Joseon Dynasty politics
Encyclopedia
The politics of the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1910, were governed by the reigning ideology of Korean Confucianism
, a form of Neo-Confucianism
. Political struggles were common between different factions of the scholar-officials. Purges
frequently resulted in leading political figures being sent into exile or condemned to death.
The political system of this period was dominated by a Confucianist bureaucracy. The government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from senior first rank (정1품) down to junior ninth rank (종9품) based on seniority and promotion, which was achieved through the royal decree based on examinations and recommendations.
The power of the bureaucrats often eclipsed that of the central authorities, including the monarch. For much of the dynasty, a complex system of checks and balances prevented any one section of the government from gaining overwhelming power until 19th century when political power became concentrated in a certain family or individual.
, although some were adopted. For a list of Joseon kings, see List of Korean monarchs. Under Confucian philosophy, the king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to try to guide the king to the right path if the latter was mistaken. The natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences.
, one had to take a series of gwageo
literary examinations and pass each of them (usually four to five times). Theoretically, any male other than cheonmin
(lowest class) and children of concubines could take gwageo
examinations to enter a civil service and thus become yangban
(nobility class). In actuality, only yangban
class had the luxury of time and money as well as necessary connections to pass gwageo
exams. In addition, people from the troublesome northern provinces of Hamgyeong and Pyeongan were barred from office for much of the dynasty.
Officials served in positions for fixed terms, varying from one year to five years. A successful official might serve in tens of positions in the course of a career.
(Uijeongbu, 의정부) was the highest deliberative body of the Joseon Dynasty although it faded in importance after first centuries of rule. It was composed of twelve officials. The Chief State Councillor (Yeonguijeong
, 영의정), Left State Councillor (Jwauijeong, 좌의정), and Right State Councillor(Uuijeong, 우의정) were the highest ranking officials in the government (senior first rank). They were assisted by Left Minister(Jwachanseong, 좌찬성) and Right Minister(Uichangseong, 우찬성), both of junior first rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. Sometimes it directly controlled Six Ministries
, the chief executive body of Joseon government, but primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions including a tutor to the crown prince.
(Yukjo, 육조) were the chief executive body of Joseon
. Each Minister (Panseo, 판서) was of senior second rank (2a, third highest rank) and was assisted by a Deputy-Minister (Champan, 참판) of junior second rank (2b, fourth highest rank) and a Secretary (Chamui, 참의) of rank 3a. Apart from these three Dangsanggwan (당상관, 堂上官) officials, each Ministry was headed by three Jeongrang (정랑, rank 5a) and three Jwarang (좌랑, rank 6a), adding to nine officials ranked 6a or above.
The Samsa provided a key check on the powers of the other branches of government. The Inspector-General and Censor-General had the unique power to vet potential appointees for all positions, and examine their family backgrounds. They thus played a role in maintaining the integrity of the yangban aristocracy.
(Amhaeng-eosa, 암행어사) was sent to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. Secret inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but invested with royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials.
Each county and hyeon
was overseen by a local magistrate appointed by the central government. The yangban of each county (gun) composed a Local Office. This interacted with local officials, typically of a lower class, who were known as hyangni. The hyangni typically served for life in hereditary posts. The hyangni of each county had an ambassador in the capital who was charged with communicating among them and the central government.
-based Sarim
faction dominated national politics. The different Seowon
across the contry, which combined the functions of Confucian shrines with educational institutions, often reflected the factional alignment of the local elite. In the 16th century, a nationwide split occurred between the Eastern faction (Dong-in) and Western faction (Seo-in). Political divisions intensified even further as the Eastern faction in turn split under the reign of Seonjo
between the hard-line Northern faction (Buk-in) and the moderate Southern faction (Nam-in) and the Western faction split between the Old Learning (Noron) and the Young Learning (Soron).
These factional splits were often driven by questions concerning royal succession or appropriate royal conduct. For example, the split between the Northerners and Southerners was driven by debate over the proper successor to Seonjo, who had no legitimate son. The Northerners came to support the Gwanghaegun
; accordingly, they flourished under his reign (1608–1623) but were swept from power by the Westerners after the succession of Injo
.
