Gravitational biology
Encyclopedia
Gravitational biology is the study of the effects gravity has on living organisms
. Throughout the history of the Earth life has evolved
to survive changing conditions, such as changes in the climate
and habitat
. The only constant factor in evolution since life first began on Earth is the force
of gravity. As a consequence, all biological process
es are accustomed to the ever-present force of gravity and even small variations in this force can have significant impact on the health and function of organisms.
, has remained constant in both direction and magnitude since the formation of the planet. As a result, both plant
and animal
life have evolved to rely upon and cope with it in various ways.
s are directional movements of a plant with respect to a directional stimulus. One such tropism is Gravitropism
, or the growth or movement of a plant with respect to gravity. Plant roots grow towards the pull of gravity and away from sunlight, and shoots and stems grow against the pull of gravity and towards sunlight.
The size of single biological cells is inversely proportional to the strength of the gravitational field exerted on the cell. That is, in stronger gravitational fields the size of cells decreases, and in weaker gravitational fields the size of cells increases. Gravity is thus a limiting factor in the growth of individual cells.
Cells which were naturally larger than the size that gravity alone would allow for had to develop means to protect against internal sedimentation. Several of these methods are based upon protoplasm
ic motion, thin and elongated shape of the cell body, increased cytoplasm
ic viscosity
, and a reduced range of specific gravity
of cell components relative to the ground-plasma.
The effects of gravity on many-celled organisms is even more drastic. During the period when animals first evolved to survive on land some method of directed locomotion and thus a form of inner skeleton
or outer skeleton
would have been required to cope with the increase in the force of gravity due to the weakened upward force of buoyancy
. Prior to this point, most lifeforms were small and had a worm- or jellyfish-like appearance, and without this evolutionary step would not have been able to maintain their form or move on land.
In larger terrestrial vertebrates gravitational forces influence musculoskeletal system
s, fluid distribution, and hydrodynamics of the circulation
.
ion becomes closer, and even today space station
s exist and are home to long-term, though not yet permanent, residents. Because of this there is a growing scientific interest in how changes in the gravitational field influence different aspects of the physiology
of living organisms, especially mammals since these results can normally be closely related to the expected effects on humans. All current research in this field can be classified into two groups.
The first group consists of the experiments that involve gravitational fields of less than one g, termed hypogravity. All space travel
is done in hypogravity, and effective gravitational fields on any space station without Artificial gravity
are on the order of hypogravity, and therefore the understanding of the effects of hypogravity on the human body is necessary for prolonged space travel and colonization.
The second group consist of those involving gravitational fields of more than one g, termed hypergravity. For brief periods during take-off and landing of space craft astronauts are under the influence of hypergravity. Understanding the effects of hypergravity are also necessary if colonization of planets larger than the Earth is ever to take place.
, immune cell function, cell division
, and cell attachment all occur in the hypogravity of space. For example, after a matter of days in microgravity (< 10-3 g), human immune cells were unable to differentiate
into mature cells. One of the large implications of this is that if certain cells cannot differentiate in space, organisms may not be able to reproduce successfully after exposure to zero gravity.
Scientists believe that the stress associated with space flight is responsible for the inability of some cells to differentiate. These stresses can alter metabolic activities and can disturb the chemical processes in living organisms. A specific example would be that of bone cell growth. Microgravity impedes the development of bone cells. Bone cells must attach themselves to something shortly after development and will die if they cannot. Without the downward pull of a gravitational force on these bone cells, they float around randomly and eventually die off. This suggests that the direction of gravity may give the cells clues as to where to attach themselves.
Life
Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
. Throughout the history of the Earth life has evolved
Evolution
Evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.Life on Earth...
to survive changing conditions, such as changes in the climate
Climate
Climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over long periods...
and habitat
Habitat (ecology)
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of organism...
. The only constant factor in evolution since life first began on Earth is the force
Force
In physics, a force is any influence that causes an object to undergo a change in speed, a change in direction, or a change in shape. In other words, a force is that which can cause an object with mass to change its velocity , i.e., to accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform...
of gravity. As a consequence, all biological process
Biological process
A biological process is a process of a living organism. Biological processes are made up of any number of chemical reactions or other events that results in a transformation....
es are accustomed to the ever-present force of gravity and even small variations in this force can have significant impact on the health and function of organisms.
Gravity and life on Earth
The force of gravity on the surface of the Earth, normally denoted gStandard gravity
Standard gravity, or standard acceleration due to free fall, usually denoted by g0 or gn, is the nominal acceleration of an object in a vacuum near the surface of the Earth. It is defined as precisely , or about...
, has remained constant in both direction and magnitude since the formation of the planet. As a result, both plant
Plant
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
and animal
Animal
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
life have evolved to rely upon and cope with it in various ways.
Plant use of gravity
Plant tropismTropism
A tropism is a biological phenomenon, indicating growth or turning movement of a biological organism, usually a plant, in response to an environmental stimulus. In tropisms, this response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus...
s are directional movements of a plant with respect to a directional stimulus. One such tropism is Gravitropism
Gravitropism
Gravitropism is a turning or growth movement by a plant or fungus in response to gravity. Charles Darwin was one of the first to scientifically document that roots show positive gravitropism and stems show negative gravitropism. That is, roots grow in the direction of gravitational pull and stems...
, or the growth or movement of a plant with respect to gravity. Plant roots grow towards the pull of gravity and away from sunlight, and shoots and stems grow against the pull of gravity and towards sunlight.
