Haywood S. Hansell
Encyclopedia
Haywood Shepherd Hansell Jr., (28 September 1903 – 14 November 1988) was a general officer in the United States Army Air Forces
(USAAF) during World War II
, and later the United States Air Force
. He became an advocate of the doctrine of strategic bombardment
, and was one of the chief architects of the concept of daylight precision bombing that governed the use of airpower by the USAAF in the war.
Hansell played a key and largely unsung role in the strategic planning of air operations by the United States. This included drafting both the strategic air war plans (AWPD-1 and AWPD-42) and the plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive
in Europe
; obtaining a base of operations for the B-29 Superfortress
in the Mariana Islands
; and devising the command structure of the Twentieth Air Force
, the first global strategic air force and forerunner of the Strategic Air Command
. He made precision air attack, as both the most humane and effective means of achieving military success, a lifelong personal crusade that eventually became the key tenet of American airpower employment.
Hansell also held combat commands during the war, carrying out the very plans and doctrines he helped draft. He pioneered strategic bombardment of both Germany and Japan, as commander of the first B-17 Flying Fortress combat wing
in Europe, and as the first commander of the B-29 force in the Marianas.
(later Colonel) Haywood S. Hansell, an Army surgeon
, and Susan Watts Hansell, both considered members of the "southern aristocracy" from Georgia
. His great-great-great-grandfather John W. Hansell served in the American Revolution
, his great-great-grandfather William Young Hansell was an officer in the War of 1812
, and his great-grandfather Andrew Jackson Hansell was a general in the Confederate States Army
and Georgia's adjutant general
. His grandfather, William Andrew Hansell, graduated from Georgia Military Institute
and also served as an officer in the Confederate Army, first in the 35th Alabama
, then as a topographical engineer
.According to Banning, p. 98, William Andrew Hansell was enrolled at LaGrange Military Academy
when the 35th Alabama was formed from its faculty and cadets, and served as its adjutant and a lieutenant in Company B. He resigned in 1862 to become a captain of CSA Engineers.
Shortly after his birth, the family was stationed in Beijing
, China
, then in the Philippines
, and Hansell learned both Chinese
and Spanish
at an early age. Captain Hansell was next stationed at Fort McPherson
, Georgia, in 1913, and then at Fort Benning
. His father, a firm disciplinarian, sent Hansell to live on a small, family-owned ranch in New Mexico
because of a perceived lack of discipline in his schooling. There he learned horsemanship, shooting
, and studied with a tutor.
Hansell entered Sewanee Military Academy
, near Chattanooga, Tennessee
, in 1916, where he acquired the lifelong nickname "Possum
." Although his biographers offer a number of explanations behind the nickname, the most likely is that his facial features gave him the appearance of a possum. At Sewanee he developed a fondness for English literature
. As a senior Hansell rose to cadet captain and developed a reputation as a martinet
. His harshness with the Corps of Cadets, combined with an excessive number of demerits acquired while the school was temporarily quartered in Jacksonville, Florida
, following a fire, led to his reduction to cadet private.
Partly as a result of this humiliation, Hansell declined an appointment to the United States Military Academy
to attend the Georgia School of Technology
, where he was a member of Sigma Nu
. Despite problems understanding differential equation
s, and twice attempting to transfer to another school (which his father would not permit), he overcame his difficulties with complex mathematics and graduated in 1924 with a Bachelor of Science
degree in mechanical engineering
. While at Georgia Tech he participated in varsity football
as a walk-on substitute, and boxing
. Hansell was awarded Georgia Tech's highest individual recognition, membership in the ANAK Society
.
From 1924 to 1928 he attempted without success to find employment as a civil engineer
in California
, where his father was now stationed. Instead he worked as an apprentice and journeyman
boilermaker
with the Steel Tank and Pipe Company in Berkeley, California
. Advances in aviation
in the 1920s led Hansell to undertake a career in aeronautical engineering, and to gain flying experience, he decided to join the United States Army Air Corps
.
, polo
, and squash
. Socially, he was a noted dancer, and acquired a reputation as "the unofficial poet laureate
of the Air Corps." He was fond of Gilbert and Sullivan
, Shakespeare, and Miguel Cervantes’ Don Quixote. General Ira C. Eaker described him as "nervous and high strung," and one biographer noted several incidents of imperious temper in social situations. However his correspondence secretary during World War II, T/Sgt. James Cooper, described him as "pleasant and diplomatic," and an aviation historian described him as "a forward-looking optimist with a sense of humor."