Under the reigns of Yeongjo
and Jeongjo
in the 18th century, the kings pursued a strict policy of balance, favoring no faction over another. However, in Jeongjo's reign, strife re-emerged between the Byeokpa and Sipa, two groups which cut across the earlier factions and differed in their attitudes concerning Yeongjo's murder of his son, who was also Jeongjo's father. In the 19th century, Joseon politics shifted as in-law families rather than scholarly factions came to dominate the throne. For most of the 19th century, the Jangdong branch of the Andong Kim
clan was in control of the government; however, there was a brief interlude in which control shifted to the Pungyang Cho
clan.
were often violent, leading to the execution and internal exile
of many members of the losing side. In some cases, even the graves of their ancestors were desecrated. Purges were especially widespread during Sukjong
's reign, when there was change of faction in power four times, each time accompanied by cycle of revenge for earlier wrongs.
in the northern provinces in 1811, the Imo Incident
of 1882, and the Donghak uprising
of 1894-1895.
Occasional rebellions also took place among the country's small ethnic minorities. The Tungusic tribes of the northeast rose in 1583 under Nitanggae and seized a number of towns; they were put down by the general Shin Rip. Thereafter markets were established in the region to help supply the tribesmen with needed goods. In 1510, Japanese merchants and settlers had risen in rebellion against a local commander; this was followed by the expulsion of all Japanese and the closure of the ports for two years. After the Seven Year War, Japanese access to the country was sharply constrained, and such incidents ceased to occur.
and later Manchu Qing dynasty
.
On a lower level, the country maintained ties with various neighboring nations, including the Jurchen tribes of the north and the Japanese and Ryūkyū states across the sea. To this end, interpreting schools were set up in the capital and in border towns such as Jeju
and Busan.
The Joseon Dynasty endured two major invasions prior its progressive loss of sovereignty in the late 19th century. These were the Seven Year War, a two-stage Japanese invasion led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
in the 1590s, and the First and Second Manchu invasions in the early 17th century. Although the Japanese were ultimately repelled, Joseon was compelled to surrender to the Manchus, who later became the Qing Dynasty
.
After the Treaty of Ganghwa
and the opening of the ports in 1876, the diplomatic approach changed, and the government of Joseon began to enter into diplomatic relations with both neighboring and European countries.
* Unequal treaty
Korean Confucianism
Korean Confucianism is the form of Confucianism developed in Korea. One of the most substantial influences in Korean intellectual history was the introduction of Confucian thought as part of the cultural influence from China...
, a form of Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
. Political struggles were common between different factions of the scholar-officials. Purges
Korean Literati Purges
The term "Literati purges" is a translation of Korean term sahwa by Edward W. Wagner, Harvard professor of Korean history. Sahwa literally means "seonbi's calamity" and refers to a series of political purges in late 15th and 16th century, in which Sarim scholars suffered persecution at the hands...
frequently resulted in leading political figures being sent into exile or condemned to death.
The political system of this period was dominated by a Confucianist bureaucracy. The government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from senior first rank (정1품) down to junior ninth rank (종9품) based on seniority and promotion, which was achieved through the royal decree based on examinations and recommendations.
The power of the bureaucrats often eclipsed that of the central authorities, including the monarch. For much of the dynasty, a complex system of checks and balances prevented any one section of the government from gaining overwhelming power until 19th century when political power became concentrated in a certain family or individual.
The king
The king ruled for life, unlike any of his appointees. The kings of Joseon were all of the Jeonju Yi clan and notionally descended from TaejoTaejo of Joseon
Taejo of Joseon , born Yi Seong-gye, whose changed name is Yi Dan, was the founder and the first king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea, and the main figure in overthrowing the Goryeo Dynasty...
, although some were adopted. For a list of Joseon kings, see List of Korean monarchs. Under Confucian philosophy, the king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to try to guide the king to the right path if the latter was mistaken. The natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences.
Civil service
In order to serve in the positions of responsibility outside the military in Joseon DynastyJoseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
, one had to take a series of gwageo
Gwageo
The gwageo were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the Chinese classics, and sometimes also of technical subjects...
literary examinations and pass each of them (usually four to five times). Theoretically, any male other than cheonmin
Cheonmin
Cheonmin, or "vulgar commoners," were the lowest caste of commoners in dynastical Korea. They abounded during the Goryeo and Joseon periods of Korea's agrarian bureaucracy. Like the caste system in India, this social class was largely hereditary and based on certain professions considered...
