Hallstein Commission
Encyclopedia
The Hallstein Commission is the European Commission
that held office from 7 January 1958 to 30 June 1967. Its President was Walter Hallstein
and held two separate mandates.
and held its first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Castle of the Valley of the Duchess
. It was succeeded by the Rey Commission
. It served two terms and had 9 members (two each from France, Italy and Germany, one each from Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands). It began work on the European single market and the Common Agricultural Policy
. The Commission enjoyed a number of successes, such as the cereal prices accord which it managed to achieve in the wake of de Gaulle's veto of Britain's membership. De Gaulle was a major opponent to the Commission, and proposals such as the cereal prices accord were designed to bind France closer to the EEC to make it harder to break it up. Its work gained it esteem and prestige not only from the member states, but from outside the Community when the Commission made its debut at a Kennedy Round
.
(CAP). The proposals would have allowed the Community to develop its own financial resources, independently of the states, and given more budgetary powers to Parliament
. Furthermore though, it applied the majority voting into the Council
, which the French government
stated it could not agree to. Hallstein knew of the risky nature of the proposals and was unusually active in drafting them (they would normally have been drafted by the Agriculture Commissioner). The tone of internal deliberations at the time also show the institution was aware of what they would cause and some Commissioners (notably both the French Commissioners) were opposing the plans. However they were also seen as vital for the Commission's long term goals.
The legislation would increase not only the Commission's powers, but also the Parliament's in an attempt to build a supranational structure and be rid of the power of veto. Because of this President Hallstein won support from the Parliament who had long been campaigning for more powers. Indeed Hallstein played to the Parliament by presenting his policy to the Parliament on 24 March, a week before he presented them to the Council. By this he associated himself with the Parliament's cause and demonstrated how he thought the Community ought to be run, in the hopes of generating a wave of pro-Europeanism big enough to get past the objections of member states. However in this it proved that, despite its past successes, Hallstein was overconfident in his risky proposals. When Hallstein put forward his proposals, the Council was already troubled. Then-French President, Charles de Gaulle
, was sceptical of the rising supranational power of the Commission and accused Hallstein of acting as if he were a head of state
. France was particularly concerned about protecting the CAP as it was only accepted by the other states after difficult negotiations and under a majority system it may be challenged by the other members.
This, and similar differences between France and the Commission, were exacerbated when France took on the Presidency
, thereby losing the normal system of mediation. Furthermore the Commission became marginalised as the debate became one between France and the other members, making the Council the centre of debate. Thus any chance of using the expertise of the Commission to come up with proposals was lost. Finally on the 30th of June, 1965 Paris recalled its representative in Brussels stating it would not take its seat in the Council until it had its way. This "empty chair crisis" was the first time that the operation of the EEC had failed because of a member state and it exposed failures in the Council's workings.
Paris continued its policy for six months until the impact upon its economy forced it back into negotiations. Meetings were held in Luxembourg during January 1966 where an agreement was reached. Under the "Luxembourg compromise
" a member could veto a decision that it believed would affect its national interests - but it did not detail what kind of national interests or how to resolve a dispute. However since then it had been used so often it became a veto making unanimity in the Council the norm and was removed under the Single European Act
. After the crisis, the commission became a scapegoat for the Council, with Hallstein being the only person to lose his job over what happened when the Council refused to renew his term, despite being the most 'dynamic' leader until Jacques Delors
.
Political leanings: [ 4 ] left leading - [ 1 ] centrist - [ 7 ] right leaning - [ 0 ] unknown
Political leanings: [ 3 ] left leading - [ 1 ] centrist - [ 4/3 ] right leaning - [ 1/2 ] unknown
European Commission
The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....
that held office from 7 January 1958 to 30 June 1967. Its President was Walter Hallstein
Walter Hallstein
Walter Hallstein was a German politician and professor.He was one of the key figures of European integration after World War II, becoming the first President of the Commission of the European Economic Community, serving from 1958 to 1967. He famously defined his position as "a kind of Prime...
and held two separate mandates.
