Gregorij Rožman
Encyclopedia
Gregorij Rožman was a Slovenia
n Roman Catholic clergyman and theologian
. Between 1930 and 1959, he served as bishop of the Diocese of Ljubljana. He is most famous for his controversial role during World War II
. Some consider that Rožman, due to his pronounced anti-communism
, excessively collaborated with the Fascist Italian and Nazi German occupation authorities. He has been accused of having abused his authority to actively promote military collaboration with the occupying forces to fight against the Communist-led Anti-Fascist resistance
Rožman was an ardent anti-communist and opposed the Liberation Front of the Slovene People and the partisan forces because they were led by the Communist party. Because of his prominent role as a Church and moral authority during the Second World War, he has been accused of being responsible for the extensive collaboration of the Church authorities in the Province of Ljubljana
with the Fascist and Nazi authorities. Others claim that he strove to ensure as few casualties as possible among Slovenes during occupation..
He continues to be perceived as a controversial figure in Slovenia.
The postwar Yugoslav Communist authorities charged Rožman with treason and trialed and convicted him in his absence on August 1946. During the Communist period, the official propaganda and historiography portrayed Rožman as a Nazi collaborator. On the other side, the Slovene branch of the Roman Catholic Church
has been actively campaigning for rehabilitating Rožman.
In 2009, his trial was annulled in court on procedural grounds.
in Austria-Hungary
to Franc Rožman and Terezija (née Glinik) Rožman. The family lived on a medium sized farm, had seven children (Gregorij was the youngest) and was highly in debt. In 1889 he started attending a public school in Šmihel and after completing it enrolled in a gymnasium in Klagenfurt
. During his years in gymnasium he lived in the Marijinišče dormitory
, which hosted students that were expected to study theology after graduating. He was very active there in Slovene cultural sphere: he published his essays in the newsletter of Carinthian Slovenes
Mir and also (under the pseudonym "Emil Fanič") in the handwritten student journal Vaje, of which he was the editor from 7th grade until graduation (he edited six issues altogether).
After he graduated with honors in 1904 he went on to study theology
in Klagenfurt. He joined the Academy of Slovene theologists (he was the president of it in his last school year) and also participated with his essays in their journal Bratoljub (which he edited in school year 1906/07). At that time, Slovene students were, due to the nationalistic
frictions in Carinthia
, in constant conflict with the German students, which were publishing their own journal, Germania. He was also a member of Mary's congregation . In his last school year he has visited Rome
with the priest Anton Benetko. There he met the pope Pius X, which made a great impression on him.
On 21 July 1907 he was ordained
in his home parish of St. Michael by Bishop Jožef Khan. In 1908, he was sent as a chaplain in Ferlach
, which was at that time politically controlled by German liberals, the workers were tending towards social democrats so the church knew they had to send a capable priest there. He first set to renew the spiritual life in his parish, he was also very active in propagating Christian-social
ideas and organizing the workers. Although he was very popular there, he only stayed in Ferlach for a year.
On 1 October 1909 he went to Vienna
to continue his study of theology. On 27 June 1912 he obtained a PhD in theology from Catholic Theology Faculty of University of Vienna
. After returning from hist study he was appointed as a prefect in boys seminary Marianum in Klagenfurt in 1912 and as a docent
of moral theology in 1913. In school year 1914/15 he was appointed as a docent of Canon law
and relieved of prefect service. As first three grades were moved from Klagenfurt to Plešivec in 1914 he was split between Klagenfurt, where he taught moral theology to 4th grade and Plešivec, where he taught both moral theology and canon law to first three grades. He participated in Eucharistic Congress in Vienna in 1912 and as a result of it wrote a prayer book titled "Presveta Evharistija" (which was published in 1915 by Družba Sv. Mohorja). After the publication of a new Code of church law in 1917 he was appointed in a committee for its realization in Klagenfurt Diocese
. He also participated in Slovene Christian-social association as a lecturer.
When the Treaty of St. Germain divided the plebiscite area in Carinthia in zone A and B and the zone A was under Yugoslav
administration and lost the contact to Klagenfurt, the Carinthian bishop Adam Hefter established a special vicariate in Ebendorfin July 1919 and Gregorij Rožman was appointed as a judicial consultant of general vicar provost Matija Raindl. Because of his engagement for Carinthian Slovenes and his open support for Yugoslavia in the Carinthian Plebiscite
it was quite clear that in case a majority in the zone A decided against Yugoslavia in the plebiscite he would not be able to stay in Carinthia.
was signed by Regent Alexander
and in December the lectures started. Janez Zore, a church historian from the Theology faculty, had proposed that Gregorij Rožman be invited as a professor of church law. An invitation was sent to Rožman on 19 September. Rožman replied that he was prepared to take that position, if he got a permission from his bishop Adam Hefter. The permission was granted in a few days and Rožman started giving lectures on the university on 7 January 1920. He lived in Ljubljana with professor Alfonz Levičnik and had also taken a position of a prefect in student's seminary Marijinišče in the school year 1920–21. After less than five months of teaching, on 31 May, he was nominated by his colleagues for a promotion to a docent
position. This nomination was approved by the ministry on 27 August. He was listed as a associate professor in the school year 1924–25.
Rožman was known as a good professor, who delivered his lectures in simple, logical, systematical and understandable language and could explain dreary laws in an interesting way. He commonly emphasized the practical implications of the law, he also gave students many tips about its implications in the pastoral profession.
During this time he also published many essays, both professional and pastoral, mostly in Bogoslovni Vestnik
(Theological Journal). Just like in his lectures, his professional essays weren't of theoretical nature, he rather tried to explain the practical pastoral implications of a law for a common priest. He has also included the current events in Kingdom of Yugoslavia and elsewhere in the world in his essays. He wrote an important essay titled Church and politics (date of publication unknown), that show his relation to politics and state, which would become very relevant in the Second World War. In it he said that in the human society the Church "has the task to protect the truths of Christianity, that is moral and religious truths, to protect, teach and accustom the nations for them to organize all their lives and acts according to these truths". In his opinion there are a lot of areas that are not related with the Church, so it has no right to take sides or even decide on this issues - the Church should only be involved in areas concerning religious, moral or ecclesiastical issues. He also stated his opinion about coup d'état
(or revolution) and any official government authority: he said that "the church is indifferent on different forms of authority, it considers none of them to be the only right one; it rejects none, as long as it is capable of reaching the purpose of the state". He thinks that this purpose is to "protect the justice for everybody and to care for public prosperity". He says that the Church "condemns as immoral and violent change of government, every revolution". However if the violent takeover has occurred "the Church teaches, that the highest duty of every government is to take care of public prosperity. At the time of revolution, the highest duty of the government and the citizens is to end chaos as soon as possible and to build on the ruins of the old a new state, which will function as a device of public prosperity. If the revolutionary government is strong and able enough to positively organize the state to reach it's goal, than this highest duty requires of every citizen to recognize the new government.". In this essays he also in the time of war it is the duty of the Church to "reduce the horror of the war" and to take care of war prisoners.
Another such important essay was Church and the state , which was used for a lecture that he held in the fifth catholic rally in Ljubljana on 28 August 1923. In it he further revealed his relation to the government authority: he says that "the source of every authority, even political, is God. Every authority is given for the welfare of the humanity". He adds that the sovereignty of a state can not be absolute, as it is dependent on God, which set the limits to the authority, the limits "which it should not cross, if it does not want to abuse it's power against the will of God, in which name it wields the sword (Romans 13,4)". He says that the common concern of both, the church and the state, is marriage, the upbringing of children and education. Disagreement between them in these areas causes great damage to the citizens and also the state itself. He also expresses a critique of the situation in Kingdom of Yugoslavia after the passing of the Vidovdan Constitution
, which has set harsh limits on the freedom of the church. He says that the "annunciation of the religious truth is one of the main tasks of the Catholic Church and it's inner affair", so "we must, on the basis of our catholic principles, reject every attempt to institute a police control over the church in it's own matters"
(in Slovenia) was a Catholic youth gymnastic and sport movement, that was organized in the early 20th century as a alternative to a liberal gymnastic movement Sokol
. The decision to create a Christian sport and gymnastics organisation was made at a big gathering of Slovene Christian-social association in Maribor, between 3 and 4 September 1905. The first such club was then established in Jesenice
, in February 1906. Then on 10 April 1908, the Association of Gymnastic Sections was created. On 19 March 1909 at a local assembly of AGS in Bohinjska Bistrica
, the organisation was officially named Orel.
Rožman had already become acquainted with the organisation in Carinthia, as by 1913, the Carinthian section of Orel already had five sub-sections. In 1920, when he was already in Ljubljana, he was elected in the Orel president board as a secondary vice-president. As a priest, he quickly became the spiritual leader of the organisation. As the organisation in Orel began to differentiate, he took leadership of some sections and groups (debate club, high-school student's section ...).
