Green libertarianism
Encyclopedia
Green Libertarianism is a hybrid political philosophy
that has developed in the United States
. Based upon a mixture of political third party
values, such as the environmental platform from the Green Party
and the civil liberties platform of the Libertarian Party
, the green libertarian philosophy attempts to consolidate socially progressive values with economic liberalism
.
A green libertarian would be an individual who adheres to libertarian
political philosophy as well as to green ideology. While these are not traditionally seen going hand-in-hand, the two are not necessarily incompatible. For example, free market economics and environmentalism
are combined in the concept of free market environmentalism. And there has recently been an interest in "how to bring green sensibilities into line with the free market
agenda of libertarians."
, a Russian Prince and leading opponent of the laissez-faire
Social Darwinists, provided a scientific explanation of how "mutual aid" is the real basis for social organization in his "Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution." See also Mutualism (economic theory)
Murray Bookchin
and the Institute for Social Ecology
which he founded elaborated these ideas much further. Bookchin was one of the main influences behind the formation of the German Green Party - the first to win seats in state and national parliaments.
Free Market Individualism Individualist Anarchism
as exemplified by Benjamin Tucker
and other Boston anarchists is the most direct source of contemporary Green Libertarianism. Tucker published Liberty
from 1881 to 1908, "widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language," as a regular town newspaper for Winsted, CT, which is also Ralph Nader
's home town.
Green Libertarians are both egalitarian and democratic. New England Transcendentalism
(especially Thoreau and Bronson Alcott) and German Romanticism
, the Pre-Raphaelites, and other "back to nature" movements combined with anti-war, anti-industrialism, and decentralization movements are all part of this tradition.
The modern American Libertarian Party
, like the Green Party of the United States
, is an attempt to apply these ideas to the contemporary technocratic national security state. In neither case have they been very successful, but there are many instances of Greens and Libertarians working together against perceived corruption by the two major parties, the Democratic Party
and Republican Party
.
Both Greens and Libertarians have traditionally opposed corporatism (fascism
), the Military-Industrial Complex
, and centralized planning or state socialism
. They have opposed the idea of corporate personhood
and the idea of state sovereignty in which governments claim the right to maintain a monopoly on force and dictate laws and policies against the will and interests of the people.
They do not accept the idea that those "in authority" have any right to enforce their will or decisions on the rest of us. (See Murray Rothbard
and his influential 1960s journal, Left and Right
). Ralph Nader
, who ran for President in 1996 and 2000 with the Green Party, is probably the leading contemporary example of an activist-theoretician who is both libertarian and Green.
The Green Party of the United States and the United States Libertarian Party oppose all but defensive wars, and an interventionist foreign policy. Both support a maximum of individual liberty, and would reduce most government functions to the local level, with local control.
The "eco" in economics and ecology is the same. It is the earth, oikos
, or some local part of it which we identify as an economy
or an ecosystem
. While Economics is concerned with the human part of this - how people use and conserve scarce resources in the most efficient and productive ways, Ecology is concerned with understanding whole natural systems and how they evolve and respond to outside forces or inputs. Since people are an animal species and thus part of nature, Ecology also includes the effects of human actions and human populations on the rest of the environment.
could mix. By 2006, Green to Gold was published, which provided ideas on how companies can practice green libertarianism.
The work of Friedrich Hayek
is especially important to understanding the organic view of society and how most human institutions, including law and the economy, are "the result of human action but not of human design." In his last major work, Law, Legislation and Liberty
, Hayek differentiates between endogenous orders, or self-organizing systems, and exogenous orders imposed from without. A similar distinction exists in law - at least within the English-speaking world. The Common Law
is judge and jury-made, and evolves spontaneously from precedents and "right reason." Statute Law is created by authority - legislatures and bureaucracies which may be more or less democratic, but which always reflect political and economic pressures.
Hayek argues that free and sustainable societies and economies which support them should follow general rules rather than particular economic regulations. One such rule might be "sustainability", or "you can't do anything to the environment which can't continue in perpetuity". This is also known as the "7th Generation Principle
" for Native Americans. Don't do anything to the environment which will diminish resources and opportunities even so far as 7 generations in the future. The Green Party calls this "future focus." If strictly applied, this principle would end nearly all mining, oil and gas extraction, deforestation, and other major alterations of the natural environment for economic reasons.
and carrying capacity
in view of climate adaptation
. The green libertarian philosophy recognizes that ecology and economics
are inseparable. It seeks a system of effective environmental law
that is compatible with civil liberties
and market economy
.