(lowest class) and children of concubines could take gwageo
Gwageo
The gwageo were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the Chinese classics, and sometimes also of technical subjects...
examinations to enter a civil service and thus become yangban
Yangban
The yangban were part of the traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The yangban were either landed or unlanded aristocracy who comprised the Korean Confucian idea of a "scholarly official." In reality, they were basically administrators and bureaucrats who...
(nobility class). In actuality, only yangban
Yangban
The yangban were part of the traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The yangban were either landed or unlanded aristocracy who comprised the Korean Confucian idea of a "scholarly official." In reality, they were basically administrators and bureaucrats who...
class had the luxury of time and money as well as necessary connections to pass gwageo
Gwageo
The gwageo were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the Chinese classics, and sometimes also of technical subjects...
exams. In addition, people from the troublesome northern provinces of Hamgyeong and Pyeongan were barred from office for much of the dynasty.
Officials served in positions for fixed terms, varying from one year to five years. A successful official might serve in tens of positions in the course of a career.
State council
State CouncilState Council of Joseon
The State Council of Joseon or Uijeongbu was the highest organ of government under the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. It was led by three officials known as the High State Councillors...
(Uijeongbu, 의정부) was the highest deliberative body of the Joseon Dynasty although it faded in importance after first centuries of rule. It was composed of twelve officials. The Chief State Councillor (Yeonguijeong
Yeonguijeong
Yeonguijeong was a title created in 1400, during the Joseon Dynasty of Korea and given to the Chief State Councillor as the highest government position of "Uijeongbu" . Existing for over 500 years, its function can be compared to that of a present day "Prime Minister of South Korea"...
, 영의정), Left State Councillor (Jwauijeong, 좌의정), and Right State Councillor(Uuijeong, 우의정) were the highest ranking officials in the government (senior first rank). They were assisted by Left Minister(Jwachanseong, 좌찬성) and Right Minister(Uichangseong, 우찬성), both of junior first rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. Sometimes it directly controlled Six Ministries
Six Ministries of Joseon
The Six Ministries of Joseon were the major executive bodies of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. They included ministries of Personnel , Taxation , Rites , Military Affairs , Punishments , and Public works .It was established in 1298...
, the chief executive body of Joseon government, but primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions including a tutor to the crown prince.
Six Ministries
The Six MinistriesSix Ministries of Joseon
The Six Ministries of Joseon were the major executive bodies of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. They included ministries of Personnel , Taxation , Rites , Military Affairs , Punishments , and Public works .It was established in 1298...
(Yukjo, 육조) were the chief executive body of Joseon
Joseon
Joseon, Chosŏn, Choseon or Chosun are English spellings of the Korean *word for "Korea". It may refer to:*Korea*Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom, from 2333 BC to 108 BC.*Joseon Dynasty of Korea, from AD 1392 to 1910....
. Each Minister (Panseo, 판서) was of senior second rank (2a, third highest rank) and was assisted by a Deputy-Minister (Champan, 참판) of junior second rank (2b, fourth highest rank) and a Secretary (Chamui, 참의) of rank 3a. Apart from these three Dangsanggwan (당상관, 堂上官) officials, each Ministry was headed by three Jeongrang (정랑, rank 5a) and three Jwarang (좌랑, rank 6a), adding to nine officials ranked 6a or above.
- Ministry of Personnel (Ijo, 이조) - was primarily concerned with appointment of officials
- Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조) - taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land policies
- Ministry of Rites (Yejo, 예조) - rituals, culture, diplomacy, gwageo
- Ministry of Defence (Byeongjo, 병조) - military affairs
- Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조) - administration of law, slavery, punishments
- Ministry of Works (Gongjo, 공조) - industry, public works, manufacturing, mining
Three Offices
Three Offices (Samsa, 삼사) is a collective name for three offices that provided checks and balance on the king and the officials. The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower rank compared to other offices but enjoyed special privileges and prestige. They went through more thorough review of moral character and family background.- Office of Inspector General (Saheonbu, 사헌부, 司憲府) - It monitored government administration and officials in both central and local governments for corruption or incompetence. It was run by 30 officials including Inspector General (Daesaheon, 대사헌), a position of junior second rank.
