Gwageo
Encyclopedia
The gwageo were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo
and Joseon
dynasties of Korea
. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the Chinese classics, and sometimes also of technical subjects. These were the primary route for most people to achieve positions in the aristocracy.
Based on the civil service examinations
of imperial China
, the gwageo first arose in Unified Silla
, gained importance in Goryeo
, and were the centerpiece of most education in the Joseon Dynasty
. The tutelage provided at the hyanggyo
, seowon
, and Seonggyungwan
was aimed primarily at preparing students for the gwageo and their subsequent career in government service. Under Joseon law, high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher, unless the candidate had passed the gwageo. Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state.
beginning in 788, at the suggestion of Confucian scholar Choe Chiwon
. However, due to Silla's entrenched bone rank system
, which dictated that appointments be made on the basis of birth, these examinations did not have a strong effect on the government.
The examinations were established in the reign of Gwangjong
as a means of breaking the hold which a few powerful families held over the government. Throughout the dynasty, they retained this character of strengthening the throne against the aristocracy. This also took the form of aligning the throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to the local elites throughout the country. In fact, any member of the yangin freeborn class was permitted to take the examination, although the descendants of monks, criminals and cheonmin
were excluded. However, over time government-run educational institutions such as the hyanggyo
and Gukjagam
lost ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies.
The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test (jesul eop), and a test of classical knowledge (myeonggyeong eop). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well. The composition test came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination.
The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of Chunghye
, on the model of the examination system then employed in Yuan Dynasty
. The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on Neo-Confucian
interpretations of the classics.
Military examinations were established briefly under the reign of Yejong
, and again in the reign of Gongyang
just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength of the military elites during this period.
Miscellaneous examinations (jabeop) were administered in various fields. One among these was Buddhism; monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with daeseon, or "monk designate." Separate tests were administered for the Seon and Gyo sects, which dominated the Buddhism of the Goryeo period.
In theory, anyone other than slaves and lowest class called chunmin (those who worked in despised occupations such as butchers) could take gwageo examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking the exam. Gwageo examinations were very important not only for an individual but for his family because if a yangban
family that did not produce a government official for four generations they lost their status as yangban.
When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in a position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations were looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the chungin
class of hereditary technical workers. Criteria for the military examination varied, but over time it became open even to members of the lowest class (the cheonmin
).
The gwageo provided a basis for various forms of regionalism
. Due to the strength of regional factions in Joseon Dynasty politics
, scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In addition, for much of the dynasty candidates from Hamgyong
were forbidden to attempt the gwageo. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of Pyongan
, and the small county of Chŏngju
came to produce more successful candidates than any other county.
royal academy, the jeunggwangsi (augmented examinations) held during national celebrations, and the byeolsi (special examinations) held on other special occasions. However, these special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial singneonsi examinations.
The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test (chosi) administered in the provinces, a second examination (hoesi) conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination (jeonsi) in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was norm-referenced, with a set number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score (jangwon) in the literary examination was given a post of the 6th junior (jong) rank. If the jangwon was already employed in a position of rank, he was raised 4 levels. The candidate with second and third highest scores were given a post of the 7th junior rank. The rest was not guaranteed a post, but had to wait until one became vacant. The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages; their candidates were not ranked.
Testing procedures were a frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon.
s for the Gukjagam
of Goryeo.
In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese poetry and prose, including shi
poetry, fu rhyming prose, piao documentary prose, and ts'e problem-essays. The classics licentiate tested knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics
from an orthodox Neo-Confucian interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100 successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various provinces.
The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and a total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the Eight Provinces (the number sent from each province varied, with Hwanghae
and Yeongan sending only 10 while Gyeongsang
sent 30). Each of the first two of the higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section, the candidates showed their understanding of the Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in various literary forms, and in the last portion they wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show their political aptitude.
Over the course of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial singneonsi passed roughly 41% of these; the remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations. This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important. This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed.
The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary criteria. The first stage of the test was a practical test of various military skills, but the second stage, in which the successful applicants were selected, was an oral examination of applicants' knowledge of the Confucian canon and certain classics of military thought. The third stage, in which the candidates were ranked, was again based on practical military skills.
In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four which the Joseon court maintained translators in: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the Office of Translators, which maintained translators in the capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages.
The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in the Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and others to each provincial division down to the hyeon
level.
Those who passed the japgwa were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower rank. Those who passed this examination became known as chungin
.
(1506-1544), at the suggestion of the high official Jo Gwang-jo. The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" (hyeollanggwa). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity.