Green libertarians believe there should be a clear distinction between science
and political ideology. For example, a green libertarian might be concerned by the phrases such as "wealth redistribution" and "reducing poverty" in the Stern Review
and in some IPCC
documents and statements. Among green libertarians, the preservation of civil and economic individual freedom
may take precedence over long-term climate concerns because, ultimately, humans are part of nature. They believe that natural ecologies, like the free markets, are dynamic and self-adjusting systems.
. Increasingly, federal and state law is being amended by lobbyists for those who pollute or extract resources from public lands or waterways so that such actions can no longer be challenged in the courts.
The green libertarian philosophy supports constitutional limited government
, or "grassroots
democracy" in every way. Although many libertarians oppose government regulation of business in regard to the economy, they believe that different rules and economic principles such as full cost pricing or "internalizing externalities" — rather than bureaucratic, authoritarian regulations — would be more effective at preventing pollution
. A central tenet of a libertarian environmentalist stance is that corporate externalities
are not priced into the market correctly, creating market distortion
s in the valuation and price of goods, healthy living and the value of the environment. Greenhouse gases should be taxed directly, according to a formula which calculates the negative costs to the global environment of burning more non-renewable fossil fuels. This also has the advantage of providing the correct "price signals" to utilities and other energy consumers so that they can rapidly convert to technologies which do not have these negative environmental impacts. Rocky Mountain Institute
in Colorado is a pioneer in this kind of market-based environmental protection strategies.
Political philosophy
Political philosophy is the study of such topics as liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what, if anything, makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it...
that has developed in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Based upon a mixture of political third party
Third party (United States)
The term third party is used in the United States for any and all political parties in the United States other than one of the two major parties . The term can also refer to independent politicians not affiliated with any party at all and to write-in candidates.The United States has had a...
values, such as the environmental platform from the Green Party
Green Party (United States)
The Green Party of the United States is a nationally recognized political party which officially formed in 1991. It is a voluntary association of state green parties. Prior to national formation, many state affiliates had already formed and were recognized by other state parties...
and the civil liberties platform of the Libertarian Party
Libertarian Party (United States)
The Libertarian Party is the third largest and fastest growing political party in the United States. The political platform of the Libertarian Party reflects its brand of libertarianism, favoring minimally regulated, laissez-faire markets, strong civil liberties, minimally regulated migration...
, the green libertarian philosophy attempts to consolidate socially progressive values with economic liberalism
Economic liberalism
Economic liberalism is the ideological belief in giving all people economic freedom, and as such granting people with more basis to control their own lives and make their own mistakes. It is an economic philosophy that supports and promotes individual liberty and choice in economic matters and...
.
A green libertarian would be an individual who adheres to libertarian
Libertarianism
Libertarianism, in the strictest sense, is the political philosophy that holds individual liberty as the basic moral principle of society. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view...
political philosophy as well as to green ideology. While these are not traditionally seen going hand-in-hand, the two are not necessarily incompatible. For example, free market economics and environmentalism
Environmentalism
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology and social movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements...
are combined in the concept of free market environmentalism. And there has recently been an interest in "how to bring green sensibilities into line with the free market
Free market
A free market is a competitive market where prices are determined by supply and demand. However, the term is also commonly used for markets in which economic intervention and regulation by the state is limited to tax collection, and enforcement of private ownership and contracts...
agenda of libertarians."
History
The libertarian political philosophy, like the Greens, derives from Individualist and Communitarian Anarchism. Peter KropotkinPeter Kropotkin
Prince Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin was a Russian zoologist, evolutionary theorist, philosopher, economist, geographer, author and one of the world's foremost anarcho-communists. Kropotkin advocated a communist society free from central government and based on voluntary associations between...
, a Russian Prince and leading opponent of the laissez-faire
Laissez-faire
In economics, laissez-faire describes an environment in which transactions between private parties are free from state intervention, including restrictive regulations, taxes, tariffs and enforced monopolies....
Social Darwinists, provided a scientific explanation of how "mutual aid" is the real basis for social organization in his "Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution." See also Mutualism (economic theory)
Mutualism (economic theory)
Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought that originates in the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market...