Orel has, after it was rebuilt in the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, greatly expanded in the number of members, but it has neglected its spiritual and religious role. So a new spiritual and religious reorganization was needed and Rožman (together with a high school professor Ernest Tomec) was one of the key figures here. In 1921 Rožman wrote an article in the Theological Journal titled Contributions for pastoral profession in which he expressed his ideas about pastoral activity of youth organisations (like Orel). He first addresses the question whether the organisation should attend equally to anybody (which would produce poor results) or should it only focus on the selected (elite) group of people (that would produce great results - "elite or mass". He advocates for a compromise between these two, saying that the Catholic Church is required to pastorally attend anyone that counts himself as its member, but that its missionary activity should also be very emphasized, because it is easier to influence the people with help of special organizations, specially youth organizations. He emphasized the need for the youth to be part of the Christian organisations, because if the youngsters were left alone, they could easily fall under the influence of materialism
and so becoming communists
or social democrats
. He has heavily propagated the importance of spiritual growth, advising the members or Orel to join Mary's congregation (as they were more focused on spiritual life than Orel). In addition to that, he has also emphasized the importance of family values, national consciousness and other Christian values in Orel.
He had to leave Orel in 1929, when he became suffragan bishop and the Yugoslav government has also banned Orel (only leaving the state-controlled Sokol) shortly afterwards.
until it was banned by the Yugoslav authority in 1929. From then on, he focused on Mary's societies , but mainly on the Catholic Action
, in which he saw the strongest tool for the renewal of his diocese. In the argument between two Christian youth organisations, Mladci Kristusa Kralja (called just Mladci - Youngsters) lead by gymnasium professor Ernest Tomec and academic club Straža (members were called Stražarji - Guards) lead by theology
professor Lambert Ehrlich, which both claimed to represent CA, he decided in favor of Mladci.
He was known as an excellent speaker, who thoroughly prepared his sermons.
– in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia covered 15.036 km² and had, according to census in 1921, 1.054.919 inhabitants. After the Invasion
by Axis forces on April 6, 1941 the Axis powers occupied this territory and divided it between themselves. The biggest part of the Drava Province was occupied by the Germans
– the Lower Styria (Lower Styria
), the Meža Valley), Upper Carniola
and the Central Sava Valley). Italians
occupied Ljubljana
, Inner Carniola), Lower Carniola
), White Carniola
) and Hungary
was given to Prekmurje
– except for four communities at the western part of the territory, that came to Germany. All three occupiers aimed at a quick formal annexation. The Italians passed the Autonomy-Statute for the so-called "Provincia di Lubiana" (Province of Ljubljana
) on May 3, 1941, the Hungarians realized their formal annexation on December 16, 1941. The Germans who wanted to proclaim their formal annexation to the German Reich on 1 October 1941, postponed it first because of the installation of the new ”Gauleiter“ and "Reichsstatthalter" of Carinthia
and later on they dropped the plan because of partisan activities. Only Meža valley became part of "Reichsgau Carinthia" at once. Some villages in southeastern Slovenia were annexed by the Independent State of Croatia
.
Italians gave Slovenes cultural autonomy within their occupation zone (Province of Ljubljana
): they recognized Slovenian nation, left most of the old administration in place, Italian language was only introduced as an optional language in high schools and universities and at first, there was very little violence performed by them. They even accepted 18,000 refugees that fled from the German occupation zone. This can be to some degree attributed to co-operation ("collaboration") of notable Slovenian public figures with the Italians. Their attitude changed after first actions of the communist Liberation Front.
On the other hand, the Nazis started a policy of violent Germanisation
, which culminated with the resettlement more than 83,000 Slovenes to other parts of the Third Reich, as well as to Serbia
and Croatia
. More than 63,000 Slovenes were interned to Nazi concentration camps
. Slovenian language was banned from public use, Slovenian cultural associations were dissolved etc. German regime was very hostile to the church too: a lot of its property was confiscated, many priests forced into exile, and the authorities didn't accept any intervention for the people from the church. Hungarian regime was similar to the German one.
The communist party, rather weak in numbers but experienced in underground activities – this is because the CP was forbidden in Yugoslavia
since 1920 – saw the occupation as a chance to gain power. For that reason a sort of umbrella organisation of resistance named Liberation Front of the Slovene People was organized, through which communists were able to win several leftist groups on their side. This “Liberation Front“, that at first could only develop on Italian occupying zone, monopolized the resistance against the enemy already on September 16, 1941 and declared everyone who was organised outside the “Liberation Front“ to be a traitor – including those who worked underground against the occupiers. In addition, traitors had to be sentenced to death – after a condemnation by an obscure secret court, that actually never existed. In this way many patriotic Slovenes, including Church representatives (most notable example here is the assassination of Lambert Ehrlich), were „liquidated“ by “Security-Intelligence Service“, called VOS , a unit that was recruited solely out of members of the communist party and communist youth organization SKOJ
and was lead exclusively by the Central Committee of the Slovenian Communist Party. The inhabitants of the Province of Ljubljana, especially the peasants, suffered not only because of the Italian attacks on their lives and property, but also because of the partisan attacks. These two were often related: one day partisans would come to the village, staying there for a few weeks. During that time they often confiscated food and property from villagers, giving some of them certificates about the "freedom loans", as this confiscations were called, that would guarantee to get their property back after the liberation. Few people were given this certificates and even fewer ("politically suitable" ones) were actually given their property back after the war. When the Italians found out, that the partisans were in that village, they came to the village with strong army (which partisans usually didn't hold back but fled to the forest instead) and punished the villagers for not reporting partisans to them. After a short period they would retreat to their base and partisans would come back (and the story would repeat itself).
Partisans also performed "revolutionary" or "red" violence - violence targeted against the "enemies" of the working class in the communist doctrine. The enemies included people, who didn't agree with communism, wealthier people, some cases included Gypsies and German
ethnic minority. This violence was especially frequent and brutal in spring and early summer 1942 (which lead on to spontaneous creations of village guards against such violence), because the Partisans mistakenly thought that the Germany will be soon defeated by the Soviets, so they had to complete the "revolution
".
Among the victims of the red violence during the war there were 46 diocesan priests and 6 priests belonging to different religious orders. In comparison: the occupiers killed on the whole Slovene territory including the Slovene Littoral 24 diocesan priests and 10 priests of religious orders.
After the Italians issued the Statue of Autonomy on May 3, 1941, they expected that the bishop writes a declaration od loyalty. He therefore addressed a so-called declaration of loyalty on the High Commissioner Emilio Grazioli, but the High Commissioner was not satisfied with its wording. He forged it and directed it to Mussolini. Grazioli's text was published in the press and was written in a highly glorifying tone. The original version read
Rožman actually only emphasized free development in the cultural and religious spheres and promised loyalty and send blessing for the efforts of the authorities for the good of the people. The forgery was so effective that still today many publications use it as a proof of Rožman's collaboration. Former politicians, such as former Ban Marko Natlačen
and the mayor of Ljubljana, Juro Adlešič
were also brought to address a declaration to Italian authorities. The wording of their declaration was also dictated by Italians.
He celebrated Masses
for the Italian troops, provided Italian-speaking confessional
s and organized a Mass of thanksgiving to Mussolini on 22 May 1941 at St. Nicholas Cathedral
, Ljubljana. Rožman referred to the Italians as powers "which God has established" with whom Church representatives will "be pleased to co-operate". Italian propaganda effort took full advantage of his willingness to oblige, leading to Rožman being criticized by priests from Primorska region.
Later, Rožman condemned the occupiers twice. On October 24, 1941 he wrote a letter to the clergy in which he complained about the devastation of the part of his diocese occupied by the Germans: in it all Church property was confiscated, religious servants of both sexes expelled from their convents and 193 members of secular clergy expelled from 148 parishes and that about 200.000 of his people were without spiritual care. On 26 September 1942 he handed over to Grazzioli a memorandum, in which he criticized Italian repression means and proposed facilitating measures in 20 points. Grazzioli was furious and told him that if he weren't a bishop, he would have arrested him. Rožman wanted to condemn Italians from the pulpit, but the Pope advised him not to during his visit in Rome in May 1942, because in that case the Italians would isolate him somewhere inside Italy and he would not be able to help people in Ljubljana.
and Mario Robotti visited the bishop and told him they would burn the whole Province of Ljubljana
and kill or deport all of its inhabitants if the partisan attacks would not stop. Rožman therefore invited 21 representatives of the former political parties and of cultural institution to discuss the Italian threats (20 of which actually came). They have reached no agreement about stopping the partisan attacks, they agreed only to organize help for the victims. After the meeting a memorandum was written. The original version of this memorandum has never been found, only the German translation, so that it is not known who the authors were and how authentic the translation actually is. There is also no information about the bishop's contribution, or even whether he was among the authors. It is only known that he brought the memorandum to general Robotti, commander of the Italian 11th Army Corps. The memo read:
The original of this memo has been lost; its German translation is in the Library of Congress
in Washington, D.C. Also preserved are Robotti's notes in which he refers to Rožman as the author, and adds: "[T]he security guards that the Bishop suggests, correspond with local militias that have the task of defending their villages against communists, and to be available for actions in the local area - there are many such militias, which count a total of 1,000 men. These are doing their work decisively, not only from a military standpoint, but also as police, as the Bishop says...".
and Bolshevism which were incompatible with the doctrine of Christian church. The ideological differences were the subject of the anti-communist encyclical
Divini Redemptoris
issued in 1937 by Pope Pius XI
which Rožman used as a basis for his stance, going so far to reject in 1938 as irrelevant for situation in Slovenia the Pope's clarification to French Catholics that the encyclical was not meant as a directive for absolute noncooperation with communists.
