot explain the photoelectric effect or absorption by individual atoms and one requires a local particle of light (see wave–particle duality
).
In the 1900s, the Gladstone–Dale relation was applied to glass, synthetic crystals and minerals. Average values for the refractivity of oxides such as MgO or SiO2 give good to excellent agreement between the calculated and measured average indices of refraction of minerals (Mandarino 2007). However, specific values of refractivity are required to deal with different structure-types (Eggleton 1991), and the relation required modification to deal with structural polymorphs and the birefringence
of anisotropic crystal structures.
In recent optical crystallography, Gladstone–Dale constants for the refractivity of ions were related to the inter-ionic distances and angles of the crystal structure
. The ionic refractivity depends on 1/d2, where d is the inter-ionic distance, indicating that a particle-like photon refracts locally due to the electrostatic Coulomb force between ions (Teertstra 2008a).
A local model of light consistent with these electrostatic refraction calculations occurs if the electromagnetic energy is restricted to a finite region of space. An electric-charge monopole must occur perpendicular to dipole loops of magnetic flux, but if local mechanisms for propagation are required, a periodic oscillatory exchange of electromagnetic energy occurs with transient mass. In the same manner, a change of mass occurs as an electron binds to a proton. This local photon has zero rest mass and no net charge, but has wave properties with spin-1 symmetry on trace over time. In this modern version of Newton's corpuscular theory of light, the local photon acts as a probe of the molecular or crystal structure (Teertstra 2008b).
Density
The mass density or density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ . In some cases , density is also defined as its weight per unit volume; although, this quantity is more properly called specific weight...
of a liquid for use in fluid dynamics
Fluid dynamics
In physics, fluid dynamics is a sub-discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow—the natural science of fluids in motion. It has several subdisciplines itself, including aerodynamics and hydrodynamics...
(e.g., flow visualization; Merzkirch 1987).The relation has also been used to calculate refractive index
Refractive index
In optics the refractive index or index of refraction of a substance or medium is a measure of the speed of light in that medium. It is expressed as a ratio of the speed of light in vacuum relative to that in the considered medium....
of glass and minerals in optical mineralogy
Optical mineralogy
Optical mineralogy is the study of minerals and rocks by measuring their optical properties. Most commonly, rock and mineral samples are prepared as thin sections or grain mounts for study in the laboratory with a petrographic microscope...
(Mandarino 2007).
In the Gladstone–Dale relation, (n-1)/ρ = sum(km), the index of refraction (n) or the density
Density
The mass density or density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ . In some cases , density is also defined as its weight per unit volume; although, this quantity is more properly called specific weight...
(ρ in g/cm3) of miscible liquids that are mixed in mass fraction (m) can be calculated from characteristic optical constants (the molar refractivity k in cm3/g) of pure molecular end-members. For example, for any mass (m) of ethanol added to a mass of water, the alcohol content is determined by measuring density or index of refraction (Brix
Brix
Degrees Brix is the sugar content of an aqueous solution.One degree Brix is 1 gram of sucrose in 100 grams of solution and represents the strength of the solution as percentage by weight . If the solution contains dissolved solids other than pure sucrose, then the °Bx is only approximate the...
refractometer
Refractometer
A refractometer is a laboratory or field device for the measurement of an index of refraction . The index of refraction is calculated from Snell's law and can be calculated from the composition of the material using the Gladstone-Dale relation....
).
Mass (m) per unit volume (V) is the density m/V. Mass is conserved on mixing, but the volume of 1 cm3 of ethanol mixed with 1 cm3 of water is reduced to less than 2 cm3 due to the formation of ethanol-water bonds. The plot of volume or density versus molecular fraction of ethanol in water is a quadratic curve. However, the plot of index of refraction versus molecular fraction of ethanol in water is linear, and the weight fraction equals the fractional density (d; Teertstra 2005).
The Gladstone–Dale relation can be expressed as an equation of state by re-arranging the terms to (n-1)V = sum(kdm). The macroscopic values (n) and (V) determined on bulk material are now calculated as a sum of atomic or molecular properties. Each molecule has a characteristic mass (due to the atomic weights of the elements) and atomic or molecular volume that contributes to the bulk density, and a characteristic refractivity due to a characteristic electric structure that contributes to the net index of refraction.