- Office of Censors (Saganwon, 사간원, 司諫院) - Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king if there was wrong or improper action or policy. It also impeached corrupt officials and spoke opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by Chief Censor (Daesagan, 대사간), of senior third rank. Its function as organ of speech often overlapped with Office of Inspector General, and they sometimes submitted joint petition to the king.
- Office of Special Advisors (Hongmoongwan, 홍문관, 弘文館) - It oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions. It was composed of 21 officials, but its three highest officials were ministers serving in State Council and the actual head of the office was Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak, 부제학), a position of senior third rank. Its officials took part in the daily lessons called kyeongyeon(경연), in which they discussed Confucian philosophy with the king. These discussions often led to comments on current political issues, and these officials had significant influence as advisors. (It was established to replace Hall of WorthiesHall of WorthiesThe Hall of Worthies or Jiphyeonjeon ' was set up by Sejong the Great of the Korean Joseon Dynasty in 1420. It consisted of scholars selected by the king....
(Jiphyeonjeon, 집현전) after the latter was abolished by King SejoSejo of JoseonSejo of Joseon was the seventh king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. He produced a coup d'etat and became king himself in 1455.-Reign:...
in the aftermath of Six martyred ministersSix martyred ministersThe six martyred ministers or Sayuksin were six ministers of the Joseon Dynasty who were executed by King Sejo in 1456 for plotting to assassinate him and restore the former king Danjong to the throne....
.)
The Samsa provided a key check on the powers of the other branches of government. The Inspector-General and Censor-General had the unique power to vet potential appointees for all positions, and examine their family backgrounds. They thus played a role in maintaining the integrity of the yangban aristocracy.
Other Offices
- Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원) - It served as a liaison betrween the king and Six Ministries. There were six royal secretaries, one for each ministry, of senior third rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decree to the ministries and submit petitions to the king, but they also advised the king and served in other key positions close to the king.
- Capital Bureau (Hanseungbu, 한성부) - It was in charge of running the capital, Hanyang or present-day Seoul. It was composed of nine officials, led by Paanyoon(판윤), of senior second rank and equivalent to today's mayor of Seoul.
- Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) - It was an investigative and enforcement office under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that concerned the king and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.
- Office of Records (Chunchugwan, 춘추관) - Its officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the government and historical records.
- SeonggyungwanSeonggyungwanSungkyunkwan, also called Taehak , was the foremost education institution in Korea during the late Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties.- History :...
or Royal Academy (성균관) - Royal university served to prepare the future government officials. Those who passed first two stages of gwageoGwageoThe gwageo were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the Chinese classics, and sometimes also of technical subjects...
examinations were admitted to Seonggyungwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and followed strict routine and school rules. It also served as the state shrine for Chinese and Korean Confucian scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong (대사성), of senior third rank, and 36 other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.
Local government
The ranked officials were sent from the central government. Sometimes a secret royal inspectorSecret royal inspector
Secret royal inspector, or Amhaeng-eosa was a temporary position unique to Joseon Dynasty, in which an undercover official directly appointed by the king was sent to local provinces to monitor government officials and look after the populace while traveling incognito...
(Amhaeng-eosa, 암행어사) was sent to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. Secret inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but invested with royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials.
- Provinces: (Do, 도) - There were eight provinces, each of them governed by a Governor (Gwanchalsa, 관찰사), a position of junior second rank.
- Special cities: Bu(부) - administrative offices in charge of five major cities in provinces. Each Bu was led by a Buyoon (부윤), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.
- Departments: Mok (목) - There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named 'ju'(주). They were governed by Moksa (목사), of senior third rank.
- Counties: (Gun, 군) - There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu (군수), a junior fourth rank.
- Settlements or communities: Hyeon (현) - Large hyeons were governed by Hyeongryeong (현령) of junior fifth rank while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeonggam (현감) of junior sixth rank.