Work
It was the first Commission on the European Economic CommunityEuropean Economic Community
The European Economic Community The European Economic Community (EEC) The European Economic Community (EEC) (also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking world, renamed the European Community (EC) in 1993The information in this article primarily covers the EEC's time as an independent...
and held its first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Castle of the Valley of the Duchess
Castle of the Valley of the Duchess
The Castle of Val-Duchesse is a former priory situated in the municipality of Auderghem in the Brussels Capital Region of Belgium. The castle is owned by the Belgian Royal Trust....
. It was succeeded by the Rey Commission
Rey Commission
The Rey Commission is the European Commission that held office from 2 July 1967 to 30 June 1970. Its President was Jean Rey.-Work:It was the first Commission of the merged European Communities. It was the successor to the Hallstein Commission and was succeeded by the Malfatti Commission...
. It served two terms and had 9 members (two each from France, Italy and Germany, one each from Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands). It began work on the European single market and the Common Agricultural Policy
Common Agricultural Policy
The Common Agricultural Policy is a system of European Union agricultural subsidies and programmes. It represents 48% of the EU's budget, €49.8 billion in 2006 ....
. The Commission enjoyed a number of successes, such as the cereal prices accord which it managed to achieve in the wake of de Gaulle's veto of Britain's membership. De Gaulle was a major opponent to the Commission, and proposals such as the cereal prices accord were designed to bind France closer to the EEC to make it harder to break it up. Its work gained it esteem and prestige not only from the member states, but from outside the Community when the Commission made its debut at a Kennedy Round
Kennedy Round
The Kennedy round was the sixth session of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade trade negotiations held in 1964-1967 in Geneva, Switzerland. Congressional passage of the US Trade Expansion Act in 1962 authorized the White House to conduct mutual tariff negotiations ultimately leading to the...
.
Agricultural proposals
In 1965 President Hallstein put forward the Commissions proposals for financing the Common Agricultural PolicyCommon Agricultural Policy
The Common Agricultural Policy is a system of European Union agricultural subsidies and programmes. It represents 48% of the EU's budget, €49.8 billion in 2006 ....
(CAP). The proposals would have allowed the Community to develop its own financial resources, independently of the states, and given more budgetary powers to Parliament
European Parliament
The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union . Together with the Council of the European Union and the Commission, it exercises the legislative function of the EU and it has been described as one of the most powerful legislatures in the world...
. Furthermore though, it applied the majority voting into the Council
Council of the European Union
The Council of the European Union is the institution in the legislature of the European Union representing the executives of member states, the other legislative body being the European Parliament. The Council is composed of twenty-seven national ministers...
, which the French government
Government of France
The government of the French Republic is a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the fifth Republic. The nation declares itself to be an "indivisible, secular, democratic, and social Republic"...
stated it could not agree to. Hallstein knew of the risky nature of the proposals and was unusually active in drafting them (they would normally have been drafted by the Agriculture Commissioner). The tone of internal deliberations at the time also show the institution was aware of what they would cause and some Commissioners (notably both the French Commissioners) were opposing the plans. However they were also seen as vital for the Commission's long term goals.
The legislation would increase not only the Commission's powers, but also the Parliament's in an attempt to build a supranational structure and be rid of the power of veto. Because of this President Hallstein won support from the Parliament who had long been campaigning for more powers. Indeed Hallstein played to the Parliament by presenting his policy to the Parliament on 24 March, a week before he presented them to the Council. By this he associated himself with the Parliament's cause and demonstrated how he thought the Community ought to be run, in the hopes of generating a wave of pro-Europeanism big enough to get past the objections of member states. However in this it proved that, despite its past successes, Hallstein was overconfident in his risky proposals. When Hallstein put forward his proposals, the Council was already troubled. Then-French President, Charles de Gaulle
Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969....
, was sceptical of the rising supranational power of the Commission and accused Hallstein of acting as if he were a head of state
Head of State
A head of state is the individual that serves as the chief public representative of a monarchy, republic, federation, commonwealth or other kind of state. His or her role generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the political powers, functions, and duties granted to the head of...
. France was particularly concerned about protecting the CAP as it was only accepted by the other states after difficult negotiations and under a majority system it may be challenged by the other members.
