Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo
Encyclopedia
The Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo was Haiti
's military invasion
and ensuing 22-year occupation
of the newly independent Republic of Spanish Haiti, formerly the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, what is present-day Dominican Republic
, from February 9, 1822 until February 27, 1844.
The occupation is recalled by Dominicans
as a period of brutal military rule, though the reality is more complex. It led to large-scale land expropriations and failed efforts to force production of export crops, impose military services, restrict the use of the Spanish language
, and eliminate traditional customs. It reinforced Dominicans' perceptions of themselves as different from Haitians in "language, race, religion and domestic customs." This period also definitively ended slavery as an institution in what became the Dominican Republic.
was divided into two European colonies: Saint-Domingue
, in the west, governed by France
; and Santo Domingo, governed by Spain
, occupying the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola.
In 1804, following black slave uprisings since 1791, the French colony declared its independence
as Haiti. Independence did not come easily, given that Haiti had been France's most profitable colony, as a result of the sugar plantations worked by slaves; sugar had become an expensive commodity in Europe
.
Meanwhile, on the eastern side, composed mainly of Spanish descendants, mulattoes, freedmen, and some black slaves, the economy was stagnant, the land largely unexploited and used for sustenance farming
, and the population much smaller than in Haiti. Accounts by the essayist and politician José Núñez de Cáceres
cite the Spanish colony's population as around 80,000; Haiti, on the other hand, was nearing a million former slaves. At the time, Spain was more focused
on mining for gold in Mexico
.
.
region were opposed to the union with Gran Colombia and also sided with Haiti. Boyer, on the other hand, had several objectives in the island that he proclaimed to be "one and indivisible": to maintain Haitian independence against potential French or Spanish attack or reconquest; to maintain the freedom of its former slaves; and to liberate the remaining slaves in Haití Español.
Boyer was already in negotiations with France to prevent an attack by fourteen French warships stationed near Port-au-Prince
, the Haitian capital. They soon agreed that France would sell the territory to the Haitian rebels for 150 million Francs (more than twice what France had charged the United States
for the much larger Louisiana territory
in 1803).
After promising his protection to several Dominican frontier governors and securing their allegiance, Boyer invaded with a force of 10,000 soldiers in February, 1822, encountering little opposition. On February 9, 1822, Boyer formally entered the capital city, Santo Domingo
, where he was met with enthusiasm and received from president Núñez de Cáceres the keys to the Palace. The island was thus united from "Cape Tiburon to Cape Samana in possession of one government."
, Puerto Rico
(these two being Spanish possessions
at the time) or Gran Colombia
, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Roman Catholic Church
with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican
. Santo Domingo’s university
, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere
, lacking both students and teachers, closed down.
In order to raise funds for the huge indemnity of 150 million francs that Haiti agreed to pay the former French colonists, and which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the Dominicans. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint. Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (terrenos comuneros), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and newly emancipated slaves resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer's Code Rural. In rural areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws. It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated.
In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte
, Ramón Matías Mella
, and Francisco del Rosario Sanchez
founded a secret society called La Trinitaria
to win independence from Haiti. In 1843 they allied with a Haitian movement that overthrew Boyer. After they revealed themselves as revolutionaries working for Dominican independence, the new Haitian president, Charles Riviere-Hérard
, exiled or imprisoned the leading Trinitarios. At the same time, Buenaventura Báez
, an Azua
mahogany exporter and deputy in the Haitian National Assembly
, was negotiating with the French Consul-General for the establishment of a French protectorate.
In an uprising timed to preempt Báez, on February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios declared independence from Haiti, backed by Pedro Santana
, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo
who commanded a private army of peon
s who worked on his estates. This marked the beginning of the Dominican War of Independence
.
Haiti
Haiti , officially the Republic of Haiti , is a Caribbean country. It occupies the western, smaller portion of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antillean archipelago, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Ayiti was the indigenous Taíno or Amerindian name for the island...
's military invasion
Invasion
An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all, or large parts of the armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory controlled by another such entity, generally with the objective of either conquering, liberating or re-establishing control or authority over a...
and ensuing 22-year occupation
Military occupation
Military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. The territory then becomes occupied territory.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
of the newly independent Republic of Spanish Haiti, formerly the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, what is present-day Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
, from February 9, 1822 until February 27, 1844.
The occupation is recalled by Dominicans
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
as a period of brutal military rule, though the reality is more complex. It led to large-scale land expropriations and failed efforts to force production of export crops, impose military services, restrict the use of the Spanish language
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
, and eliminate traditional customs. It reinforced Dominicans' perceptions of themselves as different from Haitians in "language, race, religion and domestic customs." This period also definitively ended slavery as an institution in what became the Dominican Republic.