Animal struggles with gravity
Gravity has had an effect on the development of animal life since the first single-celled organism.The size of single biological cells is inversely proportional to the strength of the gravitational field exerted on the cell. That is, in stronger gravitational fields the size of cells decreases, and in weaker gravitational fields the size of cells increases. Gravity is thus a limiting factor in the growth of individual cells.
Cells which were naturally larger than the size that gravity alone would allow for had to develop means to protect against internal sedimentation. Several of these methods are based upon protoplasm
Protoplasm
Protoplasm is the living contents of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is a general term of the Cytoplasm . Protoplasm is composed of a mixture of small molecules such as ions, amino acids, monosaccharides and water, and macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and...
ic motion, thin and elongated shape of the cell body, increased cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a small gel-like substance residing between the cell membrane holding all the cell's internal sub-structures , except for the nucleus. All the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms are contained within the cytoplasm...
ic viscosity
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear or tensile stress. In everyday terms , viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity...
, and a reduced range of specific gravity
Specific gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance is nearly always water for...
of cell components relative to the ground-plasma.
The effects of gravity on many-celled organisms is even more drastic. During the period when animals first evolved to survive on land some method of directed locomotion and thus a form of inner skeleton
Endoskeleton
An endoskeleton is an internal support structure of an animal, composed of mineralized tissue. Endoskeleton develops within the skin or in the deeper body tissues. The vertebrate is basically an endoskeleton made up of two types of tissues . During early embryonic development the endoskeleton is...
or outer skeleton
Exoskeleton
An exoskeleton is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body, in contrast to the internal skeleton of, for example, a human. In popular usage, some of the larger kinds of exoskeletons are known as "shells". Examples of exoskeleton animals include insects such as grasshoppers...
would have been required to cope with the increase in the force of gravity due to the weakened upward force of buoyancy
Buoyancy
In physics, buoyancy is a force exerted by a fluid that opposes an object's weight. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus a column of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the...
. Prior to this point, most lifeforms were small and had a worm- or jellyfish-like appearance, and without this evolutionary step would not have been able to maintain their form or move on land.
In larger terrestrial vertebrates gravitational forces influence musculoskeletal system
Musculoskeletal system
A musculoskeletal system is an organ system that gives animals the ability to move using the muscular and skeletal systems...
s, fluid distribution, and hydrodynamics of the circulation
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients , gases, hormones, blood cells, etc...
.
Gravity and life elsewhere
Every day the realization of space habitatSpace habitat
A space habitat is a space station intended as a permanent settlement rather than as a simple waystation or other specialized facility...
ion becomes closer, and even today space station
Space station
A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a crew which is designed to remain in space for an extended period of time, and to which other spacecraft can dock. A space station is distinguished from other spacecraft used for human spaceflight by its lack of major propulsion or landing...
s exist and are home to long-term, though not yet permanent, residents. Because of this there is a growing scientific interest in how changes in the gravitational field influence different aspects of the physiology
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
of living organisms, especially mammals since these results can normally be closely related to the expected effects on humans. All current research in this field can be classified into two groups.
The first group consists of the experiments that involve gravitational fields of less than one g, termed hypogravity. All space travel
Spaceflight
Spaceflight is the act of travelling into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft which may, or may not, have humans on board. Examples of human spaceflight include the Russian Soyuz program, the U.S. Space shuttle program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station...
is done in hypogravity, and effective gravitational fields on any space station without Artificial gravity
Artificial gravity
Artificial gravity is the varying of apparent gravity via artificial means, particularly in space, but also on the Earth...
are on the order of hypogravity, and therefore the understanding of the effects of hypogravity on the human body is necessary for prolonged space travel and colonization.
The second group consist of those involving gravitational fields of more than one g, termed hypergravity. For brief periods during take-off and landing of space craft astronauts are under the influence of hypergravity. Understanding the effects of hypergravity are also necessary if colonization of planets larger than the Earth is ever to take place.
Recent experiments
Recent experiments have proven that alterations in metabolismMetabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
, immune cell function, cell division
Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
, and cell attachment all occur in the hypogravity of space. For example, after a matter of days in microgravity (< 10-3 g), human immune cells were unable to differentiate
Cellular differentiation
In developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...
into mature cells. One of the large implications of this is that if certain cells cannot differentiate in space, organisms may not be able to reproduce successfully after exposure to zero gravity.
Scientists believe that the stress associated with space flight is responsible for the inability of some cells to differentiate. These stresses can alter metabolic activities and can disturb the chemical processes in living organisms. A specific example would be that of bone cell growth. Microgravity impedes the development of bone cells. Bone cells must attach themselves to something shortly after development and will die if they cannot. Without the downward pull of a gravitational force on these bone cells, they float around randomly and eventually die off. This suggests that the direction of gravity may give the cells clues as to where to attach themselves.
See also
- AstrobiologyAstrobiologyAstrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. This interdisciplinary field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry,...
- Cell biologyCell biologyCell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
- GravitationGravitationGravitation, or gravity, is a natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract with a force proportional to their mass. Gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped...
- Space colonizationSpace colonizationSpace colonization is the concept of permanent human habitation outside of Earth. Although hypothetical at the present time, there are many proposals and speculations about the first space colony...
- Space explorationSpace explorationSpace exploration is the use of space technology to explore outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft....