Guadalupe Victoria
Encyclopedia
Guadalupe Victoria born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix, was a Mexican politician and military man who fought for independence against the Spanish Empire
in the Mexican War of Independence
. He was a deputy for Durango
and a member of the Supreme Executive Power. He also served as the first president of Mexico
.
During his term as President he established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom
, the United States of America, the Federal Republic of Central America
and the Gran Colombia
; was also defeated the last Spanish stronghold in the castle of San Juan de Ulúa
. He abolished slavery
, founded the National Museum, promoted education, decreed the law of expulsion of the Spaniards and ratified the border with the United States of America.
Victoria was the only President who completed his full term in more than 30 years of an independent Mexico He died in 1843 at the age of 58 from epilepsy
in the fortress of Perote
, where he was receiving medical treatment. On April 8, of the same year, it was decreed that his name would be written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies.
His remains lie in the Column of Independence
, which also holds those of Miguel Hidalgo
and Jose Maria Morelos
. Guadalupe Victoria is considered Benemérito de la Patria (Worthy of the Nation).
, Nueva Vizcaya
(now state of Durango
), his parents, who died early in his childhood, were Manuel Fernández and Alejandra Félix. He was baptized by his paternal uncle Agustín Fernández, at that time the priest of Tamazula, with whom he lived after being orphaned.
He studied at the Seminary of Durango and having no resources to pay for food; he made copies of a text of Latin grammar to sell to other students for two reales
. In 1807 he went to Mexico City
, where he enrolled in the college of San Ildefonso
to pursue degrees in Canon Law
and Civil Law
. He studied under a tense atmosphere, because the school was militarized by a colonial order. On April 24, 1811, he submitted his review and graduated as Bachelor of Laws
.
of Hermenegildo Galeana
, fought alongside José María Morelos
at the siege of Cuautla
, participated in the assault on Oaxaca
and joined the troops of Nicolas Bravo
in Veracruz
. He dedicated himself and his troops to controlling the passage of El Puente del Rey and became famous because of his successful attacks on military convoys until 1815, when he was defeated.
. Insurgents led by José María Morelos defeated the royalist
forces of Lieutenant General
Gonzalez Saravia.
Among the members of the insurgent forces that participated in the assault of Oaxaca were Hermenegildo Galeana
, Nicolás Bravo
, Mariano Matamoros
, Manuel Mier y Terán, Vicente Guerrero
and Guadalupe Victoria.
Guadalupe Victoria participated in the battle in the Juego de Pelota, which was surrounded by a moat
that insurgent soldiers didn't dare to cross; Guadalupe Victoria threw his sword
across the moat and said ¡va mi espada en prenda, voy por ella! (there goes my sword as pledge, I'm going for it). He then swam across the moat and cut the rope of a bridge, which permitted the entry of the insurgent troops to the city.
The loss of Oaxaca was a heavy strike to the colonial government
, because it gave great military prestige to Morelos, as well as a privileged geographical position because of the roads and towns that could be controlled from that site.
Due to his success in Oaxaca, by order of the Congress of Chilpancingo
Victoria was granted the command of the insurgent army in Veracruz. At the same time, José Miguel Fernández y Félix, decided to change his name to Guadalupe, due his devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe and Victoria for the victory.
obtained control of Puente del Rey, a strategic position that connected Xalapa
with the port of Veracruz
. When he learned that royalist troops were coming to fight, he reinforced the defenses on the bridge, but was still forced to retreat to Nautla
in July of that year.
In order to have a point of supply from the Gulf of Mexico
, Victoria took control of Boquilla de Piedras; located between Tuxpan and the port of Veracruz. This port was fitted with docks, warehouses and batteries for its defense and remained under the control of Victoria until November 1816, when it was recovered by the royalist army. Shortly after Naolinco became the headquarters of the insurgents and from there they controlled the area of Misantla, Puente Nacional and Huatusco.
Also in 1816, when the new viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca arrived at New Spain
, Victoria attacked his convoy to Mexico City
, and came very close to capturing him.
In late 1816, Victoria held back Nautla defeating the royalist garrison. He also occupied Barra de Palmas, Barra Nueva and La Laguna. The strong royalist offensive, as well as the lack of military equipment resulted in the occupied positions being recovered by the Spaniards in February 1817.
By mid-1817, Guadalupe Victoria had lost all the towns of his command. After his defeat in Palmillas, he was abandoned by his men and faced intense persecution. He hid in the jungle where he survived eating herbs, fruits and animals. He refused to accept a pardon
from the Viceroy for his actions and remained hidden in the jungles of Veracruz, where he developed epilepsy
. His sporadic appearances in the towns urned him into a legend among the inhabitants of the region.
kept up the fight.
The installation of the Cortes of Cadiz
and the deterioration of the Spanish monarchy
on the Iberian Peninsula
, helped revitalize the struggle for independence at the end of 1820. Victoria was informed about the progress of the insurrection and reappeared on December 30 of that year in the town of Soledad, where a small garrison quickly joined him.
On February 24, 1821, Agustin de Iturbide
and Vicente Guerrero
proclaimed the Plan of Iguala
. Iturbide began a tour around the Bajío
region to spread the movement. Several royalist military joined the Plan of Iguala and so did some retired insurgent leaders including Nicolás Bravo
and Ignacio López Rayón
. Guadalupe Victoria also joined. On April 6, Victoria proclaimed the independence in the town of Soledad. In late May, with the exception of the capital, the province of Veracruz was up in arms.
The Army of the Three Guarantees
was created on February 24, 1821, and continued battling Spanish royalist forces which refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until August 21, 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy
Juan O'Donojú
signed the Treaty of Córdoba
.
On September 27, 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees
entered Mexico City
, forming a column headed by Agustín de Iturbide. Among the officers who entered the city that day were Pedro Celestino Negrete
, Vicente Guerrero
, Nicolás Bravo
, Anastasio Bustamante
, José Joaquín de Herrera, Luis Quintanar, Miguel Barragán
, Vicente Filisola
and Antonio López de Santa Anna
. On September 28, 1821 the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
was signed.
on June 17, 1821, in San Juan del Río and asked him adapt the Plan of Iguala to create a republican government
. Victoria recommended as ruler a former insurgent
, who was unmarried and had not accepted the pardon
. This man would marry a Guatemalan
indigenous
woman to unite both territories into a single nation. Iturbide refused the proposition. Both men supported the independence, but felt a mutual distrust.
A Regency
was created to serve as Executive, which was led by Iturbide, who ruled until May 18, 1822 when he was proclaimed Emperor. Iturbide chose all members of the Provisional Governing Board, which would serve as Legislative
and which ruled until February 24, 1822 when the first Constitutional Congress was installed. Almost all members were notable for their social position, their wealth and titles. They were also all former fervent supporters of the Spanish rule and none of the former insurgents such as Vicente Guerrero
, Nicolás Bravo
, Ignacio López Rayón
, Guadalupe Victoria and Andrés Quintana Roo
were called to participate in the Board.
In early 1822, some of the former insurgents with Republican ideas began meeting at the house of Miguel Domínguez
in Querétaro
. They wrote to Pedro Celestino Negrete
inviting him to participate, but he thought that it was a conspiracy and told Iturbide. Seventeen people were arrested, including Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo
and Miguel Barragán
. The "conspiracy" was only meetings during which they talked about the future of government. Almost immediately, participants were released, with the exception of Guadalupe Victoria who remained jailed, but who soon after escaped from prison and hid in Veracruz.
Congress asked to review the case of Guadalupe Victoria, who had been elected deputy by Durango
. Victoria was a fugitive, indicted on charges of conspiracy. He was requested to present himself to congress but he preferred kept hidden.
On July 21, 1822, Agustín de Iturbide was crowned Emperor of Mexico. the Constitutional Empire soon demonstrated the incompatibility of its two main parts, the Emperor and the Constituent Congress. The deputies were imprisoned due expressing their disagreement with Iturbide and finally, Iturbide decided to eliminate the Congress, establishing instead a National Board.
proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata
and was later joined Vicente Guerrero
and Nicolás Bravo
.
On December 6, 1822, Guadalupe Victoria came out of hiding to join the movement. Knowing his reputation and popularity, Santa Anna appointed him leader of the movement and together they proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz.
On December 21, Santa Anna was defeated by General Calderón. Forced to retreat, on December 24 he met with a group of 300 troops of Guadalupe Victoria in Puente del Rey. Santa Anna again took advantage of the popularity of Guadalupe Victoria by encouraging people to join the cause.
When Santa Anna and Victoria were defeated, Santa Anna tried to flee to the United States and Victoria said to him:"
On January 22, 1823, Santa Anna reported to Victoria: I was attacked from all directions by the imperial forces. On February 1, 1823, a radical shift occurred when the imperial Generals Echávarri, Lobato and Cortázar signed the Plan of Casa Mata
.
Iturbide was forced to reestablish the Congress and in a vain attempt to save the order and keep a favorable situation for his supporters, he abdicated to the crown of the Empire on March 19, 1823.
as requested by the former emperor.
On March 31, 1823, Congress met and granted the Executive role to a triumvirate
named Supreme Executive Power; whose members were Pedro Celestino Negrete
, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria, with alternates being Miguel Domínguez
, Mariano Michelena and Vicente Guerrero. On April 7, 1823, Congress nullified the designation of Iturbide as Emperor and therefore the recognition of his abdication and made it seem as if the coronation of Iturbide was a logical mistake in the establishment of Independence. Congress abolished the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba, leaving the country free to choose any system of government.
Despite being elected to be part of the Supreme Executive Power, Victoria remained in military control of Veracruz, where he oversaw the transportation of Iturbide to Europe and organized resistance against Spanish attacks from San Juan de Ulúa.
The Supreme Executive Power was commissioned to direct the former provinces, now Free States, to create the Federal Republic and also to call elections for a new constituent congress. The Executive had to overcome a series of political difficulties such as the case of the Central American provinces that chose not to join Mexican Federation and the provinces of Oaxaca
, Yucatán
, Jalisco
and Zacatecas
that declared themselves free and sovereign states. They also faced a conspiracy of supporters of Iturbide and an anti-Spanish rebellion.
On January 31, 1824, the Constitutive Act of the Federation was approved, which was an interim status of the new government. The nation formally assumed sovereignty and was made up of free, sovereign and independent states. During the following months, the constitutional debates continued.
On October 4, 1824, the Federal Constitution of United Mexican States
was proclaimed.
called for presidential elections in August 1824. Each state legislature would appoint two candidates, and the two who received the most votes would be elected as president and vice president. The results were announced on October 1 and by majority of 17 states, Guadalupe Victoria was elect president of the Republic.
On October 2, Guadalupe Victoria was declared the first president of the United Mexican States
for the period 1825 -1829. On October 8, the president and vice president Nicolás Bravo
swore the constitution.
Guadalupe Victoria took office as interim president from October 10, 1824 to March 31 of 1825. His constitutional term in office began on April 1, 1825. The inauguration was solemn and austere as required by his republicanism; that day, Victoria affirmed ¡La Independencia se afianzará con mi sangre y la libertad se perderá con mi vida! (Independence will be reinforced with my blood and freedom will be lost with my life).
and the economic blockade promoted by the Spanish crown. To resolve the lack of supplies, a result of the trade embargo, he created the country's merchant marine, which opened trade routes with the ports of the American countries that had recognized the national independence and with which diplomatic relations were established. However his main concern was to achieve recognition from European countries.
The government of Victoria was hampered by severe financial problems. His expenses averaged $18 million pesos
annually but he was only collecting half that amount in revenues. In order to resolve that, Victoria was forced to seek foreign aid. The United Kingdom
knowing how hard-pressed Victoria was (the Army alone accounted for $12 million pesos of the budget), persuaded him to accept two loans, each of over $3 million pounds
. These loans, negotiated through such banking houses as Barclay and Goldschmidt, averted bankruptcy and helped retain social peace, factors that undoubtedly enabled Victoria to serve out his full term.
Despite these financial problems, there were some highly positive aspects to Victoria's administration. Two of the first president's most positive achievements were the establishment of the National Treasury and the abolition of slavery, which were declared on September 16, 1825, when he held for the first time El Grito de Dolores. In addition, he established the Military Academy
, restored Mexico City
, improved education, accorded amnesty to political prisoners, laid plans for a canal in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
, opened new ports for shipping, began construction on the National Museum, garrisoned Yucatán
to thwart a contemplated Cuba-based Spanish invasion
and unmasked a conspiracy led by a monk
named Joaquin Arenas to restore Spanish rule.
Victoria also facilitated the activities of the Lancasterian Society which was dedicated to education and he created the Naval Force that allowed his greatest achievement: the complete independence of Mexico, when on November 18, 1825, general Miguel Barragán
took the last Spanish stronghold, the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa
in Veracruz
.
In politics his actions were conciliatory, he tried to apply a policy that would attract different sides, and formed his cabinet with prominent members of the different factions. However, the old conflicts since the days of Iturbide resurfaced. Victoria faced the contradiction of religious intolerance to the freedom of speech
and press
which were declared in the Constitution, which he scrupulously observed.
On December 20, 1827, he decreed the expulsion of Spaniards of the Republic. The suppressed rebellion of Joaquín Arenas, sparked a wave of outrage against the wealthy Spaniards who had sponsored it. Though Lucas Alaman
, his Secretary of the Interior
tried to dissuade him, American ambassador
Joel R. Poinsett
, encouraged Victoria to order the expulsion of the Spaniards, which caused serious economic problems, because most of those expelled were traders who brought their fortunes to Spain.
Despite this, Victoria's government bought some boats to form the basis of the first Mexican Navy
. They included the schooners Iguala, Anáhuac, Chalco, Chapala, Texcoco, Orizaba, Campechana and Zumpango. The schooners Tampico, Papaloapan and Tlaxcalteca were added later.
Finally, on November 23, 1825, frigate Captain Pedro Sainz de Baranda achieved the capitulation of San Juan de Ulúa, last Spanish bastion in Mexico.
On August 18, 1824, the General Colonization Law
was issued to populate the Northern Territories (Alta California
, Nuevo México
and the north side of the state of Coahuila y Texas), the decree left the administration of public lands in the hands of the states. On March 24, 1825, The congress passed a law to fully open the doors to foreign colonization; the law gave the settlers land privileges and exemption from taxes for ten years.
The immigration of Americans was abundant and communities quickly formed that retained their language, religion and customs, resulting in weak links with the rest of the country. They disobeyed the laws and continued slavery
in Mexican territory. In 1826, the first attempt of separatism was made when empresario
Haden Edwards, declared independence from state of Coahuila y Texas and created the Republic of Fredonia near Nacogdoches, Texas
. The rebellion was quickly quelled.
As a direct result of Edwards's actions, Victoria authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General Manuel Mier y Teran, to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the Laws of April 6, 1830, which severely restricted immigration into Texas.
against his government. Seven months after starting his administration the first attempt was discovered. Another was discovered in late 1827.
On December 23, 1827, the Scottish Lodge declared the Plan of Montaño in Tulancingo
, (now state of Hidalgo) which was based on 4 points:
Vice President Nicolas Bravo
, head of the revolt, claimed that his sole purpose was to release the Congress and the government of Victoria to the influence of the Yorker Lodge. The plan called mainly for the reorganization of government, which had showed serious deficiencies in the control of public revenues and expulsion of the United States representative on the grounds that country meddled in domestic affairs. (Joel R. Poinsett was expelled from Mexico on January 3, 1830, for that reason).
The uprising was suppressed by Vicente Guerrero
on January 6, 1828, after a weak resistance. Nicolas Bravo was expelled from the country while other mutineers were imprisoned.
against the government of Guadalupe Victoria when they learned that he supported to Manuel Gómez Pedraza
in presidential elections.
For the elections of 1828, the Yorker Lodge presented as candidate to the Minister of War Manuel Gomez Pedraza. The Scottish Lodge presented as candidate to Vicente Guerrero, independence hero and victor in the last conspiracy against government. The elections were held on September 1, 1828, the winner was Manuel Gomez Pedraza. Vicente Guerrero rejected the results and organized a revolution.
The revolutionary troops demanded the resignation of President Victoria and that he be replaced by Guerrero. Meanwhile, Gomez Pedraza fled from Mexico City
waiving his right to the presidency. That was seized upon by the mob which went to El Parian, core of the Mexican trade and began looting and burning shops and stores, ruining hundreds of Spanish, Mexican and foreign traders.
As a result, in early 1829, Congress annulled the election of 1828 and elected Vicente Guerrero as President. Victoria delivered the presidency to him, when his term ended on April 1, 1829.
, the United States of America, the Federal Republic of Central America
and the Gran Colombia
. That reduced the problems caused by the economic embargo imposed by the Spanish crown. The economic problems were further reduced, when several British companies began mining jobs in Mexico, which resulted in a large influx of capitals.
He also ratified the contents of the Adams–Onís Treaty and thus the border with the United States.
Victoria also declared that no proposals would be heard from Spain, until they recognized Mexican independence and the form of government established and agreed to never ask for indemnification for the loss of Mexico.
Another memorable international accomplishment of Guadalupe Victoria was his support for Pan American Union
proposed by Simón Bolívar
, which resulted in the signing of an agreement called Tratado de Unión, Liga y Confederación Perpetua (Treaty of Union, League and Perpetual Confederation) between the republics of Colombia, Central America, Perú and the United Mexican States. He also provided financial assistance to Simón Bolívar to help obtain Peru's total independence from Spain.
El Jobo in Veracruz
. When Victoria gave the presidency to his successor, Vicente Guerrero, he said:
In 1832, the Government of the Republic knowing his diplomatic and negotiating skills, asked him to assist in the pacification of Santa Anna who had taken up arms to demand that the Presidency of the Republic be delivered to General Manuel Gómez Pedraza
. A year later, in 1833, he was elected senator for the states of Veracruz and Durango
, joining the Public Debt Committee of the Senate. At the same time, he fought against rebellions in Veracruz and Oaxaca
. While serving as Senator his health began to seriously deteriorate and he began having recurrent seizures which prevented him from completing his term as Governor of Puebla, a position he held for less than five months.
Victoria returned to the Senate and in 1835 was elected president of the Senate. At that time he undertook a vigorous fight against a proposal that sought to change the federal republic
to a central republic
. A few days before returning to the Senate, in Puebla, he stated his position:
In November 1836 he was appointed military commander of Veracruz but he resigned in December of that year to show disagreement to the proclamation of the first Central Republic.
In 1838, his diplomatic intervention was crucial to avoid a war against the French in the incident known as the Pastry War
. On March 9, 1839, he was successful with the signing of a peace treaty
with France. That was his last public activity.
In 1841, he married María Antonieta Bretón y Velázquez and very soon his health was broken by his epileptic condition. He moved to the Castle of Perote
to receive medical treatment and he died there on March 21, 1843. He was buried there.
Guadalupe Victoria was declared by Congress
Benemérito de la Patria (Worthy of the Nation) on August 25, 1843 and his name was written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies.
In 1863, his remains were moved to Puebla by General Alejandro García and were placed in the Column of Independence
in Mexico City.
On August 15, 2010, in celebration of the bicentennial of the beginning of the independence of Mexico
, his remains were moved to National Palace
and remained on display until July 30, 2011, when were returned to the Column of Independence.
, worthy of the nation, founder and builder of Mexico. There are many monuments, statues, schools, hospitals, libraries, cities, towns, streets and places named after him in Mexico; the most outstanding are Ciudad Victoria
, the capital of the state of Tamaulipas
, the capital city of Victoria de Durango
, Tamazula de Victoria
and Ciudad Guadalupe Victoria
in the state of Durango
, Guadalupe Victoria
in the state of Puebla
, Victoria City
and Victoria County
, in the United States; the frigate ARM Victoria (F-213) and General Guadalupe Victoria International Airport
.
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
in the Mexican War of Independence
Mexican War of Independence
The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial authorities which started on 16 September 1810. The movement, which became known as the Mexican War of Independence, was led by Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians who sought...
. He was a deputy for Durango
Durango
Durango officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is located in Northwest Mexico. With a population of 1,632,934, it has Mexico's second-lowest population density, after Baja...
and a member of the Supreme Executive Power. He also served as the first president of Mexico
President of Mexico
The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces...
.
During his term as President he established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
, the United States of America, the Federal Republic of Central America
Federal Republic of Central America
The Federal Republic of Central America, known as the United Provinces of Central America in its first year of creation, was a sovereign state in Central America, which consisted of the territories of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala of New Spain...
and the Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
; was also defeated the last Spanish stronghold in the castle of San Juan de Ulúa
San Juan de Ulúa
San Juan de Ulúa, also known as Castle of San Juan de Ulúa is a large complex of fortresses, prisons and one former palace on an island overlooking the seaport of Veracruz, Mexico.-History:...
. He abolished slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
, founded the National Museum, promoted education, decreed the law of expulsion of the Spaniards and ratified the border with the United States of America.
Victoria was the only President who completed his full term in more than 30 years of an independent Mexico He died in 1843 at the age of 58 from epilepsy
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized by seizures. These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or hypersynchronous neuronal activity in the brain.About 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, and nearly two out of every three new cases...
in the fortress of Perote
San Carlos Fortress
The San Carlos Fortress is a fort in the city of Perote, in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is also known as the Fort of San Carlos, Perote Castle, the Castle of San Carlos, Perote Prison, San Carlos de Perote Fortress, and San Carlos de Perote Castle.The fortress was built from 1770 to 1776 by...
, where he was receiving medical treatment. On April 8, of the same year, it was decreed that his name would be written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies.
His remains lie in the Column of Independence
El Ángel
El Ángel de la Independencia , most commonly known by theshortened name El Ángel and officially known as Columna de la Independencia, is a victory column located on a roundabout over Paseo de la Reforma in downtown Mexico City.El Ángel was built to commemorate the centennial of the beginning of...
, which also holds those of Miguel Hidalgo
Miguel Hidalgo
Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo y Costilla y Gallaga Mandarte Villaseñor , more commonly known as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla or simply Miguel Hidalgo, was a Mexican priest and a leader of the Mexican War of Independence.In 1810 Hidalgo led a group of peasants in a revolt against the dominant...
and Jose Maria Morelos
José María Morelos
José María Teclo Morelos y Pavón was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary rebel leader who led the Mexican War of Independence movement, assuming its leadership after the execution of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in 1811...
. Guadalupe Victoria is considered Benemérito de la Patria (Worthy of the Nation).
Childhood and education
Guadalupe Victoria was born on September 29, 1786 in TamazulaTamazula de Victoria
Tamazula de Victoria is a small town and seat of the municipality of Tamazula in the Mexican state of Durango, near the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. The town is located about 1.5 hours east of Culiacán, Sinaloa. General Guadalupe Victoria, the first president of Mexico, was born there, hence...
, Nueva Vizcaya
Nueva Vizcaya, New Spain
Nueva Vizcaya was the first province in the north of New Spain to be explored and settled by the Spanish. It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango in Mexico.-Early exploration and the Viceroyalty:...
(now state of Durango
Durango
Durango officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is located in Northwest Mexico. With a population of 1,632,934, it has Mexico's second-lowest population density, after Baja...
), his parents, who died early in his childhood, were Manuel Fernández and Alejandra Félix. He was baptized by his paternal uncle Agustín Fernández, at that time the priest of Tamazula, with whom he lived after being orphaned.
He studied at the Seminary of Durango and having no resources to pay for food; he made copies of a text of Latin grammar to sell to other students for two reales
Spanish real
The real was a unit of currency in Spain for several centuries after the mid-14th century, but changed in value relative to other units introduced...
. In 1807 he went to Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, where he enrolled in the college of San Ildefonso
San Ildefonso College
The San Ildefonso College currently is a museum and cultural center in Mexico City, considered to be the birthplace of the Mexican muralism movement. San Ildefonso began as a prestigious Jesuit boarding school, and after the Reform War, it gained educational prestige again as National Preparatory...
to pursue degrees in Canon Law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
and Civil Law
Civil law (area)
Civil law in continental law is a branch of law which is the general part of private law.The basis for civil law lies in a civil code. Before enacting of codes, civil law could not be distinguished from private law...
. He studied under a tense atmosphere, because the school was militarized by a colonial order. On April 24, 1811, he submitted his review and graduated as Bachelor of Laws
Bachelor of Laws
The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate, or bachelor, degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law countries as the primary law degree...
.
Mexican War of Independence
In 1812 he joined the insurgent forcesInsurgency
An insurgency is an armed rebellion against a constituted authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents...
of Hermenegildo Galeana
Hermenegildo Galeana
Hermenegildo Galeana was a hero of the Mexican War of Independence.Hermenegildo Galeana may also refer to:*Hermenegildo Galeana, Chihuahua, a town named in his honour*Hermenegildo Galeana, Puebla, a municipality...
, fought alongside José María Morelos
José María Morelos
José María Teclo Morelos y Pavón was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary rebel leader who led the Mexican War of Independence movement, assuming its leadership after the execution of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in 1811...
at the siege of Cuautla
Cuautla, Morelos
Cuautla , officially La heroica e histórica Cuautla de Morelos, or H. H. Cuautla de Morelos, is a city and municipality in the Mexican state of Morelos. In the 2005 census the city population was 145,482 and the municipality population was 160,285. The municipality covers 153.651 km²...
, participated in the assault on Oaxaca
Oaxaca, Oaxaca
The city and municipality of Oaxaca de Juárez, or simply Oaxaca, is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of the same name . It is located in the Centro District in the Central Valleys region of the state, in the foothills of the Sierra Madre at the base of the Cerro del Fortín...
and joined the troops of Nicolas Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
in Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave , is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is...
. He dedicated himself and his troops to controlling the passage of El Puente del Rey and became famous because of his successful attacks on military convoys until 1815, when he was defeated.
Assault of Oaxaca
The assault of Oaxaca was a military action which took place on November 25, 1812, in the city of Oaxaca, OaxacaOaxaca, Oaxaca
The city and municipality of Oaxaca de Juárez, or simply Oaxaca, is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of the same name . It is located in the Centro District in the Central Valleys region of the state, in the foothills of the Sierra Madre at the base of the Cerro del Fortín...
. Insurgents led by José María Morelos defeated the royalist
Royalist
A royalist supports a particular monarch as head of state for a particular kingdom, or of a particular dynastic claim. In the abstract, this position is royalism. It is distinct from monarchism, which advocates a monarchical system of government, but not necessarily a particular monarch...
forces of Lieutenant General
Lieutenant General
Lieutenant General is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages where the title of Lieutenant General was held by the second in command on the battlefield, who was normally subordinate to a Captain General....
Gonzalez Saravia.
Among the members of the insurgent forces that participated in the assault of Oaxaca were Hermenegildo Galeana
Hermenegildo Galeana
Hermenegildo Galeana was a hero of the Mexican War of Independence.Hermenegildo Galeana may also refer to:*Hermenegildo Galeana, Chihuahua, a town named in his honour*Hermenegildo Galeana, Puebla, a municipality...
, Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
, Mariano Matamoros
Mariano Matamoros
Mariano Matamoros y Guridi was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary rebel soldier of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought for independence against Spain in the early 19th century....
, Manuel Mier y Terán, Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
and Guadalupe Victoria.
Guadalupe Victoria participated in the battle in the Juego de Pelota, which was surrounded by a moat
Moat
A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that surrounds a castle, other building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places moats evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams and sluices...
that insurgent soldiers didn't dare to cross; Guadalupe Victoria threw his sword
Sword
A sword is a bladed weapon used primarily for cutting or thrusting. The precise definition of the term varies with the historical epoch or the geographical region under consideration...
across the moat and said ¡va mi espada en prenda, voy por ella! (there goes my sword as pledge, I'm going for it). He then swam across the moat and cut the rope of a bridge, which permitted the entry of the insurgent troops to the city.
The loss of Oaxaca was a heavy strike to the colonial government
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
, because it gave great military prestige to Morelos, as well as a privileged geographical position because of the roads and towns that could be controlled from that site.
Due to his success in Oaxaca, by order of the Congress of Chilpancingo
Congress of Chilpancingo
The Congress of Chilpancingo was a meeting held in Chilpancingo, in what is the modern-day Mexican state of Guerrero, from September to November 1813. The result of this meeting was that Mexico formally declared itself to be independent of Spain and what was later to become the first national...
Victoria was granted the command of the insurgent army in Veracruz. At the same time, José Miguel Fernández y Félix, decided to change his name to Guadalupe, due his devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe and Victoria for the victory.
Veracruz
In 1815, Victoria commanded the insurgent movement in the region of Veracruz and using guerrilla warfareGuerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
obtained control of Puente del Rey, a strategic position that connected Xalapa
Xalapa
Xalapa-Enríquez, commonly Xalapa or Jalapa, is the capital city of the Mexican state of Veracruz and the name of the surrounding municipality. In the year 2005 census the city reported a population of 387,879 and the municipality of which it serves as municipal seat reported a population of...
with the port of Veracruz
Veracruz, Veracruz
Veracruz, officially known as Heroica Veracruz, is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The city is located in the central part of the state. It is located along Federal Highway 140 from the state capital Xalapa, and is the state's most...
. When he learned that royalist troops were coming to fight, he reinforced the defenses on the bridge, but was still forced to retreat to Nautla
Nautla
Nautla is a settlement in the Mexican state of Veracruz.Nautla comes from the Nahuatl Naui, four; and from tlan, that means place; so it is known as Four Places....
in July of that year.
In order to have a point of supply from the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...
, Victoria took control of Boquilla de Piedras; located between Tuxpan and the port of Veracruz. This port was fitted with docks, warehouses and batteries for its defense and remained under the control of Victoria until November 1816, when it was recovered by the royalist army. Shortly after Naolinco became the headquarters of the insurgents and from there they controlled the area of Misantla, Puente Nacional and Huatusco.
Also in 1816, when the new viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca arrived at New Spain
New Spain
New Spain, formally called the Viceroyalty of New Spain , was a viceroyalty of the Spanish colonial empire, comprising primarily territories in what was known then as 'América Septentrional' or North America. Its capital was Mexico City, formerly Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire...
, Victoria attacked his convoy to Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, and came very close to capturing him.
In late 1816, Victoria held back Nautla defeating the royalist garrison. He also occupied Barra de Palmas, Barra Nueva and La Laguna. The strong royalist offensive, as well as the lack of military equipment resulted in the occupied positions being recovered by the Spaniards in February 1817.
By mid-1817, Guadalupe Victoria had lost all the towns of his command. After his defeat in Palmillas, he was abandoned by his men and faced intense persecution. He hid in the jungle where he survived eating herbs, fruits and animals. He refused to accept a pardon
Pardon
Clemency means the forgiveness of a crime or the cancellation of the penalty associated with it. It is a general concept that encompasses several related procedures: pardoning, commutation, remission and reprieves...
from the Viceroy for his actions and remained hidden in the jungles of Veracruz, where he developed epilepsy
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized by seizures. These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or hypersynchronous neuronal activity in the brain.About 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, and nearly two out of every three new cases...
. His sporadic appearances in the towns urned him into a legend among the inhabitants of the region.
Plan of Iguala and Treaty of Córdoba
Guadalupe Victoria spent almost four years hiding in the jungle. They were difficult years for the independence movement and the colonial government thought that the movement was suppressed. During this time most of the insurgents accepted the pardon; just Vicente GuerreroVicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
kept up the fight.
The installation of the Cortes of Cadiz
Cádiz Cortes
The Cádiz Cortes were sessions of the national legislative body which met in the safe haven of Cádiz during the French occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars...
and the deterioration of the Spanish monarchy
Spanish monarchy
The Monarchy of Spain, constitutionally referred to as The Crown and commonly referred to as the Spanish monarchy or Hispanic Monarchy, is a constitutional institution and an historic office of Spain...
on the Iberian Peninsula
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
, helped revitalize the struggle for independence at the end of 1820. Victoria was informed about the progress of the insurrection and reappeared on December 30 of that year in the town of Soledad, where a small garrison quickly joined him.
On February 24, 1821, Agustin de Iturbide
Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Aramburu , also known as Augustine I of Mexico, was a Mexican army general who built a successful political and military coalition that was able to march into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively ending the Mexican War of Independence...
and Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
proclaimed the Plan of Iguala
Plan of Iguala
Plan of Iguala, also known as Plan of the Three Guarantees , was a peace treaty proclaimed on February 24, 1821, in the final stage of Mexican War of Independence from Spain. The plan attempted to establish a constitutional foundation upon which an independent Mexican Empire would be based...
. Iturbide began a tour around the Bajío
Bajío
The Bajío is a region of Central Mexico that includes the plains south of the Sierra de Guanajuato, in the state of Guanajuato, as well as parts of the states of Querétaro and Michoacán .In general parlance, it is usually associated with the States of Guanajuato and Querétaro, although it only...
region to spread the movement. Several royalist military joined the Plan of Iguala and so did some retired insurgent leaders including Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
and Ignacio López Rayón
Ignacio López Rayón
Ignacio López Rayón led the revolutionary government of his country after Miguel Hidalgo's death, during the first years of the Mexican War of Independence....
. Guadalupe Victoria also joined. On April 6, Victoria proclaimed the independence in the town of Soledad. In late May, with the exception of the capital, the province of Veracruz was up in arms.
The Army of the Three Guarantees
Army of the Three Guarantees
At the end of the Mexican War of Independence, the Army of the Three Guarantees was the name given to the army after the unification of the Spanish troops led by Agustín de Iturbide and the Mexican insurgent troops of Vicente Guerrero, consolidating Mexico's independence from Spain...
was created on February 24, 1821, and continued battling Spanish royalist forces which refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until August 21, 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
Juan O'Donojú
Juan O'Donojú
Juan O'Donojú y O'Rian was a Spanish military officer and jefe político superior of New Spain from July 21, 1821 to September 28, 1821, during Mexico's war of independence...
signed the Treaty of Córdoba
Treaty of Córdoba
The Treaty of Córdova established Mexican independence from Spain at the conclusion of the Mexican War of Independence. It was signed on August 24, 1821 in Córdoba, Veracruz, Mexico. The signatories were the head of the Army of the Three Guarantees, Agustín de Iturbide, and acting on behalf of the...
.
On September 27, 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees
Army of the Three Guarantees
At the end of the Mexican War of Independence, the Army of the Three Guarantees was the name given to the army after the unification of the Spanish troops led by Agustín de Iturbide and the Mexican insurgent troops of Vicente Guerrero, consolidating Mexico's independence from Spain...
entered Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, forming a column headed by Agustín de Iturbide. Among the officers who entered the city that day were Pedro Celestino Negrete
Pedro Celestino Negrete
Pedro Celestino Negrete was a Spanish politician and military man who served as a member of the interim government of México after the abolition of the First Mexican Empire. He fought alongside of Agustín de Iturbide in the royalist army during the Mexican War of Independence...
, Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
, Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
, Anastasio Bustamante
Anastasio Bustamante
Anastasio Bustamante y Oseguera was president of Mexico three times, from 1830 to 1832, from 1837 to 1839 and from 1839 to 1841. He was a Conservative. He first came to power by leading a coup against president Vicente Guerrero...
, José Joaquín de Herrera, Luis Quintanar, Miguel Barragán
Miguel Barragán
Miguel Francisco Barragán Andrade was a Mexican general and a centralist politician. He served as Minister of War in the government of Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1833 and 1834, then as president of Mexico from January 28, 1835 to February 27, 1836.- The War of Independence and the First Empire...
, Vicente Filisola
Vicente Filisola
Vicente Filisola was a Spanish military figure, Mexican military and political figure in the 19th century.-Life and career:...
and Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, known as "the Napoleon of the West," was a Mexican political leader, general, and president who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government...
. On September 28, 1821 the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire is the foundational document of the empire, and therefore, of the Mexican nation. The morning after the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City on September 28, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide ordered the Supreme Provisional Governmental...
was signed.
Mexican Empire
Guadalupe Victoria met with Agustín de IturbideAgustín de Iturbide
Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Aramburu , also known as Augustine I of Mexico, was a Mexican army general who built a successful political and military coalition that was able to march into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively ending the Mexican War of Independence...
on June 17, 1821, in San Juan del Río and asked him adapt the Plan of Iguala to create a republican government
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
. Victoria recommended as ruler a former insurgent
Insurgency
An insurgency is an armed rebellion against a constituted authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents...
, who was unmarried and had not accepted the pardon
Pardon
Clemency means the forgiveness of a crime or the cancellation of the penalty associated with it. It is a general concept that encompasses several related procedures: pardoning, commutation, remission and reprieves...
. This man would marry a Guatemalan
Guatemalan
Guatemalan may refer to:* Something of, from, or related to the country of Guatemala* A person from Guatemala, or of Guatemalan descent. Not Mexican at all. For information about the Guatemalan people, see Demographics of Guatemala and Culture of Guatemala. For specific persons, see List of...
indigenous
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
woman to unite both territories into a single nation. Iturbide refused the proposition. Both men supported the independence, but felt a mutual distrust.
A Regency
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
was created to serve as Executive, which was led by Iturbide, who ruled until May 18, 1822 when he was proclaimed Emperor. Iturbide chose all members of the Provisional Governing Board, which would serve as Legislative
Legislature
A legislature is a kind of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures usually have exclusive authority to raise or lower taxes and adopt the budget and...
and which ruled until February 24, 1822 when the first Constitutional Congress was installed. Almost all members were notable for their social position, their wealth and titles. They were also all former fervent supporters of the Spanish rule and none of the former insurgents such as Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
, Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
, Ignacio López Rayón
Ignacio López Rayón
Ignacio López Rayón led the revolutionary government of his country after Miguel Hidalgo's death, during the first years of the Mexican War of Independence....
, Guadalupe Victoria and Andrés Quintana Roo
Andrés Quintana Roo
Andrés Quintana Roo was a Mexican liberal politician and author. He was one of the most influential men in the War of Independence and served as a member of the Congress of Chilpancingo...
were called to participate in the Board.
In early 1822, some of the former insurgents with Republican ideas began meeting at the house of Miguel Domínguez
Miguel Domínguez
José Miguel Domínguez Alemán was a Spanish colonial official in New Spain who played a part in the Mexican independence movement...
in Querétaro
Querétaro
Querétaro officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Querétaro de Arteaga is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 18 municipalities and its capital city is Santiago de Querétaro....
. They wrote to Pedro Celestino Negrete
Pedro Celestino Negrete
Pedro Celestino Negrete was a Spanish politician and military man who served as a member of the interim government of México after the abolition of the First Mexican Empire. He fought alongside of Agustín de Iturbide in the royalist army during the Mexican War of Independence...
inviting him to participate, but he thought that it was a conspiracy and told Iturbide. Seventeen people were arrested, including Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
and Miguel Barragán
Miguel Barragán
Miguel Francisco Barragán Andrade was a Mexican general and a centralist politician. He served as Minister of War in the government of Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1833 and 1834, then as president of Mexico from January 28, 1835 to February 27, 1836.- The War of Independence and the First Empire...
. The "conspiracy" was only meetings during which they talked about the future of government. Almost immediately, participants were released, with the exception of Guadalupe Victoria who remained jailed, but who soon after escaped from prison and hid in Veracruz.
Congress asked to review the case of Guadalupe Victoria, who had been elected deputy by Durango
Durango
Durango officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is located in Northwest Mexico. With a population of 1,632,934, it has Mexico's second-lowest population density, after Baja...
. Victoria was a fugitive, indicted on charges of conspiracy. He was requested to present himself to congress but he preferred kept hidden.
On July 21, 1822, Agustín de Iturbide was crowned Emperor of Mexico. the Constitutional Empire soon demonstrated the incompatibility of its two main parts, the Emperor and the Constituent Congress. The deputies were imprisoned due expressing their disagreement with Iturbide and finally, Iturbide decided to eliminate the Congress, establishing instead a National Board.
Plan of Casa Mata
The lack of Congress, the arbitrary actions of the Emperor and the absence of solutions to the serious problems that the country was facing, increased conspiracies to change the imperial system. Antonio López de Santa AnnaAntonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, known as "the Napoleon of the West," was a Mexican political leader, general, and president who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government...
proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata
Plan of Casa Mata
The Plan of Casa Mata was formulated to abolish the monarchy in Mexico and to establish a republic.In December 1822, Antonio López de Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria signed the Plan de Casa Mata on February 1, 1823, as a start of their efforts to overthrow Emperor Agustín de Iturbide.In May...
and was later joined Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
and Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
.
On December 6, 1822, Guadalupe Victoria came out of hiding to join the movement. Knowing his reputation and popularity, Santa Anna appointed him leader of the movement and together they proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz.
On December 21, Santa Anna was defeated by General Calderón. Forced to retreat, on December 24 he met with a group of 300 troops of Guadalupe Victoria in Puente del Rey. Santa Anna again took advantage of the popularity of Guadalupe Victoria by encouraging people to join the cause.
When Santa Anna and Victoria were defeated, Santa Anna tried to flee to the United States and Victoria said to him:"
On January 22, 1823, Santa Anna reported to Victoria: I was attacked from all directions by the imperial forces. On February 1, 1823, a radical shift occurred when the imperial Generals Echávarri, Lobato and Cortázar signed the Plan of Casa Mata
Plan of Casa Mata
The Plan of Casa Mata was formulated to abolish the monarchy in Mexico and to establish a republic.In December 1822, Antonio López de Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria signed the Plan de Casa Mata on February 1, 1823, as a start of their efforts to overthrow Emperor Agustín de Iturbide.In May...
.
Iturbide was forced to reestablish the Congress and in a vain attempt to save the order and keep a favorable situation for his supporters, he abdicated to the crown of the Empire on March 19, 1823.
Supreme Executive Power
On March 26, 1823, it was determined that Iturbide would have to leave the country with his family. He was escorted by General Nicolas BravoNicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
as requested by the former emperor.
On March 31, 1823, Congress met and granted the Executive role to a triumvirate
Triumvirate
A triumvirate is a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals, each a triumvir . The arrangement can be formal or informal, and though the three are usually equal on paper, in reality this is rarely the case...
named Supreme Executive Power; whose members were Pedro Celestino Negrete
Pedro Celestino Negrete
Pedro Celestino Negrete was a Spanish politician and military man who served as a member of the interim government of México after the abolition of the First Mexican Empire. He fought alongside of Agustín de Iturbide in the royalist army during the Mexican War of Independence...
, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria, with alternates being Miguel Domínguez
Miguel Domínguez
José Miguel Domínguez Alemán was a Spanish colonial official in New Spain who played a part in the Mexican independence movement...
, Mariano Michelena and Vicente Guerrero. On April 7, 1823, Congress nullified the designation of Iturbide as Emperor and therefore the recognition of his abdication and made it seem as if the coronation of Iturbide was a logical mistake in the establishment of Independence. Congress abolished the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba, leaving the country free to choose any system of government.
Despite being elected to be part of the Supreme Executive Power, Victoria remained in military control of Veracruz, where he oversaw the transportation of Iturbide to Europe and organized resistance against Spanish attacks from San Juan de Ulúa.
The Supreme Executive Power was commissioned to direct the former provinces, now Free States, to create the Federal Republic and also to call elections for a new constituent congress. The Executive had to overcome a series of political difficulties such as the case of the Central American provinces that chose not to join Mexican Federation and the provinces of Oaxaca
Oaxaca
Oaxaca , , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 571 municipalities; of which 418 are governed by the system of customs and traditions...
, Yucatán
Yucatán
Yucatán officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Yucatán is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 106 municipalities and its capital city is Mérida....
, Jalisco
Jalisco
Jalisco officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Jalisco is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in Western Mexico and divided in 125 municipalities and its capital city is Guadalajara.It is one of the more important states...
and Zacatecas
Zacatecas
Zacatecas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Zacatecas is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and its capital city is Zacatecas....
that declared themselves free and sovereign states. They also faced a conspiracy of supporters of Iturbide and an anti-Spanish rebellion.
On January 31, 1824, the Constitutive Act of the Federation was approved, which was an interim status of the new government. The nation formally assumed sovereignty and was made up of free, sovereign and independent states. During the following months, the constitutional debates continued.
On October 4, 1824, the Federal Constitution of United Mexican States
1824 Constitution of Mexico
The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824 was enacted on October 4 of 1824, after the overthrow of the Mexican Empire of Agustin de Iturbide. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of United Mexican States, and was defined as a representative federal republic, with...
was proclaimed.
Presidency (1824–1829)
The CongressCongress of Mexico
The Congress of the Union is the legislative branch of the Mexican government...
called for presidential elections in August 1824. Each state legislature would appoint two candidates, and the two who received the most votes would be elected as president and vice president. The results were announced on October 1 and by majority of 17 states, Guadalupe Victoria was elect president of the Republic.
On October 2, Guadalupe Victoria was declared the first president of the United Mexican States
President of Mexico
The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces...
for the period 1825 -1829. On October 8, the president and vice president Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
swore the constitution.
Guadalupe Victoria took office as interim president from October 10, 1824 to March 31 of 1825. His constitutional term in office began on April 1, 1825. The inauguration was solemn and austere as required by his republicanism; that day, Victoria affirmed ¡La Independencia se afianzará con mi sangre y la libertad se perderá con mi vida! (Independence will be reinforced with my blood and freedom will be lost with my life).
Domestic issues
As president of the new Republic, Victoria was in charge of rebuilding the economy which was devastated by the long war of independenceMexican War of Independence
The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial authorities which started on 16 September 1810. The movement, which became known as the Mexican War of Independence, was led by Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians who sought...
and the economic blockade promoted by the Spanish crown. To resolve the lack of supplies, a result of the trade embargo, he created the country's merchant marine, which opened trade routes with the ports of the American countries that had recognized the national independence and with which diplomatic relations were established. However his main concern was to achieve recognition from European countries.
The government of Victoria was hampered by severe financial problems. His expenses averaged $18 million pesos
Mexican peso
The peso is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a common origin in the 15th–19th century Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign, "$". The Mexican peso is the 12th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded in the Americas, and by far the most...
annually but he was only collecting half that amount in revenues. In order to resolve that, Victoria was forced to seek foreign aid. The United Kingdom
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
knowing how hard-pressed Victoria was (the Army alone accounted for $12 million pesos of the budget), persuaded him to accept two loans, each of over $3 million pounds
Pound (currency)
The pound is a unit of currency in some nations. The term originated in England as the value of a pound of silver.The word pound is the English translation of the Latin word libra, which was the unit of account of the Roman Empire...
. These loans, negotiated through such banking houses as Barclay and Goldschmidt, averted bankruptcy and helped retain social peace, factors that undoubtedly enabled Victoria to serve out his full term.
Despite these financial problems, there were some highly positive aspects to Victoria's administration. Two of the first president's most positive achievements were the establishment of the National Treasury and the abolition of slavery, which were declared on September 16, 1825, when he held for the first time El Grito de Dolores. In addition, he established the Military Academy
Heroic Military Academy (Mexico)
The Heroic Military College is a military educational institution founded in Mexico in 1823 in the former Palace of the Inquisition, under the name Cadet Academy taken in 1823 the name of Colegio Militar, settling in Perote, Veracruz, to return to Mexico City and occupied the Betlemitas monastery...
, restored Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, improved education, accorded amnesty to political prisoners, laid plans for a canal in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
Isthmus of Tehuantepec
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is an isthmus in Mexico. It represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, and prior to the opening of the Panama Canal was a major shipping route known simply as the Tehuantepec Route...
, opened new ports for shipping, began construction on the National Museum, garrisoned Yucatán
Yucatán
Yucatán officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Yucatán is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 106 municipalities and its capital city is Mérida....
to thwart a contemplated Cuba-based Spanish invasion
Spanish reconquest of Mexico
The Spanish reconquest attempts in Mexico were episodes of war in Mexico that were comprised in clashes between the newly born Mexican nation and Spain, mainly covered two periods first attempts from 1821 to 1825 and the defense of territorial waters and second period divided into two stages...
and unmasked a conspiracy led by a monk
Monk
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
named Joaquin Arenas to restore Spanish rule.
Victoria also facilitated the activities of the Lancasterian Society which was dedicated to education and he created the Naval Force that allowed his greatest achievement: the complete independence of Mexico, when on November 18, 1825, general Miguel Barragán
Miguel Barragán
Miguel Francisco Barragán Andrade was a Mexican general and a centralist politician. He served as Minister of War in the government of Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1833 and 1834, then as president of Mexico from January 28, 1835 to February 27, 1836.- The War of Independence and the First Empire...
took the last Spanish stronghold, the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa
San Juan de Ulúa
San Juan de Ulúa, also known as Castle of San Juan de Ulúa is a large complex of fortresses, prisons and one former palace on an island overlooking the seaport of Veracruz, Mexico.-History:...
in Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave , is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is...