Empty chair crisis
Presidency of the Council of the European Union
The Presidency of the Council of the European Union is the responsibility for the functioning of the Council of the European Union that rotates between the member states of the European Union every six months. The presidency is not a single president but rather the task is undertaken by a national...
, thereby losing the normal system of mediation. Furthermore the Commission became marginalised as the debate became one between France and the other members, making the Council the centre of debate. Thus any chance of using the expertise of the Commission to come up with proposals was lost. Finally on the 30th of June, 1965 Paris recalled its representative in Brussels stating it would not take its seat in the Council until it had its way. This "empty chair crisis" was the first time that the operation of the EEC had failed because of a member state and it exposed failures in the Council's workings.
Paris continued its policy for six months until the impact upon its economy forced it back into negotiations. Meetings were held in Luxembourg during January 1966 where an agreement was reached. Under the "Luxembourg compromise
Luxembourg compromise
The Luxembourg compromise or Luxembourg Accords was an agreement reached in January 1966 which resolved differences within the European Economic Community....
" a member could veto a decision that it believed would affect its national interests - but it did not detail what kind of national interests or how to resolve a dispute. However since then it had been used so often it became a veto making unanimity in the Council the norm and was removed under the Single European Act
Single European Act
The Single European Act was the first major revision of the 1957 Treaty of Rome. The Act set the European Community an objective of establishing a Single Market by 31 December 1992, and codified European Political Cooperation, the forerunner of the European Union's Common Foreign and Security Policy...
. After the crisis, the commission became a scapegoat for the Council, with Hallstein being the only person to lose his job over what happened when the Council refused to renew his term, despite being the most 'dynamic' leader until Jacques Delors
Jacques Delors
Jacques Lucien Jean Delors is a French economist and politician, the eighth President of the European Commission and the first person to serve three terms in that office .-French Politics:...
.
First college
The first college served from 1 January 1958 to 9 January 1962.Political leanings: [ 4 ] left leading - [ 1 ] centrist - [ 7 ] right leaning - [ 0 ] unknown
| Portfolio(s) | Commissioner | State | Party |
|---|---|---|---|
| President President of the European Commission The President of the European Commission is the head of the European Commission ― the executive branch of the :European Union ― the most powerful officeholder in the EU. The President is responsible for allocating portfolios to members of the Commission and can reshuffle or dismiss them if needed... |
Walter Hallstein Walter Hallstein Walter Hallstein was a German politician and professor.He was one of the key figures of European integration after World War II, becoming the first President of the Commission of the European Economic Community, serving from 1958 to 1967. He famously defined his position as "a kind of Prime... |
 West Germany |
CDU Christian Democratic Union (Germany) The Christian Democratic Union of Germany is a Christian democratic and conservative political party in Germany. It is regarded as on the centre-right of the German political spectrum... |
| Vice-President Vice-President of the European Commission A Vice President of the European Commission is a post in the European Commission usually occupied by more than one member of the Commission. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty entered into force, one of these is ex-officio the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy,... ; Agriculture European Commissioner for Agriculture & Rural Development The Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural Development is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Commissioner Dacian Cioloş... |
Sicco Mansholt Sicco Mansholt Sicco Leendert Mansholt was the fourth President of the European Commission in 1972–1973. He was the European Commissioner for Agriculture from 1958 until 1972.... |
 Netherlands |
PvdA PVDA PVDA can stand for*Labour Party , a Dutch political party: Partij van de Arbeid, normally written PvdA.*Workers' Party of Belgium, a Belgian political party: Partij van de Arbeid van België... |
| Vice-President Vice-President of the European Commission A Vice President of the European Commission is a post in the European Commission usually occupied by more than one member of the Commission. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty entered into force, one of these is ex-officio the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy,... ; Economics and Finance European Commissioner for Economic & Financial Affairs The Commissioner for Economic and Monetary Affairs and the Euro is the member of the European Commission responsible for economic and financial affairs. The current Commissioner is Olli Rehn .-Responsibilities:... |