Each county and hyeon
Hyeon
The hyeon were administrative subdivisions of Korea during the Silla, Goryeo, and Joseon periods. They were typically slightly smaller than today's si and gun . They were abolished in the Gabo Reform of 1895.During the Goryeo period, there were about 335 Hyeon; during the Joseon period, 164....
was overseen by a local magistrate appointed by the central government. The yangban of each county (gun) composed a Local Office. This interacted with local officials, typically of a lower class, who were known as hyangni. The hyangni typically served for life in hereditary posts. The hyangni of each county had an ambassador in the capital who was charged with communicating among them and the central government.
Factions
Throughout the dynasty, various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance in the political system. In the earliest years of Joseon, tension between the capital faction and the YeongnamYeongnam
Yeongnam is the name of a region that coincides with the former Gyeongsang Province in what is now South Korea....
-based Sarim
Sarim
The Sarim , or "forest of scholars," was a powerful faction of literati that dominated Middle and Late Joseon politics.-Early beginning:...
faction dominated national politics. The different Seowon
Seowon
Seowon were the most common educational institution of Korea during the mid- to late Joseon Dynasty. They were private institutions, and combined the functions of a Confucian shrine and a preparatory school. In educational terms, the seowon were primarily occupied with preparing students for the...
across the contry, which combined the functions of Confucian shrines with educational institutions, often reflected the factional alignment of the local elite. In the 16th century, a nationwide split occurred between the Eastern faction (Dong-in) and Western faction (Seo-in). Political divisions intensified even further as the Eastern faction in turn split under the reign of Seonjo
Seonjo of Joseon
King Seonjo ruled in Korea between 1567 and 1608. He was the fourteenth king of the Joseon Dynasty. He is known for encouraging Confucianism and renovating state affairs at the beginning of his reign, although political chaos and his incompetent leadership during the Japanese invasions of Korea...
between the hard-line Northern faction (Buk-in) and the moderate Southern faction (Nam-in) and the Western faction split between the Old Learning (Noron) and the Young Learning (Soron).
These factional splits were often driven by questions concerning royal succession or appropriate royal conduct. For example, the split between the Northerners and Southerners was driven by debate over the proper successor to Seonjo, who had no legitimate son. The Northerners came to support the Gwanghaegun
Gwanghaegun of Joseon
Gwanghaegun or Prince Gwanghae was the fifteenth king of the Joseon Dynasty. His personal name was Yi Hon. Since he was deposed in a coup, later official historians did not give him a temple name like Taejo or Sejong...
; accordingly, they flourished under his reign (1608–1623) but were swept from power by the Westerners after the succession of Injo
Injo of Joseon
Injo of Joseon was the sixteenth king of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. He was the grandson of Seonjo, son of Grandprince Jeongwon...
.
Under the reigns of Yeongjo
Yeongjo of Joseon
Yeongjo was the twenty-first king of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. He was the second son of Sukjong by Lady Suk-bin of the Choi clan , succeeded his older brother Gyeongjong.-Reign:...
and Jeongjo
Jeongjo of Joseon
King Jeongjo was the 22nd ruler of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. He made various attempts to reform and improve the nation of Joseon. He was preceded by his grandfather King Yeongjo and succeeded by his son King Sunjo...
in the 18th century, the kings pursued a strict policy of balance, favoring no faction over another. However, in Jeongjo's reign, strife re-emerged between the Byeokpa and Sipa, two groups which cut across the earlier factions and differed in their attitudes concerning Yeongjo's murder of his son, who was also Jeongjo's father. In the 19th century, Joseon politics shifted as in-law families rather than scholarly factions came to dominate the throne. For most of the 19th century, the Jangdong branch of the Andong Kim
Kim (Korean name)
Kim, sometimes spelled Gim, is the most common family name in Korea. The name is common in both modern-day North Korea and South Korea. The hanja used for the name means "gold," and although the character is usually pronounced 금 geum, it is pronounced 김 gim when used for the family name and...
clan was in control of the government; however, there was a brief interlude in which control shifted to the Pungyang Cho
Cho (Korean name)
Cho or Jo is a Korean family name. As of 2000, there were 1,347,730 people by this surname in South Korea of a total population of 45,985,289: more than 2% of the total population...
clan.