In addition to that, the communists, similarly as the occupiers, later began using violent methods for gaining political power (not only such that was dictated by self-defense and liberation), which Church authorities could in no case accept. In 1943, after the fall of Turjak and Grčarice, followed by mass liquidations at Jelendol, Mozelj
and other places and the show trial in Kočevje
he dedicated all four sermons in Advent communism and the evils that this ideology brings in all aspects of life. He spoke about how the communists acted in Russia and in Spain.
Rožman said that it is his duty to speak the truth, otherwise he will have to justify himself in front of God. He preached »Do zadnjega bom trdil in učil, da je brezbožni komunizem največje zlo in največja nesreča za slovenski narod« (To the end I will claim and teach that atheistic communism is the greatest evil and greatest tragedy for the Slovene nation). At the funeral of Marko Natlačen
, who was executed by a member of VOS (Varnostnoobveščavalna služba, Security and Intelligence Service) - organization that was only responsible to the communist party - at his home on October 12, 1942, Rožman said there can be "no co-operation, no association with godlessness or those to whom godlessness is a leading opinion. Stand firm in your belief in God, build your future on God's Commandments, which alone can be a firm basis of healthy development of any nation, big or small. Stay alive - my nation - don't kill yourself and don't provoke measures able to hit your life force."
Also in the well-known "Pastoral letter about the godless communism" on November 30, 1943 he asks the Catholics to "fight" the "godless communism" through prayers. Rožman wrote "I know that advocates of communism and some other blind Catholics will reproach me that I am meddling in politics in a pastoral letter, which isn't a matter for a Bishop and doesn't appertain to the Church. But, dear believers, the battle against communism isn't political, but a religious matter, as it touches upon belief in God, one of the most basic truths of every faith, especially our Christian faith. To reject atheistic doctrines, to defend the truths of our global religion is a religious matter and a religious duty, that admits everyone with common sense." . In his Christmas message to the Domobranci in 1944 Rožman talked about shepherds in Bethlehem
keeping watch over their flock in the fields and asked the Domobranci to take an example by them. "You are defending your nation against wolves and jackals who destroy lives and property of their own fellow-countrymen, against 'tenants, who do not care about their sheep', who are poisoning souls with foreign mentality of godless communism and through that they break down the spiritual foundations, on which all the spiritual wealth that we have in common with Christian Europe, has been built for centuries".
, Croatia
and Germany, clergymen, refugees, orthodox Serbs, Jews
, arrested, prisoners of war, Jugoslav officers, hostages, condemned, children, internees in Rab
(Arbre), Treviso
(Monigo), Renicci, Gonars
. The research so far shows that he has intervened for 1318 individual people, for some of them more than once, so that we now can identify 1210 people for whom he intervened . He had also intervened for various groups (for example 350 priests, who were deported to Croatia by Germans or 1700 children in the Italian concentration camps). Number of members in only known for some of these groups, they total at least 2495 people altogether . Bishop’a secretary, Dr. Stanislav Lenič, testified that sometimes up to 50 petitioners came to bishop on one single day and that he helped them regardless of their political views. Among many documents a letter written by Gastone Gambarra, the Commander of Italian XI. Army corps, on April 26, 1943 testifies that 122 internees were released because of his intervention. But Italians soon noticed that the bishop made no differences in his interventions, so Grazioli asked his subordinates to treat Bishop‘s interventions as anyone else`s, because he intervened for the "unworthy".
However, according to some historians, Rožman's messages to Italian authorities (such as the September 1942 memos) suggest that the goal of some of those interventions was above all to acquire experienced officers for the Village Guard units.
After the capitulation of Italy (September 1943), Ljubljana was occupied by the Germans. Rožman has agreed with Friedrich Rainer
's intention that Leon Rupnik
should become the president of the new provincial government, although Rupnik was already chosen by Reiner for that position. Rupnik was appointed as a president of provincial government on 22 September 1943.
He was seen twice at formal and informal events chatting with SS General Erwin Rösener
, the commander of German forces in the province. From 1943 until the end of the war, Rožman was closely associated with the anti-Partisan
, anti-communist Domobranci, the Slovenian Home Guard forces formed by order of SS General Rösener on 24 September 1943.
Rožman personally held a silent mass prior to Domobranci swearing a collective oath of allegiance at Ljubljana central stadium on 20 April 1944. He then, according to some witnesses, chose to observe from the background despite being offered place on the main stand, and left quickly afterwards. He declined to hold the mass at the second swearing on 30 January 1945, but was present at the subsequent Domobranci parade in front of the Ursuline Church
. This decision had led to numerous speculations on his true motives. In his Christmas message to the Domobranci at the end of 1944, Rožman wrote: "You are defending your nation against wolves and jackals (…) who are poisoning souls with the foreign mentality of atheistic communism".
were indicted for alleged war crimes, but managed to escape. These included Bishop Ivan Šarić
of Sarajevo, who had set about forcibly converting the local population to Catholicism. Rožman, Šarić and others were living under the British supervision at the Bishop's Palace at Klagenfurt
, Austria, in October 1946. Rožman began to appear in American and British intelligence reports as being involved in ratlines
that spirited wanted Axis and collaborationist fugitives out of Europe.
Although in some books and in internet obe can read that bishop Rožman was funneling money to South America
from a Swiss bank account set up "to aid refugees of the Catholic religion", there is absolutely no evidence to that and in his correspondence there is no evidence of any contacts to such Croatian circles. To get an American visa bishop Rožman did not visit the consulate of Berne, he communicated with the United states Consulate General at Zürich on May 25 for the purpose of obtaining a visitorŽs visa to come to the United states. On May 28 he appeared at the Consulate general where he was informed about the United States regulations regarding the issue of a non-quota immigration visa as a minister of religion. Rožman and Šarić were not together in Switzerland. Rožman was residing at the Institut Menzingen, near Zug and Šarić was residing at Haute Rive near Friborg. Šarić was not interested in coming to US and he remained in Europe.
After settling permanently in Cleveland, Rožman is recorded as having visited Argentina
on three occasions, in 1949, 1952 and 1956. He died in Cleveland on 16 November 1959, aged 76.
and France M. Dolinar to prepare an expertise for this retrial. It was later later published as a book "Rožmanov proces".. On the basis, among other things, that he should have had the right to defend himself, Rožman's 1946 conviction has been overturned by the Slovenian Supreme Court and his case sent to the court of first instance
for retrial. On April 10, 2009 the trial was stopped completely
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
n Roman Catholic clergyman and theologian
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
. Between 1930 and 1959, he served as bishop of the Diocese of Ljubljana. He is most famous for his controversial role during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Some consider that Rožman, due to his pronounced anti-communism
Anti-communism
Anti-communism is opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia and the beginning of the Cold War in 1947.-Objections to communist theory:...
, excessively collaborated with the Fascist Italian and Nazi German occupation authorities. He has been accused of having abused his authority to actively promote military collaboration with the occupying forces to fight against the Communist-led Anti-Fascist resistance
Rožman was an ardent anti-communist and opposed the Liberation Front of the Slovene People and the partisan forces because they were led by the Communist party. Because of his prominent role as a Church and moral authority during the Second World War, he has been accused of being responsible for the extensive collaboration of the Church authorities in the Province of Ljubljana
Province of Ljubljana
The Province of Ljubljana was a province of the Kingdom of Italy and of the Nazi German Adriatic Littoral during World War II. It was created on May 3, 1941 from territory occupied and annexed to Italy after the Axis invasion and dissolution of Yugoslavia, and it was abolished on May 9, 1945, when...
with the Fascist and Nazi authorities. Others claim that he strove to ensure as few casualties as possible among Slovenes during occupation..
He continues to be perceived as a controversial figure in Slovenia.
The postwar Yugoslav Communist authorities charged Rožman with treason and trialed and convicted him in his absence on August 1946. During the Communist period, the official propaganda and historiography portrayed Rožman as a Nazi collaborator. On the other side, the Slovene branch of the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
has been actively campaigning for rehabilitating Rožman.
In 2009, his trial was annulled in court on procedural grounds.
Years in Carinthia
Rožman was born on March 9, 1883 into a Carinthian Slovene family in Dolintschitschach near Feistritz ob BleiburgFeistritz ob Bleiburg
Feistritz ob Bleiburg is a town in the district of Völkermarkt in Carinthia in Austria.According to the 2001 census 33.3% of the population are Carinthian Slovenes.-References:...
in Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
to Franc Rožman and Terezija (née Glinik) Rožman. The family lived on a medium sized farm, had seven children (Gregorij was the youngest) and was highly in debt. In 1889 he started attending a public school in Šmihel and after completing it enrolled in a gymnasium in Klagenfurt
Klagenfurt
-Name:Carinthia's eminent linguists Primus Lessiak and Eberhard Kranzmayer assumed that the city's name, which literally translates as "ford of lament" or "ford of complaints", had something to do with the superstitious thought that fateful fairies or demons tend to live around treacherous waters...
. During his years in gymnasium he lived in the Marijinišče dormitory
Dormitory
A dormitory, often shortened to dorm, in the United States is a residence hall consisting of sleeping quarters or entire buildings primarily providing sleeping and residential quarters for large numbers of people, often boarding school, college or university students...
, which hosted students that were expected to study theology after graduating. He was very active there in Slovene cultural sphere: he published his essays in the newsletter of Carinthian Slovenes
Carinthian Slovenes
Carinthian Slovenes are the Slovene-speaking population group in the Austrian State of Carinthia. The Carinthian Slovenes send representatives to the National Ethnic Groups Advisory Council...
Mir and also (under the pseudonym "Emil Fanič") in the handwritten student journal Vaje, of which he was the editor from 7th grade until graduation (he edited six issues altogether).
After he graduated with honors in 1904 he went on to study theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
in Klagenfurt. He joined the Academy of Slovene theologists (he was the president of it in his last school year) and also participated with his essays in their journal Bratoljub (which he edited in school year 1906/07). At that time, Slovene students were, due to the nationalistic
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
frictions in Carinthia
Duchy of Carinthia
The Duchy of Carinthia was a duchy located in southern Austria and parts of northern Slovenia. It was separated from the Duchy of Bavaria in 976, then the first newly created Imperial State beside the original German stem duchies....
, in constant conflict with the German students, which were publishing their own journal, Germania. He was also a member of Mary's congregation . In his last school year he has visited Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
with the priest Anton Benetko. There he met the pope Pius X, which made a great impression on him.
On 21 July 1907 he was ordained
Ordination
In general religious use, ordination is the process by which individuals are consecrated, that is, set apart as clergy to perform various religious rites and ceremonies. The process and ceremonies of ordination itself varies by religion and denomination. One who is in preparation for, or who is...
in his home parish of St. Michael by Bishop Jožef Khan. In 1908, he was sent as a chaplain in Ferlach
Ferlach
Ferlach is the southernmost town in Austria, about 17 km south of the Carinthian capital Klagenfurt. It is situated in the Rosental/Rož Valley of the Drava River, at the northern slope of the Karawanken mountain range...
, which was at that time politically controlled by German liberals, the workers were tending towards social democrats so the church knew they had to send a capable priest there. He first set to renew the spiritual life in his parish, he was also very active in propagating Christian-social
Christian Democracy
Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy. It emerged in nineteenth-century Europe under the influence of conservatism and Catholic social teaching...
ideas and organizing the workers. Although he was very popular there, he only stayed in Ferlach for a year.
On 1 October 1909 he went to Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
to continue his study of theology. On 27 June 1912 he obtained a PhD in theology from Catholic Theology Faculty of University of Vienna
University of Vienna
The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world...
. After returning from hist study he was appointed as a prefect in boys seminary Marianum in Klagenfurt in 1912 and as a docent
Docent
Docent is a title at some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks below professor . Docent is also used at some universities generically for a person who has the right to teach...
of moral theology in 1913. In school year 1914/15 he was appointed as a docent of Canon law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
and relieved of prefect service. As first three grades were moved from Klagenfurt to Plešivec in 1914 he was split between Klagenfurt, where he taught moral theology to 4th grade and Plešivec, where he taught both moral theology and canon law to first three grades. He participated in Eucharistic Congress in Vienna in 1912 and as a result of it wrote a prayer book titled "Presveta Evharistija" (which was published in 1915 by Družba Sv. Mohorja). After the publication of a new Code of church law in 1917 he was appointed in a committee for its realization in Klagenfurt Diocese
Roman Catholic Diocese of Gurk
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Gurk is a diocese comprising the Austrian state of Carinthia and is part of the Ecclesiastical province of Salzburg. Due to the presence of Carinthian Slovenes the Slovenian language is, together with Latin and German, the language of the liturgy in the Southern parts...
. He also participated in Slovene Christian-social association as a lecturer.
When the Treaty of St. Germain divided the plebiscite area in Carinthia in zone A and B and the zone A was under Yugoslav
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state stretching from the Western Balkans to Central Europe which existed during the often-tumultuous interwar era of 1918–1941...
administration and lost the contact to Klagenfurt, the Carinthian bishop Adam Hefter established a special vicariate in Ebendorfin July 1919 and Gregorij Rožman was appointed as a judicial consultant of general vicar provost Matija Raindl. Because of his engagement for Carinthian Slovenes and his open support for Yugoslavia in the Carinthian Plebiscite
Carinthian Plebiscite
The Carinthian Plebiscite on 10 October 1920 determined the final southern border between the Republic of Austria and the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes after World War I.- History :...
it was quite clear that in case a majority in the zone A decided against Yugoslavia in the plebiscite he would not be able to stay in Carinthia.
Canon law professor in Ljubljana
Soon after the integration of the Slovenes in Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, on 23 July 1919 a law about the creation of University of LjubljanaUniversity of Ljubljana
The University of Ljubljana is the oldest and largest university in Slovenia. With 64,000 enrolled graduate and postgraduate students, it is among the largest universities in Europe.-Beginnings:...
was signed by Regent Alexander
Alexander I of Yugoslavia
Alexander I , also known as Alexander the Unifier was the first king of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia as well as the last king of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes .-Childhood:...
and in December the lectures started. Janez Zore, a church historian from the Theology faculty, had proposed that Gregorij Rožman be invited as a professor of church law. An invitation was sent to Rožman on 19 September. Rožman replied that he was prepared to take that position, if he got a permission from his bishop Adam Hefter. The permission was granted in a few days and Rožman started giving lectures on the university on 7 January 1920. He lived in Ljubljana with professor Alfonz Levičnik and had also taken a position of a prefect in student's seminary Marijinišče in the school year 1920–21. After less than five months of teaching, on 31 May, he was nominated by his colleagues for a promotion to a docent
Docent
Docent is a title at some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks below professor . Docent is also used at some universities generically for a person who has the right to teach...
position. This nomination was approved by the ministry on 27 August. He was listed as a associate professor in the school year 1924–25.
Rožman was known as a good professor, who delivered his lectures in simple, logical, systematical and understandable language and could explain dreary laws in an interesting way. He commonly emphasized the practical implications of the law, he also gave students many tips about its implications in the pastoral profession.
During this time he also published many essays, both professional and pastoral, mostly in Bogoslovni Vestnik
Bogoslovni vestnik
Bogoslovni vestnik, subtitled Theological Quarterly, Ephemerides Theologicae, is a quarterly academic journal on theology edited by theological faculty of the University of Ljubljana. Contributors from Slovenia and abroad publish peer-reviewed articles in English, French, German, Italian, Latin,...
(Theological Journal). Just like in his lectures, his professional essays weren't of theoretical nature, he rather tried to explain the practical pastoral implications of a law for a common priest. He has also included the current events in Kingdom of Yugoslavia and elsewhere in the world in his essays. He wrote an important essay titled Church and politics (date of publication unknown), that show his relation to politics and state, which would become very relevant in the Second World War. In it he said that in the human society the Church "has the task to protect the truths of Christianity, that is moral and religious truths, to protect, teach and accustom the nations for them to organize all their lives and acts according to these truths". In his opinion there are a lot of areas that are not related with the Church, so it has no right to take sides or even decide on this issues - the Church should only be involved in areas concerning religious, moral or ecclesiastical issues. He also stated his opinion about coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
(or revolution) and any official government authority: he said that "the church is indifferent on different forms of authority, it considers none of them to be the only right one; it rejects none, as long as it is capable of reaching the purpose of the state". He thinks that this purpose is to "protect the justice for everybody and to care for public prosperity". He says that the Church "condemns as immoral and violent change of government, every revolution". However if the violent takeover has occurred "the Church teaches, that the highest duty of every government is to take care of public prosperity. At the time of revolution, the highest duty of the government and the citizens is to end chaos as soon as possible and to build on the ruins of the old a new state, which will function as a device of public prosperity. If the revolutionary government is strong and able enough to positively organize the state to reach it's goal, than this highest duty requires of every citizen to recognize the new government.". In this essays he also in the time of war it is the duty of the Church to "reduce the horror of the war" and to take care of war prisoners.
Another such important essay was Church and the state , which was used for a lecture that he held in the fifth catholic rally in Ljubljana on 28 August 1923. In it he further revealed his relation to the government authority: he says that "the source of every authority, even political, is God. Every authority is given for the welfare of the humanity". He adds that the sovereignty of a state can not be absolute, as it is dependent on God, which set the limits to the authority, the limits "which it should not cross, if it does not want to abuse it's power against the will of God, in which name it wields the sword (Romans 13,4)". He says that the common concern of both, the church and the state, is marriage, the upbringing of children and education. Disagreement between them in these areas causes great damage to the citizens and also the state itself. He also expresses a critique of the situation in Kingdom of Yugoslavia after the passing of the Vidovdan Constitution
Vidovdan Constitution
The Vidovdan Constitution was the first constitution of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was approved by the Constitutional Assembly on June 28, 1921 despite the opposition boycotting the vote. The Constitution is named after the feast of St. Vitus , a Serbian holiday. The Constitution...
, which has set harsh limits on the freedom of the church. He says that the "annunciation of the religious truth is one of the main tasks of the Catholic Church and it's inner affair", so "we must, on the basis of our catholic principles, reject every attempt to institute a police control over the church in it's own matters"
Involvement in the organisation Orel
OrelOrel (movement)
The Orel movement is a Moravia-based Czech youth movement and gymnastics organization which emerged between 1902-1909 as Catholic Church-supported competitor of the nationalistic and therefore, in the local policical context, rather anti-Catholic organization Sokol.A similar organization with the...
(in Slovenia) was a Catholic youth gymnastic and sport movement, that was organized in the early 20th century as a alternative to a liberal gymnastic movement Sokol
Sokol
The Sokol movement is a youth sport movement and gymnastics organization first founded in Czech region of Austria-Hungary, Prague, in 1862 by Miroslav Tyrš and Jindřich Fügner...
. The decision to create a Christian sport and gymnastics organisation was made at a big gathering of Slovene Christian-social association in Maribor, between 3 and 4 September 1905. The first such club was then established in Jesenice
Jesenice
Jesenice is a town and a municipality in Slovenia, on the Slovene side of the Karavanke mountain range, bordering Austria to the north. It is known as the home of Slovenia's largest steel company, Acroni, and the hockey club it sponsors, Acroni Jesenice. The town name derives from the ash tree ,...
, in February 1906. Then on 10 April 1908, the Association of Gymnastic Sections was created. On 19 March 1909 at a local assembly of AGS in Bohinjska Bistrica
Bohinjska Bistrica
Bohinjska Bistrica is the largest settlement in the Bohinj municipality in the Upper Carniola region of Slovenia.Bohinjska Bistrica lies in the valley between the river Sava Bohinjka, the hills Dobrava and Ajdovski gradec, and the streams Bistrica and Belica...
, the organisation was officially named Orel.
Rožman had already become acquainted with the organisation in Carinthia, as by 1913, the Carinthian section of Orel already had five sub-sections. In 1920, when he was already in Ljubljana, he was elected in the Orel president board as a secondary vice-president. As a priest, he quickly became the spiritual leader of the organisation. As the organisation in Orel began to differentiate, he took leadership of some sections and groups (debate club, high-school student's section ...).
Orel has, after it was rebuilt in the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, greatly expanded in the number of members, but it has neglected its spiritual and religious role. So a new spiritual and religious reorganization was needed and Rožman (together with a high school professor Ernest Tomec) was one of the key figures here. In 1921 Rožman wrote an article in the Theological Journal titled Contributions for pastoral profession in which he expressed his ideas about pastoral activity of youth organisations (like Orel). He first addresses the question whether the organisation should attend equally to anybody (which would produce poor results) or should it only focus on the selected (elite) group of people (that would produce great results - "elite or mass". He advocates for a compromise between these two, saying that the Catholic Church is required to pastorally attend anyone that counts himself as its member, but that its missionary activity should also be very emphasized, because it is easier to influence the people with help of special organizations, specially youth organizations. He emphasized the need for the youth to be part of the Christian organisations, because if the youngsters were left alone, they could easily fall under the influence of materialism
Materialism
In philosophy, the theory of materialism holds that the only thing that exists is matter; that all things are composed of material and all phenomena are the result of material interactions. In other words, matter is the only substance...
and so becoming communists
Communism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
or social democrats
Social democracy
Social democracy is a political ideology of the center-left on the political spectrum. Social democracy is officially a form of evolutionary reformist socialism. It supports class collaboration as the course to achieve socialism...
. He has heavily propagated the importance of spiritual growth, advising the members or Orel to join Mary's congregation (as they were more focused on spiritual life than Orel). In addition to that, he has also emphasized the importance of family values, national consciousness and other Christian values in Orel.
He had to leave Orel in 1929, when he became suffragan bishop and the Yugoslav government has also banned Orel (only leaving the state-controlled Sokol) shortly afterwards.
Bishop of Ljubljana
As a bishop, he set out to spiritually renew his diocese, starting with the priests, who in his opinion should not be involved in politics. He was very found of the youth and was the spiritual leader of the gymnastics organization and movement OrelOrel (movement)
The Orel movement is a Moravia-based Czech youth movement and gymnastics organization which emerged between 1902-1909 as Catholic Church-supported competitor of the nationalistic and therefore, in the local policical context, rather anti-Catholic organization Sokol.A similar organization with the...
until it was banned by the Yugoslav authority in 1929. From then on, he focused on Mary's societies , but mainly on the Catholic Action
Catholic Action
Catholic Action was the name of many groups of lay Catholics who were attempting to encourage a Catholic influence on society.They were especially active in the nineteenth century in historically Catholic countries that fell under anti-clerical regimes such as Spain, Italy, Bavaria, France, and...
, in which he saw the strongest tool for the renewal of his diocese. In the argument between two Christian youth organisations, Mladci Kristusa Kralja (called just Mladci - Youngsters) lead by gymnasium professor Ernest Tomec and academic club Straža (members were called Stražarji - Guards) lead by theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
professor Lambert Ehrlich, which both claimed to represent CA, he decided in favor of Mladci.
He was known as an excellent speaker, who thoroughly prepared his sermons.
Background and mid-war situation in Slovenia
The Slovene territory – from 1929 the Drava ProvinceDrava Banovina
The Drava Banovina or Drava Banate was a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941. This province consisted of most of present-day Slovenia and was named for the Drava River...
– in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia covered 15.036 km² and had, according to census in 1921, 1.054.919 inhabitants. After the Invasion
Invasion of Yugoslavia
The Invasion of Yugoslavia , also known as the April War , was the Axis Powers' attack on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia which began on 6 April 1941 during World War II...
by Axis forces on April 6, 1941 the Axis powers occupied this territory and divided it between themselves. The biggest part of the Drava Province was occupied by the Germans
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
– the Lower Styria (Lower Styria
Lower Styria
Lower Styria or Slovenian Styria is a traditional region in northeastern Slovenia, comprising the southern third of the former Duchy of Styria. The population of Lower Styria in its historical boundaries amounts to around 705,000 inhabitants, or 34.5% of the population of Slovenia...
), the Meža Valley), Upper Carniola
Upper Carniola
Upper Carniola is a traditional region of Slovenia, the northern mountainous part of the larger Carniola region. The centre of the region is Kranj, while other urban centers include Jesenice, Tržič, Škofja Loka, Kamnik, and Domžale.- Historical background :...
and the Central Sava Valley). Italians
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
occupied Ljubljana
Ljubljana
Ljubljana is the capital of Slovenia and its largest city. It is the centre of the City Municipality of Ljubljana. It is located in the centre of the country in the Ljubljana Basin, and is a mid-sized city of some 270,000 inhabitants...
, Inner Carniola), Lower Carniola
Lower Carniola
Lower Carniola was a kreis of the historical Habsburg crown land of Carniola from 1849 till 1919 and is nowadays a traditional region of Slovenia. Its center is Novo Mesto, while other urban centers include Kočevje, Grosuplje, Krško, Trebnje, Mirna, Črnomelj, Semič, and Metlika.-See also:* Upper...
), White Carniola
White Carniola
White Carniola is a traditional region in southeastern Slovenia on the border with Croatia and is the most southern part of the historical and traditional region of Lower Carniola. Its major towns are Metlika, Črnomelj, and Semič, and the principal river is the Kolpa, which also forms part of the...
) and Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
was given to Prekmurje
Prekmurje
Prekmurje is a geographically, linguistically, culturally and ethnically defined region settled by Slovenes and lying between the Mur River in Slovenia and the Rába Valley in the most western part of Hungary...
– except for four communities at the western part of the territory, that came to Germany. All three occupiers aimed at a quick formal annexation. The Italians passed the Autonomy-Statute for the so-called "Provincia di Lubiana" (Province of Ljubljana
Province of Ljubljana
The Province of Ljubljana was a province of the Kingdom of Italy and of the Nazi German Adriatic Littoral during World War II. It was created on May 3, 1941 from territory occupied and annexed to Italy after the Axis invasion and dissolution of Yugoslavia, and it was abolished on May 9, 1945, when...
) on May 3, 1941, the Hungarians realized their formal annexation on December 16, 1941. The Germans who wanted to proclaim their formal annexation to the German Reich on 1 October 1941, postponed it first because of the installation of the new ”Gauleiter“ and "Reichsstatthalter" of Carinthia
Carinthia
Carinthia may refer to:*Carinthia , a state of the Republic of Austria*Slovenian Carinthia, a traditional region of Slovenia*Koroška statistical region, the statistical region of Slovenia*March of Carinthia, in the Holy Roman Empire...
and later on they dropped the plan because of partisan activities. Only Meža valley became part of "Reichsgau Carinthia" at once. Some villages in southeastern Slovenia were annexed by the Independent State of Croatia
Independent State of Croatia
The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany, established on a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia. The NDH was founded on 10 April 1941, after the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. All of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed to NDH, together with some parts...
.
Italians gave Slovenes cultural autonomy within their occupation zone (Province of Ljubljana
Province of Ljubljana
The Province of Ljubljana was a province of the Kingdom of Italy and of the Nazi German Adriatic Littoral during World War II. It was created on May 3, 1941 from territory occupied and annexed to Italy after the Axis invasion and dissolution of Yugoslavia, and it was abolished on May 9, 1945, when...
): they recognized Slovenian nation, left most of the old administration in place, Italian language was only introduced as an optional language in high schools and universities and at first, there was very little violence performed by them. They even accepted 18,000 refugees that fled from the German occupation zone. This can be to some degree attributed to co-operation ("collaboration") of notable Slovenian public figures with the Italians. Their attitude changed after first actions of the communist Liberation Front.
On the other hand, the Nazis started a policy of violent Germanisation
Germanisation
Germanisation is both the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or assimilation, and the adaptation of a foreign word to the German language in linguistics, much like the Romanisation of many languages which do not use the Latin alphabet...
, which culminated with the resettlement more than 83,000 Slovenes to other parts of the Third Reich, as well as to Serbia
Nedic's Serbia
Serbia under German occupation refers to an administrative area in occupied Yugoslavia established by Nazi Germany following the invasion and dismantling of Yugoslavia in April of 1941...
and Croatia
Independent State of Croatia
The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany, established on a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia. The NDH was founded on 10 April 1941, after the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. All of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed to NDH, together with some parts...
. More than 63,000 Slovenes were interned to Nazi concentration camps
Nazi concentration camps
Nazi Germany maintained concentration camps throughout the territories it controlled. The first Nazi concentration camps set up in Germany were greatly expanded after the Reichstag fire of 1933, and were intended to hold political prisoners and opponents of the regime...
. Slovenian language was banned from public use, Slovenian cultural associations were dissolved etc. German regime was very hostile to the church too: a lot of its property was confiscated, many priests forced into exile, and the authorities didn't accept any intervention for the people from the church. Hungarian regime was similar to the German one.
The communist party, rather weak in numbers but experienced in underground activities – this is because the CP was forbidden in Yugoslavia
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state stretching from the Western Balkans to Central Europe which existed during the often-tumultuous interwar era of 1918–1941...
since 1920 – saw the occupation as a chance to gain power. For that reason a sort of umbrella organisation of resistance named Liberation Front of the Slovene People was organized, through which communists were able to win several leftist groups on their side. This “Liberation Front“, that at first could only develop on Italian occupying zone, monopolized the resistance against the enemy already on September 16, 1941 and declared everyone who was organised outside the “Liberation Front“ to be a traitor – including those who worked underground against the occupiers. In addition, traitors had to be sentenced to death – after a condemnation by an obscure secret court, that actually never existed. In this way many patriotic Slovenes, including Church representatives (most notable example here is the assassination of Lambert Ehrlich), were „liquidated“ by “Security-Intelligence Service“, called VOS , a unit that was recruited solely out of members of the communist party and communist youth organization SKOJ
Skoj
Skoj is a cider-based soft drink, manufactured by the Swedish Skoj Beverage Group. Skoj is the Swedish word for fun.Skoj is 15 percent fruit juice sweetened with sugar...
and was lead exclusively by the Central Committee of the Slovenian Communist Party. The inhabitants of the Province of Ljubljana, especially the peasants, suffered not only because of the Italian attacks on their lives and property, but also because of the partisan attacks. These two were often related: one day partisans would come to the village, staying there for a few weeks. During that time they often confiscated food and property from villagers, giving some of them certificates about the "freedom loans", as this confiscations were called, that would guarantee to get their property back after the liberation. Few people were given this certificates and even fewer ("politically suitable" ones) were actually given their property back after the war. When the Italians found out, that the partisans were in that village, they came to the village with strong army (which partisans usually didn't hold back but fled to the forest instead) and punished the villagers for not reporting partisans to them. After a short period they would retreat to their base and partisans would come back (and the story would repeat itself).
Partisans also performed "revolutionary" or "red" violence - violence targeted against the "enemies" of the working class in the communist doctrine. The enemies included people, who didn't agree with communism, wealthier people, some cases included Gypsies and German
Germans
The Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....
ethnic minority. This violence was especially frequent and brutal in spring and early summer 1942 (which lead on to spontaneous creations of village guards against such violence), because the Partisans mistakenly thought that the Germany will be soon defeated by the Soviets, so they had to complete the "revolution
Communist revolution
A communist revolution is a proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism, typically with socialism as an intermediate stage...
".
Among the victims of the red violence during the war there were 46 diocesan priests and 6 priests belonging to different religious orders. In comparison: the occupiers killed on the whole Slovene territory including the Slovene Littoral 24 diocesan priests and 10 priests of religious orders.
Relations with the Italian occupiers
The Bishop and Church dignitaries wanted that the people to survive the war with not too many victims and as undamaged as possible. Rožman was convinced that for such a small nation an armed struggle against the occupying forces was of no use and doomed to fail, because the great sacrifices could be in no relation to a possible partial success.After the Italians issued the Statue of Autonomy on May 3, 1941, they expected that the bishop writes a declaration od loyalty. He therefore addressed a so-called declaration of loyalty on the High Commissioner Emilio Grazioli, but the High Commissioner was not satisfied with its wording. He forged it and directed it to Mussolini. Grazioli's text was published in the press and was written in a highly glorifying tone. The original version read
- "Excellency! A decree has been published today, via which the Slovenian territory occupied by the Italian army has been incorporated into Italy. When I consider this, I thank your Excellency ... I express absolute loyalty and ask God to bless you and our aspirations for the welfare of our people".
Rožman actually only emphasized free development in the cultural and religious spheres and promised loyalty and send blessing for the efforts of the authorities for the good of the people. The forgery was so effective that still today many publications use it as a proof of Rožman's collaboration. Former politicians, such as former Ban Marko Natlačen
Marko Natlačen
Marko Natlačen was a Slovenian politician and jurist, who also served as a ban of the Dravska banovina but is perhaps best remembered as the author of the xenophobic slogan Srbe na vrbe.-Biography:...
and the mayor of Ljubljana, Juro Adlešič
Juro Adlešic
Juro Adlešič was a Slovenian lawyer and politician.He was born in the village of Adlešiči in the Slovene region of White Carniola, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1918 he opened a lawyer office in Ljubljana...
were also brought to address a declaration to Italian authorities. The wording of their declaration was also dictated by Italians.
He celebrated Masses
Mass (liturgy)
"Mass" is one of the names by which the sacrament of the Eucharist is called in the Roman Catholic Church: others are "Eucharist", the "Lord's Supper", the "Breaking of Bread", the "Eucharistic assembly ", the "memorial of the Lord's Passion and Resurrection", the "Holy Sacrifice", the "Holy and...
for the Italian troops, provided Italian-speaking confessional
Confessional
A confessional is a small, enclosed booth used for the Sacrament of Penance, often called confession, or Reconciliation. It is the usual venue for the sacrament in the Roman Catholic Church, but similar structures are also used in Anglican churches of an Anglo-Catholic orientation, and also in the...
s and organized a Mass of thanksgiving to Mussolini on 22 May 1941 at St. Nicholas Cathedral
St. Nicholas Cathedral, Ljubljana
Saint Nicholas' Cathedral , commonly referred to as the Cathedral of Saint Nicholas or Ljubljana Cathedral, is a cathedral in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia...
, Ljubljana. Rožman referred to the Italians as powers "which God has established" with whom Church representatives will "be pleased to co-operate". Italian propaganda effort took full advantage of his willingness to oblige, leading to Rožman being criticized by priests from Primorska region.
Later, Rožman condemned the occupiers twice. On October 24, 1941 he wrote a letter to the clergy in which he complained about the devastation of the part of his diocese occupied by the Germans: in it all Church property was confiscated, religious servants of both sexes expelled from their convents and 193 members of secular clergy expelled from 148 parishes and that about 200.000 of his people were without spiritual care. On 26 September 1942 he handed over to Grazzioli a memorandum, in which he criticized Italian repression means and proposed facilitating measures in 20 points. Grazzioli was furious and told him that if he weren't a bishop, he would have arrested him. Rožman wanted to condemn Italians from the pulpit, but the Pope advised him not to during his visit in Rome in May 1942, because in that case the Italians would isolate him somewhere inside Italy and he would not be able to help people in Ljubljana.
The 12 September 1942 memo
In August 1942 the Italian generals Mario RoattaMario Roatta
Mario Roatta was an Italian general, Mussolini's Chief-of-Staff, and head of the military secret service.-SIM:From 1934 to 1936, Roatta headed up the Italian Military Intelligence Service .-Spain:...
and Mario Robotti visited the bishop and told him they would burn the whole Province of Ljubljana
Province of Ljubljana
The Province of Ljubljana was a province of the Kingdom of Italy and of the Nazi German Adriatic Littoral during World War II. It was created on May 3, 1941 from territory occupied and annexed to Italy after the Axis invasion and dissolution of Yugoslavia, and it was abolished on May 9, 1945, when...
and kill or deport all of its inhabitants if the partisan attacks would not stop. Rožman therefore invited 21 representatives of the former political parties and of cultural institution to discuss the Italian threats (20 of which actually came). They have reached no agreement about stopping the partisan attacks, they agreed only to organize help for the victims. After the meeting a memorandum was written. The original version of this memorandum has never been found, only the German translation, so that it is not known who the authors were and how authentic the translation actually is. There is also no information about the bishop's contribution, or even whether he was among the authors. It is only known that he brought the memorandum to general Robotti, commander of the Italian 11th Army Corps. The memo read:
The original of this memo has been lost; its German translation is in the Library of Congress
Library of Congress
The Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the United States, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and...
in Washington, D.C. Also preserved are Robotti's notes in which he refers to Rožman as the author, and adds: "[T]he security guards that the Bishop suggests, correspond with local militias that have the task of defending their villages against communists, and to be available for actions in the local area - there are many such militias, which count a total of 1,000 men. These are doing their work decisively, not only from a military standpoint, but also as police, as the Bishop says...".
Stance towards communism
For Rožman as well as for the most Church representatives, the fact that by communists dominated "Liberation Front" monopolized the resistance (and performed murderous sanctions against the so-called traitors) presented special dilemma. On one side, Church detested the violation of human rights and measures of repression as well as brutal dictatorship of the occupying forces altogether, but on the other side there were MarxismMarxism
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th...
and Bolshevism which were incompatible with the doctrine of Christian church. The ideological differences were the subject of the anti-communist encyclical
Encyclical
An encyclical was originally a circular letter sent to all the churches of a particular area in the ancient Catholic Church. At that time, the word could be used for a letter sent out by any bishop...
Divini Redemptoris
Divini Redemptoris
Divini Redemptoris is an anti-communist encyclical issued by Pope Pius XI. It was published on 19 March 1937. In this encyclical, the pope sets out to "expose once more in a brief synthesis the principles of atheistic Communism as they are manifested chiefly in bolshevism"...
issued in 1937 by Pope Pius XI
Pope Pius XI
Pope Pius XI , born Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti, was Pope from 6 February 1922, and sovereign of Vatican City from its creation as an independent state on 11 February 1929 until his death on 10 February 1939...
which Rožman used as a basis for his stance, going so far to reject in 1938 as irrelevant for situation in Slovenia the Pope's clarification to French Catholics that the encyclical was not meant as a directive for absolute noncooperation with communists.
In addition to that, the communists, similarly as the occupiers, later began using violent methods for gaining political power (not only such that was dictated by self-defense and liberation), which Church authorities could in no case accept. In 1943, after the fall of Turjak and Grčarice, followed by mass liquidations at Jelendol, Mozelj
Mozelj
Mozelj is a settlement in the Kočevje municipality in southern Slovenia. It was a village inhabited mostly by Gottschee Germans. During the Second World War its original population was expelled...
and other places and the show trial in Kočevje
Kocevje
Kočevje is a city and a municipality in southern Slovenia. In terms of area it is the largest municipality in Slovenia. It is located between the rivers Krka and Kolpa and is part of the traditional region of Lower Carniola. It is now included in the Jugovzhodna Slovenija statistical region...
he dedicated all four sermons in Advent communism and the evils that this ideology brings in all aspects of life. He spoke about how the communists acted in Russia and in Spain.
Rožman said that it is his duty to speak the truth, otherwise he will have to justify himself in front of God. He preached »Do zadnjega bom trdil in učil, da je brezbožni komunizem največje zlo in največja nesreča za slovenski narod« (To the end I will claim and teach that atheistic communism is the greatest evil and greatest tragedy for the Slovene nation). At the funeral of Marko Natlačen
Marko Natlačen
Marko Natlačen was a Slovenian politician and jurist, who also served as a ban of the Dravska banovina but is perhaps best remembered as the author of the xenophobic slogan Srbe na vrbe.-Biography:...
, who was executed by a member of VOS (Varnostnoobveščavalna služba, Security and Intelligence Service) - organization that was only responsible to the communist party - at his home on October 12, 1942, Rožman said there can be "no co-operation, no association with godlessness or those to whom godlessness is a leading opinion. Stand firm in your belief in God, build your future on God's Commandments, which alone can be a firm basis of healthy development of any nation, big or small. Stay alive - my nation - don't kill yourself and don't provoke measures able to hit your life force."
Also in the well-known "Pastoral letter about the godless communism" on November 30, 1943 he asks the Catholics to "fight" the "godless communism" through prayers. Rožman wrote "I know that advocates of communism and some other blind Catholics will reproach me that I am meddling in politics in a pastoral letter, which isn't a matter for a Bishop and doesn't appertain to the Church. But, dear believers, the battle against communism isn't political, but a religious matter, as it touches upon belief in God, one of the most basic truths of every faith, especially our Christian faith. To reject atheistic doctrines, to defend the truths of our global religion is a religious matter and a religious duty, that admits everyone with common sense." . In his Christmas message to the Domobranci in 1944 Rožman talked about shepherds in Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...
keeping watch over their flock in the fields and asked the Domobranci to take an example by them. "You are defending your nation against wolves and jackals who destroy lives and property of their own fellow-countrymen, against 'tenants, who do not care about their sheep', who are poisoning souls with foreign mentality of godless communism and through that they break down the spiritual foundations, on which all the spiritual wealth that we have in common with Christian Europe, has been built for centuries".
Interventions for the prisoners
Rožman intervened for numerous people at the Italian authorities directly and via Vatican: deported to SerbiaNedic's Serbia
Serbia under German occupation refers to an administrative area in occupied Yugoslavia established by Nazi Germany following the invasion and dismantling of Yugoslavia in April of 1941...
, Croatia
Independent State of Croatia
The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany, established on a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia. The NDH was founded on 10 April 1941, after the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. All of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed to NDH, together with some parts...
and Germany, clergymen, refugees, orthodox Serbs, Jews
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
, arrested, prisoners of war, Jugoslav officers, hostages, condemned, children, internees in Rab
Rab concentration camp
The Rab concentration camp was an Italian concentration and internment camp on the Adriatic island of Rab, now part of the Republic of Croatia, during World War II. The camp was located at...
(Arbre), Treviso
Treviso
Treviso is a city and comune in Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Treviso and the municipality has 82,854 inhabitants : some 3,000 live within the Venetian walls or in the historical and monumental center, some 80,000 live in the urban center proper, while the city...
(Monigo), Renicci, Gonars
Gonars concentration camp
On February 23, 1942 the Italian fascist regime established a concentration camp in Gonars, a town with approx. 4,600 inhabitants near Palmanova in the Province of Udine in northeastern Italy.Most of the prisoners were from present day Slovenia and Croatia...