.
In politics his actions were conciliatory, he tried to apply a policy that would attract different sides, and formed his cabinet with prominent members of the different factions. However, the old conflicts since the days of Iturbide resurfaced. Victoria faced the contradiction of religious intolerance to the freedom of speech
Freedom of speech
Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without censorship. The term freedom of expression is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used...
and press
Freedom of the press
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the freedom of communication and expression through vehicles including various electronic media and published materials...
which were declared in the Constitution, which he scrupulously observed.
On December 20, 1827, he decreed the expulsion of Spaniards of the Republic. The suppressed rebellion of Joaquín Arenas, sparked a wave of outrage against the wealthy Spaniards who had sponsored it. Though Lucas Alaman
Lucas Alamán
Lucas Ignacio Alamán y Escalada was a Mexican scientist, politician, historian and writer. He studied at the Real Colegio de Minas de la Nueva España. He frequently traveled on his credentials as a scientist and diplomat, becoming one of the most educated men in Mexico...
, his Secretary of the Interior
Secretary of the Interior (Mexico)
The Mexican Secretary of the Interior is the head of the Secretariat of the Interior, concerned with the country's internal affairs, the presentation of the president's bills to Congress, their publication and certain issues of national security. The country's main intelligence agency, CISEN,...
tried to dissuade him, American ambassador
United States Ambassador to Mexico
The United States has maintained diplomatic relations with Mexico since 1823, when Andrew Jackson was appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to that country. Jackson declined the appointment, however, and Joel R. Poinsett became the first U.S. envoy to Mexico in 1825. The rank...
Joel R. Poinsett
Joel Roberts Poinsett
Joel Roberts Poinsett was a physician, botanist and American statesman. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives, the first United States Minister to Mexico , a U.S...
, encouraged Victoria to order the expulsion of the Spaniards, which caused serious economic problems, because most of those expelled were traders who brought their fortunes to Spain.
San Juan de Ulúa
War of Independence ruined fields, towns, trade and mining. The government had no effective ways of collecting additional taxes to the customs and the government operated under debit and salary arrears. Under these conditions it was difficult to undertake an effective strategy for the surrender of San Juan de Ulúa.Despite this, Victoria's government bought some boats to form the basis of the first Mexican Navy
Mexican Navy
The Mexican Navy is the naval branch of the Mexican military responsible for conducting naval operations. Its stated mission is "to use the naval force of the federation for the exterior defense, and to help with internal order". The Navy consists of about 56,000 men and women plus reserves, over...
. They included the schooners Iguala, Anáhuac, Chalco, Chapala, Texcoco, Orizaba, Campechana and Zumpango. The schooners Tampico, Papaloapan and Tlaxcalteca were added later.
Finally, on November 23, 1825, frigate Captain Pedro Sainz de Baranda achieved the capitulation of San Juan de Ulúa, last Spanish bastion in Mexico.
Northern Territories
Guadalupe Victoria rejected 2 bids over Texas offered by American ambassador Joel R. Poinsett, including one for $5 million dollars.On August 18, 1824, the General Colonization Law
General Colonization Law
The Colonization Law of August 18, 1824 was a Mexican statute allowing foreigners to immigrate to the country.-Background:Under Spanish rule, New Spain was populated almost solely with native peoples or Spanish settlers. Foreign immigration was forbidden for much of the country...
was issued to populate the Northern Territories (Alta California
Alta California
Alta California was a province and territory in the Viceroyalty of New Spain and later a territory and department in independent Mexico. The territory was created in 1769 out of the northern part of the former province of Las Californias, and consisted of the modern American states of California,...
, Nuevo México
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
Santa Fe de Nuevo México was a province of New Spain and later Mexico that existed from the late 16th century up through the mid-19th century. It was centered on the upper valley of the Rio Grande , in an area that included most of the present-day U.S. state of New Mexico...
and the north side of the state of Coahuila y Texas), the decree left the administration of public lands in the hands of the states. On March 24, 1825, The congress passed a law to fully open the doors to foreign colonization; the law gave the settlers land privileges and exemption from taxes for ten years.
The immigration of Americans was abundant and communities quickly formed that retained their language, religion and customs, resulting in weak links with the rest of the country. They disobeyed the laws and continued slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
in Mexican territory. In 1826, the first attempt of separatism was made when empresario
Empresario
An empresario was a person who, in the early years of the settlement of Texas, had been granted the right to settle on Mexican land in exchange for recruiting and taking responsibility for new settlers. The word is Spanish for entrepreneur.- Background :...
Haden Edwards, declared independence from state of Coahuila y Texas and created the Republic of Fredonia near Nacogdoches, Texas
Nacogdoches, Texas
Nacogdoches is a city in Nacogdoches County, Texas, in the United States. The 2010 census recorded the city's population to be 32,996. It is the county seat of Nacogdoches County and is situated in East Texas. Nacogdoches is a sister city of Natchitoches, Louisiana.Nacogdoches is the home of...
. The rebellion was quickly quelled.
As a direct result of Edwards's actions, Victoria authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General Manuel Mier y Teran, to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the Laws of April 6, 1830, which severely restricted immigration into Texas.
Nicolas Bravo's rebellion
During his term, Guadalupe Victoria faced several attempted coups d'étatCoup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
against his government. Seven months after starting his administration the first attempt was discovered. Another was discovered in late 1827.
On December 23, 1827, the Scottish Lodge declared the Plan of Montaño in Tulancingo
Tulancingo
Tulancingo is the second-largest city in the Mexican state of Hidalgo. It is located in the southeastern part of the state and also forms one of the 84 municipalities of Hidalgo, as well as the Archdiocese of Tulancingo...
, (now state of Hidalgo) which was based on 4 points:
- The extinction of secret societies.
- The change of government.
- The expulsion of U.S. ambassador Joel R. PoinsettJoel Roberts PoinsettJoel Roberts Poinsett was a physician, botanist and American statesman. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives, the first United States Minister to Mexico , a U.S...
. - Strict compliance of the Constitution.
Vice President Nicolas Bravo
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico....
, head of the revolt, claimed that his sole purpose was to release the Congress and the government of Victoria to the influence of the Yorker Lodge. The plan called mainly for the reorganization of government, which had showed serious deficiencies in the control of public revenues and expulsion of the United States representative on the grounds that country meddled in domestic affairs. (Joel R. Poinsett was expelled from Mexico on January 3, 1830, for that reason).
The uprising was suppressed by Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
on January 6, 1828, after a weak resistance. Nicolas Bravo was expelled from the country while other mutineers were imprisoned.
Mutiny of La Acordada
Mutiny of La Acordada , was a revolt held on November 30, 1828 by General Jose Maria Lobato, Colonel Santiago García and Lorenzo de ZavalaLorenzo de Zavala
Manuel Lorenzo Justiniano de Zavala y Saenz was a 19th-century Mexican politician. He served as finance minister under President Vicente Guerrero. A colonizer and statesman, he was also the interim Vice President of the Republic of Texas, serving under interim President David G...
against the government of Guadalupe Victoria when they learned that he supported to Manuel Gómez Pedraza
Manuel Gómez Pedraza
Manuel Gómez Pedraza was a Mexican general and president of the country from 1832 to 1833....
in presidential elections.
For the elections of 1828, the Yorker Lodge presented as candidate to the Minister of War Manuel Gomez Pedraza. The Scottish Lodge presented as candidate to Vicente Guerrero, independence hero and victor in the last conspiracy against government. The elections were held on September 1, 1828, the winner was Manuel Gomez Pedraza. Vicente Guerrero rejected the results and organized a revolution.
The revolutionary troops demanded the resignation of President Victoria and that he be replaced by Guerrero. Meanwhile, Gomez Pedraza fled from Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
waiving his right to the presidency. That was seized upon by the mob which went to El Parian, core of the Mexican trade and began looting and burning shops and stores, ruining hundreds of Spanish, Mexican and foreign traders.
As a result, in early 1829, Congress annulled the election of 1828 and elected Vicente Guerrero as President. Victoria delivered the presidency to him, when his term ended on April 1, 1829.