Purges
Purges in Joseon DynastyKorean Literati Purges
The term "Literati purges" is a translation of Korean term sahwa by Edward W. Wagner, Harvard professor of Korean history. Sahwa literally means "seonbi's calamity" and refers to a series of political purges in late 15th and 16th century, in which Sarim scholars suffered persecution at the hands...
were often violent, leading to the execution and internal exile
Internal Exile
Internal Exile was Fish's second solo album after leaving Marillion in 1988. The album, released 28 October 1991, was inspired by the singer's past, his own personal problems and his troubled experiences with his previous record label EMI.The album's music reflects Fish's indulgence in the vast...
of many members of the losing side. In some cases, even the graves of their ancestors were desecrated. Purges were especially widespread during Sukjong
Sukjong of Joseon
Sukjong was the 19th king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1674 to 1720.- Biography :King Sukjong was born on 15 August 1661 to King Hyeonjong and Queen Myeongseong at Changdeok Palace. His given name was Yi Sun...
's reign, when there was change of faction in power four times, each time accompanied by cycle of revenge for earlier wrongs.
Rebellions
The most famous rebellions took place in the 19th century, as the social system of Joseon was beginning to collapse: the rebellion of Hong Gyeong-naeHong Gyeong-nae
Hong Gyeong-nae was a rebel leader in Pyeongan Province, Korea, during the early 19th century. He was born in Yonggang, in South Pyeongan province, to a family of the Namyang Hong lineage....
in the northern provinces in 1811, the Imo Incident
Imo Incident
The Imo Incident, also known as Imo mutiny, was a military revolt of some units of the Korean military in Incheon on July 23, 1882.-Background:A variety of causes for this brief disturbance have been put forward...
of 1882, and the Donghak uprising
Donghak Peasant Revolution
The Donghak Peasant Revolution, also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement, was an anti-government, anti-feudal and anti-foreign uprising in 1894 in the southern Korea which was the catalyst for the First Sino-Japanese War....
of 1894-1895.
Occasional rebellions also took place among the country's small ethnic minorities. The Tungusic tribes of the northeast rose in 1583 under Nitanggae and seized a number of towns; they were put down by the general Shin Rip. Thereafter markets were established in the region to help supply the tribesmen with needed goods. In 1510, Japanese merchants and settlers had risen in rebellion against a local commander; this was followed by the expulsion of all Japanese and the closure of the ports for two years. After the Seven Year War, Japanese access to the country was sharply constrained, and such incidents ceased to occur.
Diplomacy
Joseon's international relations implemented Korean Neo-Confucian ideal of "serving the great" (sadae) to Chinese Ming dynastyMing Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
and later Manchu Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
.
On a lower level, the country maintained ties with various neighboring nations, including the Jurchen tribes of the north and the Japanese and Ryūkyū states across the sea. To this end, interpreting schools were set up in the capital and in border towns such as Jeju
Jeju City
Jeju is the capital of Jeju province in South Korea and the largest city on the island of Jeju. Its geographical location is . The city is served by Jeju International Airport ....
and Busan.
The Joseon Dynasty endured two major invasions prior its progressive loss of sovereignty in the late 19th century. These were the Seven Year War, a two-stage Japanese invasion led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
was a daimyo warrior, general and politician of the Sengoku period. He unified the political factions of Japan. He succeeded his former liege lord, Oda Nobunaga, and brought an end to the Sengoku period. The period of his rule is often called the Momoyama period, named after Hideyoshi's castle...
in the 1590s, and the First and Second Manchu invasions in the early 17th century. Although the Japanese were ultimately repelled, Joseon was compelled to surrender to the Manchus, who later became the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
.
After the Treaty of Ganghwa
Treaty of Ganghwa
The Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity, also known as the Treaty of Ganghwa or Treaty of Kanghwa, was made between representatives of the Empire of Japan and the Kingdom of Joseon in 1876...
and the opening of the ports in 1876, the diplomatic approach changed, and the government of Joseon began to enter into diplomatic relations with both neighboring and European countries.