The gwageo system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader Hong Gyeong-nae
. Many of the later Silhak
scholars also turned away from state service.
The gwageo were finally abolished in the Gabo Reforms of 1894, along with legal class discrimination and the old rank system. However, the tradition continues in the form of university entrance examinations and civil service examinations in modern-day South Korea.
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
and Joseon
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
dynasties of Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the Chinese classics, and sometimes also of technical subjects. These were the primary route for most people to achieve positions in the aristocracy.
Based on the civil service examinations
Imperial examination
The Imperial examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of...
of imperial China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, the gwageo first arose in Unified Silla
Unified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
, gained importance in Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
, and were the centerpiece of most education in the Joseon Dynasty
Education in the Joseon Dynasty
Education in the Joseon Dynasty of Korea was largely aimed at preparing students for government service. The ultimate goal of most students was successful passage of the state examinations, known as gwageo....
. The tutelage provided at the hyanggyo
Hyanggyo
The Hyanggyo were government-run provincial schools established separately during the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty , but did not meet with widespread success in either dynasty...
, seowon
Seowon
Seowon were the most common educational institution of Korea during the mid- to late Joseon Dynasty. They were private institutions, and combined the functions of a Confucian shrine and a preparatory school. In educational terms, the seowon were primarily occupied with preparing students for the...
, and Seonggyungwan
Seonggyungwan
Sungkyunkwan, also called Taehak , was the foremost education institution in Korea during the late Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties.- History :...
was aimed primarily at preparing students for the gwageo and their subsequent career in government service. Under Joseon law, high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher, unless the candidate had passed the gwageo. Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state.
Silla
The first national examinations were administered in the kingdom of SillaSilla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
beginning in 788, at the suggestion of Confucian scholar Choe Chiwon
Choe Chiwon
Choe Chiwon was a noted Korean Confucian official, philosopher, and poet of the late Unified Silla period . He studied for many years in Tang China, passed the Tang imperial examination, and rose to high office there before returning to Silla, where he made ultimately futile attempts to reform the...
. However, due to Silla's entrenched bone rank system
Bone rank system
The bone rank system was the system of aristocratic rank used in the ancient Korean kingdom of Silla. It was used to segregate society, and particularly the layers of the aristocracy, on the basis of their hereditary proximity to the throne and the level of authority they were permitted to wield...
, which dictated that appointments be made on the basis of birth, these examinations did not have a strong effect on the government.
Goryeo
Under the Goryeo dynasty, the national examinations became more systematic and powerful than they had been under Silla. However, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who had reached a position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of rank.The examinations were established in the reign of Gwangjong
Gwangjong of Goryeo
Gwangjong was the fourth emperor of Goryeo.Goryeo met the time of change by ascending of Gwangjong. At his early stage as ruler, he maintained a passive attitude to nobles. However, he became more and more drastic. Choi Seung-Ro said that his regime can be divided into three parts. First is the...
as a means of breaking the hold which a few powerful families held over the government. Throughout the dynasty, they retained this character of strengthening the throne against the aristocracy. This also took the form of aligning the throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to the local elites throughout the country. In fact, any member of the yangin freeborn class was permitted to take the examination, although the descendants of monks, criminals and cheonmin
Cheonmin
Cheonmin, or "vulgar commoners," were the lowest caste of commoners in dynastical Korea. They abounded during the Goryeo and Joseon periods of Korea's agrarian bureaucracy. Like the caste system in India, this social class was largely hereditary and based on certain professions considered...
were excluded. However, over time government-run educational institutions such as the hyanggyo
Hyanggyo
The Hyanggyo were government-run provincial schools established separately during the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty , but did not meet with widespread success in either dynasty...
and Gukjagam
Gukjagam
The Gukjagam, known at times as Gukhak or Seonggyungwan, was the highest educational institution of the Korean Goryeo dynasty. It was located at the capital, Gaegyeong , and provided advanced training in the Chinese classics. It was established in 992 during the reign of Seongjong...
lost ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies.
The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test (jesul eop), and a test of classical knowledge (myeonggyeong eop). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well. The composition test came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination.
The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of Chunghye
Chunghye of Goryeo
Chunghye of Goryeo was the 28th king of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. He was remembered in the Goryeosa for his licentious lifestyle, particularly his habit of abducting, raping, and killing women. Chunghye was the son of King Chungsuk and Queen Myeongdeok, a Hong...
, on the model of the examination system then employed in Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
. The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on Neo-Confucian
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
interpretations of the classics.