Foreign affairs
One of the main goals of Guadalupe Victoria was recognition of Mexico as an independent nation by a European power, he finally got the recognition following the establishment of diplomatic relations with the United KingdomUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
, the United States of America, the Federal Republic of Central America
Federal Republic of Central America
The Federal Republic of Central America, known as the United Provinces of Central America in its first year of creation, was a sovereign state in Central America, which consisted of the territories of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala of New Spain...
and the Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
. That reduced the problems caused by the economic embargo imposed by the Spanish crown. The economic problems were further reduced, when several British companies began mining jobs in Mexico, which resulted in a large influx of capitals.
He also ratified the contents of the Adams–Onís Treaty and thus the border with the United States.
Victoria also declared that no proposals would be heard from Spain, until they recognized Mexican independence and the form of government established and agreed to never ask for indemnification for the loss of Mexico.
Another memorable international accomplishment of Guadalupe Victoria was his support for Pan American Union
Pan-Americanism
-History:The struggle for independence after 1810 by the Latin American nations evoked a sense of unity, especially in South America where, under Simón Bolívar in the north and José de San Martín in the south, there were cooperative efforts. Francisco Morazán briefly headed a Federal Republic of...
proposed by Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Yeiter, commonly known as Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader...
, which resulted in the signing of an agreement called Tratado de Unión, Liga y Confederación Perpetua (Treaty of Union, League and Perpetual Confederation) between the republics of Colombia, Central America, Perú and the United Mexican States. He also provided financial assistance to Simón Bolívar to help obtain Peru's total independence from Spain.
Post-presidential years and death
After completing his term Victoria retired from public life to manage personal affairs in his haciendaHacienda
Hacienda is a Spanish word for an estate. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even business factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities...
El Jobo in Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave , is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is...
. When Victoria gave the presidency to his successor, Vicente Guerrero, he said:
In 1832, the Government of the Republic knowing his diplomatic and negotiating skills, asked him to assist in the pacification of Santa Anna who had taken up arms to demand that the Presidency of the Republic be delivered to General Manuel Gómez Pedraza
Manuel Gómez Pedraza
Manuel Gómez Pedraza was a Mexican general and president of the country from 1832 to 1833....
. A year later, in 1833, he was elected senator for the states of Veracruz and Durango
Durango
Durango officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is located in Northwest Mexico. With a population of 1,632,934, it has Mexico's second-lowest population density, after Baja...
, joining the Public Debt Committee of the Senate. At the same time, he fought against rebellions in Veracruz and Oaxaca
Oaxaca
Oaxaca , , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 571 municipalities; of which 418 are governed by the system of customs and traditions...
. While serving as Senator his health began to seriously deteriorate and he began having recurrent seizures which prevented him from completing his term as Governor of Puebla, a position he held for less than five months.
Victoria returned to the Senate and in 1835 was elected president of the Senate. At that time he undertook a vigorous fight against a proposal that sought to change the federal republic
Federal republic
A federal republic is a federation of states with a republican form of government. A federation is the central government. The states in a federation also maintain the federation...
to a central republic
Unitary state
A unitary state is a state governed as one single unit in which the central government is supreme and any administrative divisions exercise only powers that their central government chooses to delegate...
. A few days before returning to the Senate, in Puebla, he stated his position:
In November 1836 he was appointed military commander of Veracruz but he resigned in December of that year to show disagreement to the proclamation of the first Central Republic.
In 1838, his diplomatic intervention was crucial to avoid a war against the French in the incident known as the Pastry War
Pastry War
The Pastry War was an invasion of Mexico by French forces in 1838.-Background:The war arose from the widespread civil disorder that plagued the early years of the Mexican republic. In 1828, President Manuel Gómez Pedraza ejected Lorenzo de Zavala from the office of governor of the state of México...
. On March 9, 1839, he was successful with the signing of a peace treaty
Peace treaty
A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, that formally ends a state of war between the parties...
with France. That was his last public activity.
In 1841, he married María Antonieta Bretón y Velázquez and very soon his health was broken by his epileptic condition. He moved to the Castle of Perote
San Carlos Fortress
The San Carlos Fortress is a fort in the city of Perote, in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is also known as the Fort of San Carlos, Perote Castle, the Castle of San Carlos, Perote Prison, San Carlos de Perote Fortress, and San Carlos de Perote Castle.The fortress was built from 1770 to 1776 by...
to receive medical treatment and he died there on March 21, 1843. He was buried there.
Guadalupe Victoria was declared by Congress
Congress of Mexico
The Congress of the Union is the legislative branch of the Mexican government...
Benemérito de la Patria (Worthy of the Nation) on August 25, 1843 and his name was written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies.
In 1863, his remains were moved to Puebla by General Alejandro García and were placed in the Column of Independence
El Ángel
El Ángel de la Independencia , most commonly known by theshortened name El Ángel and officially known as Columna de la Independencia, is a victory column located on a roundabout over Paseo de la Reforma in downtown Mexico City.El Ángel was built to commemorate the centennial of the beginning of...
in Mexico City.
On August 15, 2010, in celebration of the bicentennial of the beginning of the independence of Mexico
Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010
In 2010, Mexico celebrated both the 200th anniversary of its Independence and 100th anniversary of its Revolution. The entire year was proclaimed by President Felipe Calderón as "Año de la Patria", or "Year of the Nation." 16 September 1810 is the day of the "Grito de Dolores" or Miguel Hidalgo's...
, his remains were moved to National Palace
National Palace (Mexico)
The National Palace, or Palacio Nacional in Spanish), was the seat of the federal executive in Mexico. It is located on Mexico City's main square, the Plaza de la Constitución...
and remained on display until July 30, 2011, when were returned to the Column of Independence.
Legacy
Guadalupe Victoria a national heroHero
A hero , in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, their cult being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion...
, worthy of the nation, founder and builder of Mexico. There are many monuments, statues, schools, hospitals, libraries, cities, towns, streets and places named after him in Mexico; the most outstanding are Ciudad Victoria
Ciudad Victoria
Ciudad Victoria , is the capital city of the Mexican state ofTamaulipas. It is located in the western-central region of the state. Ciudad Victoria is also the municipal seat of the surrounding Victoria Municipality, which covers an area of 1,638 km²...
, the capital of the state of Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 43 municipalities and its capital city is Ciudad Victoria. The capital city was named after Guadalupe Victoria, the...
, the capital city of Victoria de Durango
Durango, Durango
-Climate:The city of Durango has a semi-arid climate, classified as Bsk in the Koppen system. The climate is temperate in the western portion , with the average annual temperature being 15 °C and consisting of an average annual rainfall of 1,600 millimeters. In the eastern region, the average...
, Tamazula de Victoria
Tamazula de Victoria
Tamazula de Victoria is a small town and seat of the municipality of Tamazula in the Mexican state of Durango, near the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. The town is located about 1.5 hours east of Culiacán, Sinaloa. General Guadalupe Victoria, the first president of Mexico, was born there, hence...
and Ciudad Guadalupe Victoria
Ciudad Guadalupe Victoria
Ciudad Guadalupe Victoria is a city and seat of the municipality of Guadalupe Victoria, in the state of Durango, north-western Mexico....
in the state of Durango
Durango
Durango officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is located in Northwest Mexico. With a population of 1,632,934, it has Mexico's second-lowest population density, after Baja...
, Guadalupe Victoria
Guadalupe Victoria, Puebla
Guadalupe Victoria is a municipality in the Mexican state of Puebla. According to the National Statistics Institute , it had a population of 15,041 inhabitants in the 2005 census. Its total area is 239.83 km². It is named after Guadalupe Victoria, the first president of Mexico.Its geographical...
in the state of Puebla
Puebla
Puebla officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Puebla is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 217 municipalities and its capital city is Puebla....
, Victoria City
Victoria, Texas
Victoria is a city in and the seat of Victoria County, Texas, United States. The population was 60,603 at the 2000 census. The three counties of the Victoria Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 111,163 at the 2000 census,...
and Victoria County
Victoria County, Texas
Victoria County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. In 2000, its population was 84,088. Its county seat is Victoria. It is included in the Victoria, Texas Metropolitan Statistical Area.-Geography:According to the U.S...
, in the United States; the frigate ARM Victoria (F-213) and General Guadalupe Victoria International Airport
General Guadalupe Victoria International Airport
Guadalupe Victoria Durango International Airport or Durango International Airport is located northeast of Durango, Durango, Mexico and is named after the first President of Mexico, Guadalupe Victoria.-Airlines and destinations:...
.