Before 1875
| Treaty | Year | Signatory country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| English name | Korean name | ||
| Treaty of Gyehae Treaty of Gyehae Also called in Japan, the Gyehae Treaty was signed in 1443 between the Joseon dynasty and Sō Sadamori as a means of controlling Japanese piracy and legitimizing trade between Tsushima island and three Korean ports.-Precedents:... |
1443 | Japan | |
| Treaty of Imsin | 1512 | Japan | |
| Treaty of Jeongmi | 1547 | Japan | |
| Treaty of Giyu | 1609 | Japan | |
| Treaty of Jeongmyo | 1627 | Qing China | |
| China-Korea Treaty of 1637* | 1637 | Qing China | |
After 1875
| Treaty | Year | Signatory country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| English name | Korean name | ||
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1876* (Treaty of Ganghwa) |
1876 | Japan | |
| United States-Korea Treaty of 1882 United States-Korea Treaty of 1882 A Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce and Navigation was negotiated between representatives of the United States and Korea in 1882.The final draft was accepted at Chemulpo near the Korean capital of Hanseong in April and May 1884.-Background:... * |
1882 | United States | |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1882* (Treaty of Chemulpo) |
1882 | Japan | |
| China-Korea Treaty of 1882 China-Korea Treaty of 1882 The China–Korea Treaty of 1882 was negotiated between representatives of the Qing Dynasty and the Joseon Dynasty in October 1882. This agreement has been described as the Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules; and it has been called the Sino-Korean Regulations for Maritime and Overland... * (Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules China-Korea Treaty of 1882 The China–Korea Treaty of 1882 was negotiated between representatives of the Qing Dynasty and the Joseon Dynasty in October 1882. This agreement has been described as the Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules; and it has been called the Sino-Korean Regulations for Maritime and Overland... ) |
1882 | Qing China | |
| Germany-Korea Treaty of 1883 Germany-Korea Treaty of 1883 The Germany-Korea Treaty of 1883 was negotiated between representatives of Germany and Korea.-Background:In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city... * |
1883 | Germany | |
| United Kingdom-Korea Treaty of 1883 United Kingdom-Korea Treaty of 1883 The United Kingdom-Korea Treaty of 1883 was negotiated between representatives of the United Kingdom and Korea.-Background:In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city... * |
1883 | United Kingdom | |
| Russia-Korea Treaty of 1884 Russia-Korea Treaty of 1884 -Background:In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city... * |
1884 | Russia | |
| Italy-Korea Treaty of 1884 Italy-Korea Treaty of 1884 -Background:In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city... * |
1884 | Italy | |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1885* (Treaty of Hanseong) |
1885 | Japan | |
| France-Korea Treaty of 1886 France-Korea Treaty of 1886 -Background:In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city... * |
1886 | France | |
| Austria-Korea Treaty of 1892* | 1892 | Austria | |
| China-Korea Treaty of 1899 | 1899 | Qing China | |
| Belgium-Korea Treaty of 1901 Belgium-Korea Treaty of 1901 The Belgium-Korea Treaty of 1901 was negotiated between representatives of Belgium and the Empire of Korea.-Background:In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city... * |
1901 | Belgium | |
| Denmark-Korea Treaty of 1902 Denmark-Korea Treaty of 1902 The Denmark-Korea Treaty of 1902 was negotiated between representatives of Denmark and the Empire of Korea.-Background:In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city... * |
1902 | Denmark | |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1904* | 1904 | Japan | |
| Japan-Korea Protocol of August 1904* | 1904 | Japan | |
| Japan-Korea Protocol of April 1905* | 1905 | Japan | |
| Japan-Korea Protocol of August 1905* | 1905 | Japan | |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905* (Eulsa Treaty Eulsa Treaty The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, also known as the Eulsa Treaty or Japan–Korea Protectorate Treaty, was made between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire in 1905. Negotiations were concluded on November 17, 1905.... ) |
|
1905 | Japan |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907* | 1907 | Japan | |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910* | 1910 | Japan | |
See also
- List of Korea-related topics
- Korean ConfucianismKorean ConfucianismKorean Confucianism is the form of Confucianism developed in Korea. One of the most substantial influences in Korean intellectual history was the introduction of Confucian thought as part of the cultural influence from China...
- History of KoreaHistory of KoreaThe Korean Peninsula was inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic about 400,000-500,000 years ago. Archeological evidence indicates that the presence of modern humans in northeast Asia dates to 39,000 years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began...
- Political factions in Joseon DynastyPolitical factions in Joseon DynastyThe Bungdang refers to political factionalism that was characteristic of Middle and Late Joseon Dynasty. Throughout the dynasty, various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance in the political system...