Murray Bookchin
Murray Bookchin
Murray Bookchin was an American libertarian socialist author, orator, and philosopher. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within anarchist, libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books on politics,...
and the Institute for Social Ecology
Institute for Social Ecology
The Institute for Social Ecology is an educational institution in the United States offering courses related to social ecology, an anti-capitalist and anti-authoritarian strain of ecology that is a form of libertarian socialism. It was founded in 1974 by Murray Bookchin and Daniel Chodorkoff...
which he founded elaborated these ideas much further. Bookchin was one of the main influences behind the formation of the German Green Party - the first to win seats in state and national parliaments.
Free Market Individualism Individualist Anarchism
Individualist anarchism
Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and his or her will over external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a...
as exemplified by Benjamin Tucker
Benjamin Tucker
Benjamin Ricketson Tucker was a proponent of American individualist anarchism in the 19th century, and editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodical Liberty.-Summary:Tucker says that he became an anarchist at the age of 18...
and other Boston anarchists is the most direct source of contemporary Green Libertarianism. Tucker published Liberty
Liberty (1881-1908)
Liberty was a nineteenth century anarchist periodical published in the United States by Benjamin Tucker, from August 1881 to April 1908. The periodical was instrumental in developing and formalizing the individualist anarchist philosophy through publishing essays and serving as a format for...
from 1881 to 1908, "widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language," as a regular town newspaper for Winsted, CT, which is also Ralph Nader
Ralph Nader
Ralph Nader is an American political activist, as well as an author, lecturer, and attorney. Areas of particular concern to Nader include consumer protection, humanitarianism, environmentalism, and democratic government....
's home town.
Green Libertarians are both egalitarian and democratic. New England Transcendentalism
Transcendentalism
Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the 1830s and 1840s in the New England region of the United States as a protest against the general state of culture and society, and in particular, the state of intellectualism at Harvard University and the doctrine of the Unitarian...
(especially Thoreau and Bronson Alcott) and German Romanticism
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
, the Pre-Raphaelites, and other "back to nature" movements combined with anti-war, anti-industrialism, and decentralization movements are all part of this tradition.
The modern American Libertarian Party
Libertarian Party (United States)
The Libertarian Party is the third largest and fastest growing political party in the United States. The political platform of the Libertarian Party reflects its brand of libertarianism, favoring minimally regulated, laissez-faire markets, strong civil liberties, minimally regulated migration...
, like the Green Party of the United States
Green Party (United States)
The Green Party of the United States is a nationally recognized political party which officially formed in 1991. It is a voluntary association of state green parties. Prior to national formation, many state affiliates had already formed and were recognized by other state parties...
, is an attempt to apply these ideas to the contemporary technocratic national security state. In neither case have they been very successful, but there are many instances of Greens and Libertarians working together against perceived corruption by the two major parties, the Democratic Party
Democratic Party (United States)
The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's socially liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. The party has the lengthiest record of continuous...
and Republican Party
Republican Party (United States)
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP . The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S...
.
Both Greens and Libertarians have traditionally opposed corporatism (fascism
Fascism
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...
), the Military-Industrial Complex
Military-industrial complex
Military–industrial complex , or Military–industrial-congressional complex is a concept commonly used to refer to policy and monetary relationships between legislators, national armed forces, and the industrial sector that supports them...
, and centralized planning or state socialism
State socialism
State socialism is an economic system with limited socialist characteristics, such as public ownership of major industries, remedial measures to benefit the working class, and a gradual process of developing socialism through government policy...
. They have opposed the idea of corporate personhood
Corporate personhood
Corporate personhood is the status conferred upon corporations under the law, which allows corporations to have rights and responsibilities similar to those of a natural person. There is a question about which subset of rights that are afforded to natural persons should also be afforded to...
and the idea of state sovereignty in which governments claim the right to maintain a monopoly on force and dictate laws and policies against the will and interests of the people.
They do not accept the idea that those "in authority" have any right to enforce their will or decisions on the rest of us. (See Murray Rothbard
Murray Rothbard
Murray Newton Rothbard was an American author and economist of the Austrian School who helped define capitalist libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed "anarcho-capitalism." Rothbard wrote over twenty books and is considered a centrally important figure in the...
and his influential 1960s journal, Left and Right
Left and Right
Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought was a libertarian journal published between 1965 and 1968. Founded by Murray N. Rothbard, Karl Hess, George Resch, and Leonard P...
). Ralph Nader
Ralph Nader
Ralph Nader is an American political activist, as well as an author, lecturer, and attorney. Areas of particular concern to Nader include consumer protection, humanitarianism, environmentalism, and democratic government....