. The research so far shows that he has intervened for 1318 individual people, for some of them more than once, so that we now can identify 1210 people for whom he intervened . He had also intervened for various groups (for example 350 priests, who were deported to Croatia by Germans or 1700 children in the Italian concentration camps). Number of members in only known for some of these groups, they total at least 2495 people altogether . Bishop’a secretary, Dr. Stanislav Lenič, testified that sometimes up to 50 petitioners came to bishop on one single day and that he helped them regardless of their political views. Among many documents a letter written by Gastone Gambarra, the Commander of Italian XI. Army corps, on April 26, 1943 testifies that 122 internees were released because of his intervention. But Italians soon noticed that the bishop made no differences in his interventions, so Grazioli asked his subordinates to treat Bishop‘s interventions as anyone else`s, because he intervened for the "unworthy".
However, according to some historians, Rožman's messages to Italian authorities (such as the September 1942 memos) suggest that the goal of some of those interventions was above all to acquire experienced officers for the Village Guard units.
Relations with the German occupiers
Friedrich Rainer
Friedrich W. Rainer was a leader in the Nazi Party, as well as an Austrian State governor of Salzburg and Carinthia. He is the only Austrian governor who has ever held the same office in two separate states...
's intention that Leon Rupnik
Leon Rupnik
Leon Rupnik, also known as Lav Rupnik or Lev Rupnik was a Slovene general during the Kingdom of Yugoslavia who collaborated with the Fascist Italian and Nazi German occupation forces during World War II...
should become the president of the new provincial government, although Rupnik was already chosen by Reiner for that position. Rupnik was appointed as a president of provincial government on 22 September 1943.
He was seen twice at formal and informal events chatting with SS General Erwin Rösener
Erwin Rösener
Erwin Friedrich Karl Rösener was an SS-Obergruppenführer who was responsible for mass executions of civilians in Slovenia and was posthumously on the indictment at the Nuremberg Trials for war crimes....
, the commander of German forces in the province. From 1943 until the end of the war, Rožman was closely associated with the anti-Partisan
Partisans (Yugoslavia)
The Yugoslav Partisans, or simply the Partisans were a Communist-led World War II anti-fascist resistance movement in Yugoslavia...
, anti-communist Domobranci, the Slovenian Home Guard forces formed by order of SS General Rösener on 24 September 1943.
Rožman personally held a silent mass prior to Domobranci swearing a collective oath of allegiance at Ljubljana central stadium on 20 April 1944. He then, according to some witnesses, chose to observe from the background despite being offered place on the main stand, and left quickly afterwards. He declined to hold the mass at the second swearing on 30 January 1945, but was present at the subsequent Domobranci parade in front of the Ursuline Church
Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity
Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity is a church in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It was built between 1718 and 1726 in the Baroque style ....
. This decision had led to numerous speculations on his true motives. In his Christmas message to the Domobranci at the end of 1944, Rožman wrote: "You are defending your nation against wolves and jackals (…) who are poisoning souls with the foreign mentality of atheistic communism".
At the end of the war
At the end of the war, he fled to the British zone of Austria. Rožman was put on trial in absentia by the military court of the 4th Yugoslav Army in Ljubljana for treason; convicted and sentenced in absentia to 18 years imprisonment and forced labour, lifelong loss of citizenship and limitation of citizen rights on 30 August 1946.After the war
Various leading Catholic figures from YugoslaviaYugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
were indicted for alleged war crimes, but managed to escape. These included Bishop Ivan Šarić
Ivan Šaric
Ivan Šarić was a Roman Catholic priest who became the archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vrhbosna in 1922...
of Sarajevo, who had set about forcibly converting the local population to Catholicism. Rožman, Šarić and others were living under the British supervision at the Bishop's Palace at Klagenfurt
Klagenfurt
-Name:Carinthia's eminent linguists Primus Lessiak and Eberhard Kranzmayer assumed that the city's name, which literally translates as "ford of lament" or "ford of complaints", had something to do with the superstitious thought that fateful fairies or demons tend to live around treacherous waters...
, Austria, in October 1946. Rožman began to appear in American and British intelligence reports as being involved in ratlines
Ratlines (history)
Ratlines were a system of escape routes for Nazis and other fascists fleeing Europe at the end of World War II. These escape routes mainly led toward havens in South America, particularly Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and Chile. Other destinations included the United States and perhaps...
that spirited wanted Axis and collaborationist fugitives out of Europe.
Although in some books and in internet obe can read that bishop Rožman was funneling money to South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
from a Swiss bank account set up "to aid refugees of the Catholic religion", there is absolutely no evidence to that and in his correspondence there is no evidence of any contacts to such Croatian circles. To get an American visa bishop Rožman did not visit the consulate of Berne, he communicated with the United states Consulate General at Zürich on May 25 for the purpose of obtaining a visitorŽs visa to come to the United states. On May 28 he appeared at the Consulate general where he was informed about the United States regulations regarding the issue of a non-quota immigration visa as a minister of religion. Rožman and Šarić were not together in Switzerland. Rožman was residing at the Institut Menzingen, near Zug and Šarić was residing at Haute Rive near Friborg. Šarić was not interested in coming to US and he remained in Europe.
“In Berne, Rožman's Ustashi friends were engaged in wholesale fraud, using the black market to convert the gold into dollars, and later, into Austrian schillings. 'Aid to the refugees is accounted for at the official rate of exchange for dollars', the American officers noted, adding that 'malpractices have been carried on (officially, the dollar is worth 10 schillings; on the black market, 100 to 150). According to reliable information: 'Rožman is going to Berne to take care of these finances. The money is in a Swiss bank, and he plans to have most of it sent through to Italy and from there to the UstašeUstašeThe Ustaša - Croatian Revolutionary Movement was a Croatian fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement. The ideology of the movement was a blend of fascism, Nazism, and Croatian nationalism. The Ustaše supported the creation of a Greater Croatia that would span to the River Drina and to the border...
in [the] Argentine.'”
“A short time later Rožman duly arrived in Berne, accompanied by Bishop Ivan ŠarićIvan ŠaricIvan Šarić was a Roman Catholic priest who became the archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vrhbosna in 1922...
, the 'hangman' of SarajevoSarajevoSarajevo |Bosnia]], surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans....
. By the end of May 1948, Rožman had apparently carried out this money laundering operation for the Ustashi, for he visited the U.S. Consulate in ZurichZürichZurich is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is located in central Switzerland at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich...
and was given a 'non-quota immigration visa as a minister of religion'. He then traveled to the United States and settled in Cleveland, OhioCleveland, OhioCleveland is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the most populous county in the state. The city is located in northeastern Ohio on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately west of the Pennsylvania border...
. The circle was now almost complete. Pavelić's stolen 'treasure' had been tracked down through close monitoring of the movements and activities of the quisling Bishop of Ljubljana....”
After settling permanently in Cleveland, Rožman is recorded as having visited Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
on three occasions, in 1949, 1952 and 1956. He died in Cleveland on 16 November 1959, aged 76.
Rehabilitation and lawsuits
In recent years, a request has been made by the Catholic Church, supported by many historians and other journalists and publicists, to reevaluate the lawsuit about Gregorij Rožman. An official request for the reevaluation was made by Slovenian Public Prosecutor Anton Drobnič prior to the visit to Slovenia by Pope John Paul II in 1999. Anton Drobnič has ordered two historians, Tamara Griesser PečarTamara Griesser Pecar
Tamara Griesser Pečar is a Slovenian historian.-Early life and education:She was born in Ljubljana, then part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. She attended high school in Ljubljana, Koper and Portorož and later in New York City and in Vienna...
and France M. Dolinar to prepare an expertise for this retrial. It was later later published as a book "Rožmanov proces".. On the basis, among other things, that he should have had the right to defend himself, Rožman's 1946 conviction has been overturned by the Slovenian Supreme Court and his case sent to the court of first instance
Court of first instance
A court of first instance is a trial court of original or primary jurisdiction.Specific courts called the Court of First Instance include:* European Court of First Instance, of the European Union* Court of First Instance...
for retrial. On April 10, 2009 the trial was stopped completely
See also
- Yugoslavia during the Second World War
- Collaboration during World War IICollaboration during World War IIWithin nations occupied by the Axis Powers, some citizens, driven by nationalism, ethnic hatred, anti-communism, anti-Semitism or opportunism, knowingly engaged in collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II...
- Slovenian Home Guard
- Leon RupnikLeon RupnikLeon Rupnik, also known as Lav Rupnik or Lev Rupnik was a Slovene general during the Kingdom of Yugoslavia who collaborated with the Fascist Italian and Nazi German occupation forces during World War II...