Robert Marjolin Robert Marjolin Robert Marjolin was a French economist and politician involved in the formation of the European Economic Community.-Early life and education:... |
 France |
independent later: SFIO |
| Vice-President Vice-President of the European Commission A Vice President of the European Commission is a post in the European Commission usually occupied by more than one member of the Commission. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty entered into force, one of these is ex-officio the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy,... ; Internal Market European Commissioner for Internal Market & Services The Commissioner for Internal Market and Services is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Commissioner Michel Barnier .-Responsibilities:... |
Piero Malvestiti Piero Malvestiti Piero Malvestiti was an Italian politician who was a minister in successive governments in the 1940s and 1950s, a European Commissioner and President of the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community.... Served until 1959-09-15 |
 Italy |
DC Christian Democracy (Italy) Christian Democracy was a Christian democratic party in Italy. It was founded in 1943 as the ideological successor of the historical Italian People's Party, which had the same symbol, a crossed shield .... |
| Internal Market European Commissioner for Internal Market & Services The Commissioner for Internal Market and Services is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Commissioner Michel Barnier .-Responsibilities:... |
Giuseppe Caron Giuseppe Caron Giuseppe Caron was an Italian Christian Democratic Party politician who was a Minister in successive governments in the 1950s to the 1970s, and a European Commissioner. He was born in Treviso.... Served from 1959-11-24 |
Italy |
DC Christian Democracy (Italy) Christian Democracy was a Christian democratic party in Italy. It was founded in 1943 as the ideological successor of the historical Italian People's Party, which had the same symbol, a crossed shield .... |
| Overseas Development European Commissioner for Development & Humanitarian Aid The Commissioner for International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Kristalina Georgieva.... |
Robert Marjolin Robert Marjolin Robert Marjolin was a French economist and politician involved in the formation of the European Economic Community.-Early life and education:... |
France |
independent |
| External Relations | Jean Rey Jean Rey (politician) Jean Rey was a Belgian lawyer and Liberal politician who became the second President of the European Commission.-Early life:... |
 Belgium |
PRL Liberal Reformist Party The Parti Réformateur Libéral was a Belgian liberal party active in Wallonia and Brussels. It grew out of the unitiarian PVV-PLP and has since become part of the Mouvement Réformateur.-PVV-PLP:* Omer Vanaudenhove 1961 - 1968... |
| Competition | Hans von der Groeben Hans von der Groeben Hans von der Groeben was a German diplomat, scientist and journalist and member of the European Commission.Von der Groeben was born in Langheim near Rastenburg, East Prussia.... |
West Germany |
independent |
| Social Affairs European Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs & Equal Opportunities The Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion is the member of the European Commission. The current commissioner is László Andor.... |
Giuseppe Petrilli Giuseppe Petrilli Giuseppe Petrilli was an Italian professor and European Commissioner.He was a non-politician appointed as the first Italian European Commissioner on the Hallstein Commission from January 1958 with responsibility for the Social Affairs portfolio... Served until 1961-02-08 |
Italy |
independent |
| Social Affairs European Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs & Equal Opportunities The Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion is the member of the European Commission. The current commissioner is László Andor.... |
Lionello Levi Sandri Lionello Levi Sandri Lionello Levi Sandri was an Italian politician and European Commissioner.Upon completing his education in 1932, Levi Sandri entered a career as a civil servant in the Italian employment administration and was promoted to high-ranking posts at a young age. In 1940 he became a lecturer in industrial... Served from 1961-02-08 |
Italy |
PSI Italian Socialist Party The Italian Socialist Party was a socialist and later social-democratic political party in Italy founded in Genoa in 1892.Once the dominant leftist party in Italy, it was eclipsed in status by the Italian Communist Party following World War II... |
| Transport European Commissioner for Transport The Commissioner for Transport is the member of the European Commission. The current commissioner is Siim Kallas.The portfolio is responsible for the development of transport infastructure in the European Union such as road and rail networks but also navigation systems such as the Galileo... |
Michel Rasquin Michel Rasquin Michel Rasquin was a Luxembourgian journalist and socialist politician, and European Commissioner.Rasquin was born in Pétange, Luxembourg in 1899. After the Second World War he was the president of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party from 1945 to 1951.He was a member of the Council of State,... Served until 1958-04-27 |
 Luxembourg |
LSAP Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party The Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party , abbreviated to LSAP or POSL, is a social democratic political party in Luxembourg.The LSAP is the second-largest party in the Chamber of Deputies, having won 13 of 60 seats at the 2009 election, and has one seat in the European Parliament... |
| Transport European Commissioner for Transport The Commissioner for Transport is the member of the European Commission. The current commissioner is Siim Kallas.The portfolio is responsible for the development of transport infastructure in the European Union such as road and rail networks but also navigation systems such as the Galileo... |
Lambert Schaus Lambert Schaus Lambert Schaus was a Luxembourg politician, jurist, and diplomat. He held office as a government minister and European Commissioner.... Served from 1958-06-18 |
Luxembourg |
CSV Christian Social People's Party The Christian Social People's Party , abbreviated to CSV or PCS, is the largest political party in Luxembourg. The party follows a Christian Democratic and conservative ideology and, like most parties in Luxembourg, it is strongly pro-European... |
Second college
The second college served from 9 January 1962 to 30 June 1967.Political leanings: [ 3 ] left leading - [ 1 ] centrist - [ 4/3 ] right leaning - [ 1/2 ] unknown
| Portfolio(s) | Commissioner | State | Party |
|---|---|---|---|
| President President of the European Commission The President of the European Commission is the head of the European Commission ― the executive branch of the :European Union ― the most powerful officeholder in the EU. The President is responsible for allocating portfolios to members of the Commission and can reshuffle or dismiss them if needed... |
Walter Hallstein Walter Hallstein Walter Hallstein was a German politician and professor.He was one of the key figures of European integration after World War II, becoming the first President of the Commission of the European Economic Community, serving from 1958 to 1967. He famously defined his position as "a kind of Prime... |
West Germany |
CDU Christian Democratic Union (Germany) The Christian Democratic Union of Germany is a Christian democratic and conservative political party in Germany. It is regarded as on the centre-right of the German political spectrum... |
| Vice-President Vice-President of the European Commission A Vice President of the European Commission is a post in the European Commission usually occupied by more than one member of the Commission. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty entered into force, one of these is ex-officio the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy,... ; Agriculture European Commissioner for Agriculture & Rural Development The Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural Development is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Commissioner Dacian Cioloş... |
Sicco Mansholt Sicco Mansholt Sicco Leendert Mansholt was the fourth President of the European Commission in 1972–1973. He was the European Commissioner for Agriculture from 1958 until 1972.... |
Netherlands |
PvdA |
| Vice-President Vice-President of the European Commission A Vice President of the European Commission is a post in the European Commission usually occupied by more than one member of the Commission. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty entered into force, one of these is ex-officio the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy,... ; Economics and Finance European Commissioner for Economic & Financial Affairs The Commissioner for Economic and Monetary Affairs and the Euro is the member of the European Commission responsible for economic and financial affairs. The current Commissioner is Olli Rehn .-Responsibilities:... |
Robert Marjolin Robert Marjolin Robert Marjolin was a French economist and politician involved in the formation of the European Economic Community.-Early life and education:... |
France |
independent later: SFIO |
| Vice-President Vice-President of the European Commission A Vice President of the European Commission is a post in the European Commission usually occupied by more than one member of the Commission. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty entered into force, one of these is ex-officio the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy,... ; Internal Market European Commissioner for Internal Market & Services The Commissioner for Internal Market and Services is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Commissioner Michel Barnier .-Responsibilities:... |
Giuseppe Caron Giuseppe Caron Giuseppe Caron was an Italian Christian Democratic Party politician who was a Minister in successive governments in the 1950s to the 1970s, and a European Commissioner. He was born in Treviso.... Served until 1963-05-15 |
Italy |
DC Christian Democracy (Italy) Christian Democracy was a Christian democratic party in Italy. It was founded in 1943 as the ideological successor of the historical Italian People's Party, which had the same symbol, a crossed shield .... |