European colonization
By the late 18th century, the island of HispaniolaHispaniola
Hispaniola is a major island in the Caribbean, containing the two sovereign states of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The island is located between the islands of Cuba to the west and Puerto Rico to the east, within the hurricane belt...
was divided into two European colonies: Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
The labour for these plantations was provided by an estimated 790,000 African slaves . Between 1764 and 1771, the average annual importation of slaves varied between 10,000-15,000; by 1786 it was about 28,000, and from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 40,000 slaves a year...
, in the west, governed by France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
; and Santo Domingo, governed by Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, occupying the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola.
In 1804, following black slave uprisings since 1791, the French colony declared its independence
Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution was a period of conflict in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and the founding of the Haitian republic...
as Haiti. Independence did not come easily, given that Haiti had been France's most profitable colony, as a result of the sugar plantations worked by slaves; sugar had become an expensive commodity in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
.
Meanwhile, on the eastern side, composed mainly of Spanish descendants, mulattoes, freedmen, and some black slaves, the economy was stagnant, the land largely unexploited and used for sustenance farming
Subsistence agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficiency farming in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed their families. The typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to eat and clothe themselves during the year. Planting decisions are made with an eye...
, and the population much smaller than in Haiti. Accounts by the essayist and politician José Núñez de Cáceres
José Núñez de Cáceres
José Núñez de Cáceres was a Dominican politician and writer. He was the leader of Dominican independence when Spain ruled the country and he was also the first person in the country to use literature as weapon of social protest and politics.- Early years :José Núñez de Cáceres y Albor was born on...
cite the Spanish colony's population as around 80,000; Haiti, on the other hand, was nearing a million former slaves. At the time, Spain was more focused
España Boba
España Boba or "The Era of Foolish Spain" was a period of time, from 1809 to 1821, in which the Spanish imperial government exercised only nominal power over its colony in Santo Domingo...
on mining for gold in Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
.
Independence of Santo Domingo
On November 9, 1821 the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was toppled by a group led by Núñez de Cáceres, the colony's former administrator, and the rebels proclaimed independence from Spain on November 30, 1821. The new nation was known as República del Haití Español (Republic of Spanish Haiti). On December 1, 1821 a constitutive act was ordered to petition the union of Spanish Haiti with Gran ColombiaGran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
.
Justification of the invasion
However, a group of politicians and military officers favored uniting the new nation with Haiti, as various elite families sought for political stability under Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer. A large faction based in the northern CibaoCibao
Cibao, usually referred as "El Cibao", is a region of the Dominican Republic located at the northern part of the country.The Taíno word Cibao, meaning "place where rocks abound", was originally applied to the central mountain range, and used during the Spanish conquest to refer to the rich and...
region were opposed to the union with Gran Colombia and also sided with Haiti. Boyer, on the other hand, had several objectives in the island that he proclaimed to be "one and indivisible": to maintain Haitian independence against potential French or Spanish attack or reconquest; to maintain the freedom of its former slaves; and to liberate the remaining slaves in Haití Español.
Boyer was already in negotiations with France to prevent an attack by fourteen French warships stationed near Port-au-Prince
Port-au-Prince
Port-au-Prince is the capital and largest city of the Caribbean nation of Haiti. The city's population was 704,776 as of the 2003 census, and was officially estimated to have reached 897,859 in 2009....
, the Haitian capital. They soon agreed that France would sell the territory to the Haitian rebels for 150 million Francs (more than twice what France had charged the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
for the much larger Louisiana territory
Louisiana Purchase
The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition by the United States of America of of France's claim to the territory of Louisiana in 1803. The U.S...
in 1803).
Invasion
The Dominicans were at serious disadvantage if they were to prevent the Haitian invasion. Mainly, they had no military forces whatsoever, their population was eight to ten times less than Haiti's, and the economy was stalled. Haiti, on the other hand, had formidable armed forces, both in skill and sheer size, which had been hardened in nearly ten years of repelling French soldiers, local colonialists, and military insurgents. The racial massacres perpetrated in the later days of the French-Haitian conflict only added to the determination of Haitians to never lose a battle.After promising his protection to several Dominican frontier governors and securing their allegiance, Boyer invaded with a force of 10,000 soldiers in February, 1822, encountering little opposition. On February 9, 1822, Boyer formally entered the capital city, Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo, known officially as Santo Domingo de Guzmán, is the capital and largest city in the Dominican Republic. Its metropolitan population was 2,084,852 in 2003, and estimated at 3,294,385 in 2010. The city is located on the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Ozama River...
, where he was met with enthusiasm and received from president Núñez de Cáceres the keys to the Palace. The island was thus united from "Cape Tiburon to Cape Samana in possession of one government."
Occupation
Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to CubaCuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...