Military examinations were established briefly under the reign of Yejong
Yejong of Goryeo
Yejong of Goryeo was the 16th monarch of the Korean Goryeo dynasty.-Biography:He was the eldest son of king Sukjong and Queen Myeongui...
, and again in the reign of Gongyang
Gongyang of Goryeo
Gongyang of Goryeo was the 34th and final ruler of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. He was deposed by Yi Seonggye, who then established the Joseon Dynasty....
just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength of the military elites during this period.
Miscellaneous examinations (jabeop) were administered in various fields. One among these was Buddhism; monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with daeseon, or "monk designate." Separate tests were administered for the Seon and Gyo sects, which dominated the Buddhism of the Goryeo period.
Joseon
Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations (mun-gwa), military examinations (mugwa), and miscellaneous examinations (japgwa) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement were much more closed than during the Goryeo period, the gwageo became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank.In theory, anyone other than slaves and lowest class called chunmin (those who worked in despised occupations such as butchers) could take gwageo examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking the exam. Gwageo examinations were very important not only for an individual but for his family because if a yangban
Yangban
The yangban were part of the traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The yangban were either landed or unlanded aristocracy who comprised the Korean Confucian idea of a "scholarly official." In reality, they were basically administrators and bureaucrats who...
family that did not produce a government official for four generations they lost their status as yangban.
When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in a position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations were looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the chungin
Chungin
The chungin also jungin, were the petite bourgeoisie of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The name "chungin" literally means "middle people". This privileged class of commoners consisted of a small group of petty bureaucrats and other skilled workers whose technical and administrative skills enabled the...
class of hereditary technical workers. Criteria for the military examination varied, but over time it became open even to members of the lowest class (the cheonmin
Cheonmin
Cheonmin, or "vulgar commoners," were the lowest caste of commoners in dynastical Korea. They abounded during the Goryeo and Joseon periods of Korea's agrarian bureaucracy. Like the caste system in India, this social class was largely hereditary and based on certain professions considered...
).
The gwageo provided a basis for various forms of regionalism
Regionalism (politics)
Regionalism is a term used in international relations. Regionalism also constitutes one of the three constituents of the international commercial system...
. Due to the strength of regional factions in Joseon Dynasty politics
Joseon Dynasty politics
The politics of the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1910, were governed by the reigning ideology of Korean Confucianism, a form of Neo-Confucianism. Political struggles were common between different factions of the scholar-officials...
, scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In addition, for much of the dynasty candidates from Hamgyong
Hamgyong
Hamgyŏng was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hamgyŏng was located in the northeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Hamhŭng.-History:...
were forbidden to attempt the gwageo. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of Pyongan
Pyongan
P'yŏngan was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. P'yŏngan was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was P'yŏngyang.-History:P'yŏngan Province was formed in 1413...
, and the small county of Chŏngju
Chongju
Chongju is a si, or city, in southern North Pyongan province, North Korea. Prior to 1994, it was designated as a kun or county. The terrain is mostly level, but mountainous in the north. To the south lies the Chongju Plain, where the hills do not rise above 200 metres...
came to produce more successful candidates than any other county.
Administration
The gwageo were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as the singnyeonsi (식년시). However, the singnyeonsi became less important over time, and an increasing percentage of candidates took the gwageo on special occasions. These included the alseongsi (visitation examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the SeonggyungwanSeonggyungwan
Sungkyunkwan, also called Taehak , was the foremost education institution in Korea during the late Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties.- History :...
royal academy, the jeunggwangsi (augmented examinations) held during national celebrations, and the byeolsi (special examinations) held on other special occasions. However, these special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial singneonsi examinations.
The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test (chosi) administered in the provinces, a second examination (hoesi) conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination (jeonsi) in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was norm-referenced, with a set number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score (jangwon) in the literary examination was given a post of the 6th junior (jong) rank. If the jangwon was already employed in a position of rank, he was raised 4 levels. The candidate with second and third highest scores were given a post of the 7th junior rank. The rest was not guaranteed a post, but had to wait until one became vacant. The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages; their candidates were not ranked.
Testing procedures were a frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon.
Literary examinations
The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary examination some candidates applied for a "classics licentiate" (or saengwon) and others for a "literary licentiate" (or jinsa). After passing these lower examinations (saengjin-gwa), they could proceed to the higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the entrance examinationEntrance examination
An entrance examination is an examination that many educational institutions use to select students for admission. These exams may be administered at any level of education, from primary to higher education, although they are more common at higher levels....
s for the Gukjagam
Gukjagam
The Gukjagam, known at times as Gukhak or Seonggyungwan, was the highest educational institution of the Korean Goryeo dynasty. It was located at the capital, Gaegyeong , and provided advanced training in the Chinese classics. It was established in 992 during the reign of Seongjong...
of Goryeo.