, who ran for President in 1996 and 2000 with the Green Party, is probably the leading contemporary example of an activist-theoretician who is both libertarian and Green.
The Green Party of the United States and the United States Libertarian Party oppose all but defensive wars, and an interventionist foreign policy. Both support a maximum of individual liberty, and would reduce most government functions to the local level, with local control.
The "eco" in economics and ecology is the same. It is the earth, oikos
Oikos
An oikos is the ancient Greek equivalent of a household, house, or family....
, or some local part of it which we identify as an economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
or an ecosystem
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
. While Economics is concerned with the human part of this - how people use and conserve scarce resources in the most efficient and productive ways, Ecology is concerned with understanding whole natural systems and how they evolve and respond to outside forces or inputs. Since people are an animal species and thus part of nature, Ecology also includes the effects of human actions and human populations on the rest of the environment.
"Natural Capitalism"
Originally, the ideals of libertarianism failed to "deal appropriately with environmental problems" In 2000, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution mentioned that libertarianism and green politicsGreen politics
Green politics is a political ideology that aims for the creation of an ecologically sustainable society rooted in environmentalism, social liberalism, and grassroots democracy...
could mix. By 2006, Green to Gold was published, which provided ideas on how companies can practice green libertarianism.
The work of Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich August Hayek CH , born in Austria-Hungary as Friedrich August von Hayek, was an economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism and free-market capitalism against socialist and collectivist thought...
is especially important to understanding the organic view of society and how most human institutions, including law and the economy, are "the result of human action but not of human design." In his last major work, Law, Legislation and Liberty
Law, Legislation and Liberty
Law, Legislation and Liberty is the 1973 magnum opus in three volumes by Nobel laureate economist and political philosopher Friedrich Hayek. In it, Hayek further develops the philosophical principles he discussed earlier in The Road to Serfdom, The Constitution of Liberty, and other writings...
, Hayek differentiates between endogenous orders, or self-organizing systems, and exogenous orders imposed from without. A similar distinction exists in law - at least within the English-speaking world. The Common Law
Common law
Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...
is judge and jury-made, and evolves spontaneously from precedents and "right reason." Statute Law is created by authority - legislatures and bureaucracies which may be more or less democratic, but which always reflect political and economic pressures.
Hayek argues that free and sustainable societies and economies which support them should follow general rules rather than particular economic regulations. One such rule might be "sustainability", or "you can't do anything to the environment which can't continue in perpetuity". This is also known as the "7th Generation Principle
Seven generation sustainability
Seven generation sustainability is an ecological concept that urges the current generation of humans to live sustainably and work for the benefit of the seventh generation into the future....
" for Native Americans. Don't do anything to the environment which will diminish resources and opportunities even so far as 7 generations in the future. The Green Party calls this "future focus." If strictly applied, this principle would end nearly all mining, oil and gas extraction, deforestation, and other major alterations of the natural environment for economic reasons.
Balance of ecology and economics
A fundamental concern among green libertarians is the health of global ecologyEcology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
and carrying capacity
Carrying capacity
The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water and other necessities available in the environment...
in view of climate adaptation
Adaptation to global warming
Adaptation to global warming and climate change is a response to climate change that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems to climate change effects. Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon, climate change and its effects will last many years, and adaptation will...
. The green libertarian philosophy recognizes that ecology and economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
are inseparable. It seeks a system of effective environmental law
Environmental law
Environmental law is a complex and interlocking body of treaties, conventions, statutes, regulations, and common law that operates to regulate the interaction of humanity and the natural environment, toward the purpose of reducing the impacts of human activity...
that is compatible with civil liberties
Civil liberties
Civil liberties are rights and freedoms that provide an individual specific rights such as the freedom from slavery and forced labour, freedom from torture and death, the right to liberty and security, right to a fair trial, the right to defend one's self, the right to own and bear arms, the right...
and market economy
Market economy
A market economy is an economy in which the prices of goods and services are determined in a free price system. This is often contrasted with a state-directed or planned economy. Market economies can range from hypothetically pure laissez-faire variants to an assortment of real-world mixed...
.