(these two being Spanish possessions
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
at the time) or Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
. Santo Domingo’s university
Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo
The Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo is the public university system in the Dominican Republic with its main campus in Santo Domingo and regional centers across the Republic...
, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere
The Western Hemisphere or western hemisphere is mainly used as a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies west of the Prime Meridian and east of the Antimeridian , the other half being called the Eastern Hemisphere.In this sense, the western hemisphere consists of the western portions...
, lacking both students and teachers, closed down.
In order to raise funds for the huge indemnity of 150 million francs that Haiti agreed to pay the former French colonists, and which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the Dominicans. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint. Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (terrenos comuneros), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and newly emancipated slaves resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer's Code Rural. In rural areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws. It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated.
Resistance
Although the invasion effectively eliminated colonial slavery and instated a constitution modeled after the United States constitution throughout the island, several resolutions and written dispositions were expressly aimed at converting Dominicans into second-class citizens: restrictions of movement, prohibition to run for public office, night curfews, inability to travel in groups, banning of civilian organizations, and the indefinite closure of the state university (on the alleged grounds of its being a subversive organization) all led to the creation of movements advocating separation from Haiti.In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte
Juan Pablo Duarte
Juan Pablo Duarte y Díez is one of the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. He was a visionary and liberal thinker who along with Francisco del Rosario Sánchez and Matías Ramón Mella is widely considered the architect of the Dominican Republic and its independence from Haitian rule in 1844...
, Ramón Matías Mella
Ramón Matías Mella
Matías Ramón Mella, born 25 February 1816, is regarded as a national hero in the Dominican Republic. The Order of Merit of Duarte, Sanchez and Mella is partially named in his honor....
, and Francisco del Rosario Sanchez
Francisco del Rosario Sánchez
Francisco Del Rosario Sánchez was a politician and founding father of the Dominican Republic. He is considered by Dominicans as the second leader of the 1844 Dominican War of Independence, after Juan Pablo Duarte and before Ramón Matías Mella. The Order of Merit of Duarte, Sanchez and Mella is...
founded a secret society called La Trinitaria
La Trinitaria
La Trinitaria is a town and one of the 119 Municipalities of Chiapas, in southern Mexico.As of 2005, the municipality had a total population of 59,686. It covers an area of 1840.7 km²....
to win independence from Haiti. In 1843 they allied with a Haitian movement that overthrew Boyer. After they revealed themselves as revolutionaries working for Dominican independence, the new Haitian president, Charles Riviere-Hérard
Charles Riviere-Hérard
Charles Rivière-Hérard also known as Charles Hérard Aîné was an officer in the Haitian Army under Andre Petion during his struggles against Henri Christophe. He was declared President of Haiti on 4 April 1843. He was forced from office by revolutionaries on 3 May 1844.Charles Hérard Aîné was born...
, exiled or imprisoned the leading Trinitarios. At the same time, Buenaventura Báez
Buenaventura Báez
Buenaventura Báez Méndez was the President of the Dominican Republic for five nonconsecutive terms. He is known for attempting to annex the Dominican Republic to other countries on multiple occasions.-Early years:...
, an Azua
Azua Province
Azua is a province of the Dominican Republic.-Municipalities and municipal districts:The province as of June 20 2006 is divided into the following municipalities and municipal districts within them:...
mahogany exporter and deputy in the Haitian National Assembly
National Assembly of Haïti
The Parliament of Haiti is the legislature of the Republic of Haiti. It sits at the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince. The Parliament is bicameral, the upper house being the Senate of Haiti and the lower house being the Chamber of Deputies of Haiti....
, was negotiating with the French Consul-General for the establishment of a French protectorate.
In an uprising timed to preempt Báez, on February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios declared independence from Haiti, backed by Pedro Santana
Pedro Santana
Pedro Santana y Familias was a wealthy cattle rancher, soldier, politician and dictator of the Dominican Republic. He was born in the community of Hinche, which was part of the Colony of Santo Domingo. Currently, Hinche is a border town part of Haiti...
, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo
El Seibo
El Seibo , alternatively spelt El Seybo, is a province of the Dominican Republic. Before 1992 it included what is now Hato Mayor province.-Municipalities and municipal districts:...
who commanded a private army of peon
Peon
The words peon and peonage are derived from the Spanish peón . It has a range of meanings but its primary usage is to describe laborers with little control over their employment conditions.-English usage:...
s who worked on his estates. This marked the beginning of the Dominican War of Independence
Dominican War of Independence
The Dominican Independence War gave the Dominican Republic independence from Haiti in 1844. Before the war, the whole island of Hispaniola had been under Haitian rule for 22 years when Haiti occupied the newly independent state of Haití Español in 1822....
.