The refractivity of a single molecule is the refractive volume k(MW)/An in nm3, where MW is the molecular weight and An is Avogadro's number. To calculate the optical properties of materials using the polarizability or refractivity volumes in nm3, the Gladstone–Dale relation competes with the Kramers–Kronig relation and Lorentz–Lorenz relation but differs in optical theory (Jaffe 1988).
The index of refraction (n) is calculated from the change of angle of a collimated monochromatic beam of light from vacuum into liquid using Snell's law
Snell's law
In optics and physics, Snell's law is a formula used to describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when referring to light or other waves passing through a boundary between two different isotropic media, such as water and glass...
for refraction
Refraction
Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed. It is essentially a surface phenomenon . The phenomenon is mainly in governance to the law of conservation of energy. The proper explanation would be that due to change of medium, the phase velocity of the wave is changed...
. Using the theory of light as an electromagnetic wave (Iksander 1992), light takes a straight-line path through water at reduced speed (v) and wavelength (λ). The ratio v/λ is a constant equal to the frequency (ν) of the light, as is the quantized (photon) energy using Planck's constant and E = hν. Compared to the constant speed of light in a vacuum (c), the index of refraction of water is n = c/v.
The Gladstone–Dale term (n-1) is the non-linear optical path length or time delay. Using Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton PRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."...
's theory of light as a stream of particles refracted locally by (electric) forces acting between atoms, the optic path length is due to refraction at constant speed by displacement about each atom. For light passing through 1 m of water with n = 1.33, light traveled an extra 0.33 m compared to light that traveled 1 m in a straight line in vacuum. As the speed of light
Speed of light
The speed of light in vacuum, usually denoted by c, is a physical constant important in many areas of physics. Its value is 299,792,458 metres per second, a figure that is exact since the length of the metre is defined from this constant and the international standard for time...
is a ratio (distance per unit time in m/s), light also took an extra 0.33 s to travel through water compared to light traveling 1 s in vacuum.
The Gladstone–Dale relation requires a particle model of light because the continuous wave-front required by wave theory cannot be maintained if light encounters atoms or molecules that maintain a local electric structure with a characteristic refractivity. Similarly, the wave theory cannot explain the photoelectric effect or absorption by individual atoms and one requires a local particle of light (see wave–particle duality
Wave–particle duality
Wave–particle duality postulates that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties. A central concept of quantum mechanics, this duality addresses the inability of classical concepts like "particle" and "wave" to fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects...
).
In the 1900s, the Gladstone–Dale relation was applied to glass, synthetic crystals and minerals. Average values for the refractivity of oxides such as MgO or SiO2 give good to excellent agreement between the calculated and measured average indices of refraction of minerals (Mandarino 2007). However, specific values of refractivity are required to deal with different structure-types (Eggleton 1991), and the relation required modification to deal with structural polymorphs and the birefringence
Birefringence
Birefringence, or double refraction, is the decomposition of a ray of light into two rays when it passes through certain anisotropic materials, such as crystals of calcite or boron nitride. The effect was first described by the Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669, who saw it in calcite...
of anisotropic crystal structures.
In recent optical crystallography, Gladstone–Dale constants for the refractivity of ions were related to the inter-ionic distances and angles of the crystal structure
Crystal structure
In mineralogy and crystallography, crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid. A crystal structure is composed of a pattern, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a lattice exhibiting long-range order and symmetry...
. The ionic refractivity depends on 1/d2, where d is the inter-ionic distance, indicating that a particle-like photon refracts locally due to the electrostatic Coulomb force between ions (Teertstra 2008a).
A local model of light consistent with these electrostatic refraction calculations occurs if the electromagnetic energy is restricted to a finite region of space. An electric-charge monopole must occur perpendicular to dipole loops of magnetic flux, but if local mechanisms for propagation are required, a periodic oscillatory exchange of electromagnetic energy occurs with transient mass. In the same manner, a change of mass occurs as an electron binds to a proton. This local photon has zero rest mass and no net charge, but has wave properties with spin-1 symmetry on trace over time. In this modern version of Newton's corpuscular theory of light, the local photon acts as a probe of the molecular or crystal structure (Teertstra 2008b).