Green libertarians believe there should be a clear distinction between science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
and political ideology. For example, a green libertarian might be concerned by the phrases such as "wealth redistribution" and "reducing poverty" in the Stern Review
Stern Review
The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the British government on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern, chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics and also chair of the Centre...
and in some IPCC
IPCC
IPCC may refer to:*Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, of the United Nations*Independent Police Complaints Commission, of England and Wales*Irish Peatland Conservation Council...
documents and statements. Among green libertarians, the preservation of civil and economic individual freedom
Individualism
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual". Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance while opposing most external interference upon one's own...
may take precedence over long-term climate concerns because, ultimately, humans are part of nature. They believe that natural ecologies, like the free markets, are dynamic and self-adjusting systems.
Limited government
As part of the Libertarian Anarchist tradition, Greens maintain that the government itself is responsible for most environmental degradation, either directly, or by encouraging and protecting politically powerful corporations and other organized interests which degrade, pollute and deplete the natural environment. Therefore, the government should be held accountable to all the same environmental regulations they place on businesses. One problem is that while private corporations or individuals can be sued under the Common Law for damaging the environment, the government protects itself from the same suits. Therefore, green libertarians call for the abolition of sovereign immunitySovereign immunity
Sovereign immunity, or crown immunity, is a legal doctrine by which the sovereign or state cannot commit a legal wrong and is immune from civil suit or criminal prosecution....
. Increasingly, federal and state law is being amended by lobbyists for those who pollute or extract resources from public lands or waterways so that such actions can no longer be challenged in the courts.
The green libertarian philosophy supports constitutional limited government
Limited government
Limited government is a government which anything more than minimal governmental intervention in personal liberties and the economy is generally disallowed by law, usually in a written constitution. It is written in the United States Constitution in Article 1, Section 8...
, or "grassroots
Grassroots
A grassroots movement is one driven by the politics of a community. The term implies that the creation of the movement and the group supporting it are natural and spontaneous, highlighting the differences between this and a movement that is orchestrated by traditional power structures...
democracy" in every way. Although many libertarians oppose government regulation of business in regard to the economy, they believe that different rules and economic principles such as full cost pricing or "internalizing externalities" — rather than bureaucratic, authoritarian regulations — would be more effective at preventing pollution
Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light...
. A central tenet of a libertarian environmentalist stance is that corporate externalities
Externality
In economics, an externality is a cost or benefit, not transmitted through prices, incurred by a party who did not agree to the action causing the cost or benefit...
are not priced into the market correctly, creating market distortion
Market distortion
In neoclassical economics, a market distortion is any event in which a market reaches a market clearing price for an item that is substantially different from the price that a market would achieve while operating under conditions of perfect competition and state enforcement of legal contracts and...
s in the valuation and price of goods, healthy living and the value of the environment. Greenhouse gases should be taxed directly, according to a formula which calculates the negative costs to the global environment of burning more non-renewable fossil fuels. This also has the advantage of providing the correct "price signals" to utilities and other energy consumers so that they can rapidly convert to technologies which do not have these negative environmental impacts. Rocky Mountain Institute
Rocky Mountain Institute
Rocky Mountain Institute is an organization in the United States dedicated to research, publication, consulting, and lecturing in the general field of sustainability, with a special focus on profitable innovations for energy and resource efficiency. RMI was established in 1982 and has grown into a...
in Colorado is a pioneer in this kind of market-based environmental protection strategies.
See also
- Eco-capitalismEco-capitalismEco-capitalism is one of several strategies of the green movement and Green Parties. Its central idea is that capital exists in nature as "natural capital" on which all wealth depends...
- Ecological EconomicsEcological economicsImage:Sustainable development.svg|right|The three pillars of sustainability. Clickable.|275px|thumbpoly 138 194 148 219 164 240 182 257 219 277 263 291 261 311 264 331 272 351 283 366 300 383 316 394 287 408 261 417 224 424 182 426 154 423 119 415 87 403 58 385 40 368 24 347 17 328 13 309 16 286 26...
- Free-market environmentalismFree-market environmentalismFree-market environmentalism is a position that argues that the free market, property rights, and tort law provide the best tools to preserve the health and sustainability of the environment...
- GeolibertarianismGeolibertarianismGeolibertarianism is a political movement that strives to reconcile libertarianism and Georgism .Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all natural resources – most importantly land – are common assets to which all individuals have an equal right to access; therefore if...
- Green Party of the United States
- Henry David ThoreauHenry David ThoreauHenry David Thoreau was an American author, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, and leading transcendentalist...
External links
- Green-Libertarian Politics and Theory - Political Systems for a Small Planet, by Ben Sharvy. Retrieved August 21, 2008.
- Green Libertarianism: Ecology vs Economics?, by Jim Blair. Retrieved August 21, 2008.