| Internal Market European Commissioner for Internal Market & Services The Commissioner for Internal Market and Services is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Commissioner Michel Barnier .-Responsibilities:... |
Guido Colonna di Paliano Guido Colonna di Paliano Guido Colonna di Paliano was an Italian diplomat and European Commissioner.-Biography:Born in Naples, Colonna di Paliano graduated in law in 1930 from the University of Naples.... Served from 1964-07-30 |
Italy |
unknown |
| Overseas Development European Commissioner for Development & Humanitarian Aid The Commissioner for International Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid and Crisis Response is a member of the European Commission. The post is currently held by Kristalina Georgieva.... |
Henri Rochereau Henri Rochereau Henri Rochereau was a French politician and European Commissioner.Henri was the son of Victor Rochereau, a National Assembly of France député for the Vendée department... |
France |
unknown |
| External Relations | Jean Rey Jean Rey (politician) Jean Rey was a Belgian lawyer and Liberal politician who became the second President of the European Commission.-Early life:... |
Belgium |
PRL Liberal Reformist Party The Parti Réformateur Libéral was a Belgian liberal party active in Wallonia and Brussels. It grew out of the unitiarian PVV-PLP and has since become part of the Mouvement Réformateur.-PVV-PLP:* Omer Vanaudenhove 1961 - 1968... |
| Competition | Hans von der Groeben Hans von der Groeben Hans von der Groeben was a German diplomat, scientist and journalist and member of the European Commission.Von der Groeben was born in Langheim near Rastenburg, East Prussia.... |
West Germany |
independent |
| Social Affairs European Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs & Equal Opportunities The Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion is the member of the European Commission. The current commissioner is László Andor.... Vice-President Vice-President of the European Commission A Vice President of the European Commission is a post in the European Commission usually occupied by more than one member of the Commission. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty entered into force, one of these is ex-officio the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy,... from 1965-07-30 |
Lionello Levi Sandri Lionello Levi Sandri Lionello Levi Sandri was an Italian politician and European Commissioner.Upon completing his education in 1932, Levi Sandri entered a career as a civil servant in the Italian employment administration and was promoted to high-ranking posts at a young age. In 1940 he became a lecturer in industrial... |
Italy |
PSI Italian Socialist Party The Italian Socialist Party was a socialist and later social-democratic political party in Italy founded in Genoa in 1892.Once the dominant leftist party in Italy, it was eclipsed in status by the Italian Communist Party following World War II... |
| Transport European Commissioner for Transport The Commissioner for Transport is the member of the European Commission. The current commissioner is Siim Kallas.The portfolio is responsible for the development of transport infastructure in the European Union such as road and rail networks but also navigation systems such as the Galileo... |
Lambert Schaus Lambert Schaus Lambert Schaus was a Luxembourg politician, jurist, and diplomat. He held office as a government minister and European Commissioner.... |
Luxembourg |
CSV Christian Social People's Party The Christian Social People's Party , abbreviated to CSV or PCS, is the largest political party in Luxembourg. The party follows a Christian Democratic and conservative ideology and, like most parties in Luxembourg, it is strongly pro-European... |
External links
- Discover the former Presidents: The Hallstein Commission, Europa (web portal)Europa (web portal)Europa is the official web portal of the European Union . It is intended to improve the public’s interaction with EU institutions by quickly directing website visitors to the services or information they are seeking. Europa links to all EU agencies and institutions in addition to press releases...
- European Commission Website
- PDF Archive of Commission Membership (both Hallstein commissions combined into one term)
- PDF Analysis of Political Experience of Commission Membership by UKUnited KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
politician Tom KingTom King, Baron King of BridgwaterThomas Jeremy King, Baron King of Bridgwater, CH, PC , is a British politician. A member of the Conservative Party, he served in the Cabinet from 1983–92, and was the Member of Parliament for the constituency of Bridgwater in Somerset from 1970-2001...
and the Centre for Policy StudiesCentre for Policy StudiesThe Centre for Policy Studies is a British right wing policy think tank whose goal is to promote coherent and practical public policy, to roll back the state, reform public services, support communities, and challenge threats to Britain’s independence... - NATIONAL BANK OF BELGIUM, August 2004 Working Paper on Macroeconomic and Monetary policy-making at the European Commission 1957 to 1969