In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese poetry and prose, including shi
Shi
Shi may refer to:* Shi , the Chinese term for poetry * Shi , a ceremonial "corpse" in Chinese ancestral sacrifices* Shi , a kana in Japanese syllabaries...
poetry, fu rhyming prose, piao documentary prose, and ts'e problem-essays. The classics licentiate tested knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics
Four Books and Five Classics
The Four Books and Five Classics are the authoritative books of Confucianism in China written before 300 BC.-Four Books:The Four Books are Chinese classic texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism...
from an orthodox Neo-Confucian interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100 successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various provinces.
The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and a total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the Eight Provinces (the number sent from each province varied, with Hwanghae
Hwanghae
Hwanghae was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju.The regional name for the province was Haesŏ .-History:...
and Yeongan sending only 10 while Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea....
sent 30). Each of the first two of the higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section, the candidates showed their understanding of the Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in various literary forms, and in the last portion they wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show their political aptitude.
Over the course of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial singneonsi passed roughly 41% of these; the remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations. This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important. This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed.
Military examination
The military examination selected 190 candidates in the first stage, of whom 28 were allowed to pass the second stage. Of these, 70 came from the capital and the remainder from the various provinces, with Gyeongsang contributing 30, Chungcheong and Jeolla contributing 25, and the remaining provinces 10 candidates each.The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary criteria. The first stage of the test was a practical test of various military skills, but the second stage, in which the successful applicants were selected, was an oral examination of applicants' knowledge of the Confucian canon and certain classics of military thought. The third stage, in which the candidates were ranked, was again based on practical military skills.
Miscellaneous examinations
The miscellaneous examinations, or japgwa, were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural science (astrology, geography, and ...), and recordkeeping (??). These examinations were overseen by the government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices.In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four which the Joseon court maintained translators in: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the Office of Translators, which maintained translators in the capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages.
The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in the Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and others to each provincial division down to the hyeon
Hyeon
The hyeon were administrative subdivisions of Korea during the Silla, Goryeo, and Joseon periods. They were typically slightly smaller than today's si and gun . They were abolished in the Gabo Reform of 1895.During the Goryeo period, there were about 335 Hyeon; during the Joseon period, 164....
level.
Those who passed the japgwa were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower rank. Those who passed this examination became known as chungin
Chungin
The chungin also jungin, were the petite bourgeoisie of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The name "chungin" literally means "middle people". This privileged class of commoners consisted of a small group of petty bureaucrats and other skilled workers whose technical and administrative skills enabled the...
.
Historical change
The gwageo were supplemented in the reign of Jungjong of JoseonJungjong of Joseon
Jungjong of Joseon , born Yi Yeok, ruled during the 16th century in what is now Korea. He succeeded his half-brother, Yeonsangun, because of the latter's tyranical misrule, which culminated in a coup placing Jungjong on the throne.-Jo Gwang-jo's reforms:On the day Yeonsangun was deposed, soldiers...
(1506-1544), at the suggestion of the high official Jo Gwang-jo. The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" (hyeollanggwa). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity.
The gwageo system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader Hong Gyeong-nae
Hong Gyeong-nae
Hong Gyeong-nae was a rebel leader in Pyeongan Province, Korea, during the early 19th century. He was born in Yonggang, in South Pyeongan province, to a family of the Namyang Hong lineage....
. Many of the later Silhak
Silhak
Silhak was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in late Joseon Dynasty. Sil means "actual" or "practical," and hak means "studies" or "learning." It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-Confucianism that seemed disconnected from the rapid agricultural,...
scholars also turned away from state service.
The gwageo were finally abolished in the Gabo Reforms of 1894, along with legal class discrimination and the old rank system. However, the tradition continues in the form of university entrance examinations and civil service examinations in modern-day South Korea.
See also
- Imperial examinationImperial examinationThe Imperial examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of...
- Education in the Joseon DynastyEducation in the Joseon DynastyEducation in the Joseon Dynasty of Korea was largely aimed at preparing students for government service. The ultimate goal of most students was successful passage of the state examinations, known as gwageo....
- History of educationHistory of educationThe history of education its part of the past and present teaching and learning. Each generation, since the beginning of human existence, has sought to pass on cultural and social values, traditions, morality, religion and skills to the next generation. The passing on of culture is also known as...
- List of Korea-related topics