While stationed at Langley Field, Virginia
, Hansell met his wife, Dorothy "Dotta" Rogers, a teacher
from Waco, Texas
, where they were married in 1932. He fathered three children, son "Tony" (Haywood S. Hansell III, born in 1933), daughter Lucia (1940), and son Dennett (1941). While frequent absences, long working hours, and Hansell’s autocratic nature severely stressed their marriage during World War II, they remained married for 56 years until his death in 1988. Hansell's eldest son continued the family military tradition, graduating from the United States Military Academy
in 1955, becoming a colonel in the United States Air Force,Col. Tony Hansell was a KC-97 and KC-135 pilot, a Forward Air Controller in Vietnam
, and F-4 Phantom pilot with the 80th TFS
in Japan. He followed in his father's footsteps by instructing at the Air Command and Staff College
, and then holding staff positions in Strategy and Doctrine, with a tour as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff-Plans, Headquarters USAF. Col. Hansell retired in 1985 and died in 2004. General Hansell's granddaughter, Lt.Col. Jennifer Hansell Perry, USAF, is the seventh generation to serve in the military, fourth generation career officer, and third generation Air Force. Per West-Point.org and obituary, San Antonio Express-News, December 6, 2004. and marrying Olivia Twining, the daughter of General Nathan F. Twining.
On 23 February 1928, Hansell was appointed a flying cadet. He completed primary and basic flying schools at March Field, California, then advanced flight training in pursuit flying
at Kelly Field
, Texas
. He graduated from pilot training on 28 February 1929, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Army Reserve
. He received a regular commission as a second lieutenant, Air Corps, on 2 May 1929.
Hansell's first duty assignment was with the 2nd Bombardment Group
at Langley Field, testing repaired aircraft. In June 1930, he spent three months temporary duty with the 6th Field Artillery at Fort Hoyle
, Maryland
. In September 1930, he returned to Langley Field and was detached to the Air Corps Tactical School
as armament officer. While stationed at Langley, Hansell was involved in two minor accidents in aircraft he was piloting, and in early 1931 was forced to parachute to safety when his Boeing P-12
stalled during a test flight, going into an unrecoverable spin. He was found at fault for the accident and initially charged $10,000 by the Air Corps for the expense of the aircraft, but the cost was eventually written off.
In August 1931, Hansell was transferred to Maxwell Field
, Alabama
, as assistant operations officer, with flying duties in the 54th School Squadron, to support the ACTS, which had located to Maxwell from Langley in July. During that tour of duty he met Captain Claire L. Chennault, an instructor at the Tactical School, and joined "The Men on the Flying Trapeze,"Sometimes incorrectly seen as "Three Men on a Flying Trapeze". an Air Corps aerobatic and demonstration team.The team in 1932 consisted of Chennault, Hansell, Sgt. William C. "Billy" McDonald, and Sgt. John H. "Luke" Williamson. The two sergeants were reserve officers and later became Flying Tigers
. The team performed at the National Air Races
at Cleveland, Ohio
, in September 1934. Hansell also worked with Captain Harold L. George
, chief of the Tactical School’s bombardment section, where his military interest shifted from pursuits to bomber
s. The friendship that developed from the working relationship led to George becoming both Hansell’s mentor and patron.
on 1 October 1934 and entered the Air Corps Tactical School
at Maxwell Field as a student in the comprehensive 845-hour, 36-week course, studying not only air tactics
and airpower theory, which comprised more than half of the curriculum
, but also tactics of other services, combined (joint) warfare, armament and gunnery, logistics
, navigation
and meteorology
, staff duties, photography
, combat orders, and antiaircraft defenses. Among his instructors was Captain George, now director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy. George's classes were half lecture, half free discussion and conceptualizing, with George or his assistant Capt. Odas Moon expounding theories and having the students critically examine them for flaws and alternative ideas, debates that continued beyond the classroom as well.
Making up the 59 members of his class were five majors, 40 captains, 13 first lieutenants including himself, and one second lieutenant. In addition to 49 Air Corps officers were four Army officers, one from each of that service's combat arms, two Turkish Army
aviators, one Mexican
captain, and three Marine Corps
aviators, including two future major generals.The future USMC generals were Lawson Sanderson, who commanded Pappy Boyington
's air group in World War II, and future Director of Marine Aviation William J. Wallace. Among Hansell's Air Corps peers were future generals Muir S. Fairchild
, Barney Giles, Laurence S. Kuter
, and Hoyt S. Vandenberg; test pilot Lester J. Maitland
; and aviation pioneer Major Vernon Burge
, who as a corporal in June 1912 had been the first certified enlisted military pilot. Hansell graduated in June 1935 and was invited to become an instructor at ACTS, one of nine in his class to become ACTS instructors, and the youngest in its history. He served on the faculty from 1935-1938 in the Department of Air Tactic's all-important Air Force Section, first under George, then Major Donald Wilson
(another strategic bombing advocate), and lastly Fairchild.
Hansell became a member of a group known as the "Bomber Mafia
," ACTS instructors who were both outspoken proponents of the doctrine of daylight precision strategic bombardment and advocates for an independent Air Force. Among the students instructed by Hansell were Ira C. Eaker, Elwood R. Quesada, Nathan F. Twining, Earle E. Partridge
, Kenneth Wolfe, Orvil Anderson, John K. Cannon
, and Newton Longfellow, all of whom became general officers and strategic airpower advocates during World War II. During this time, Hansell also had a permanent falling out with Chennault after Chennault tried to recruit him to go to China to fly fighters
for the Kuomintang
government.
In September 1938, still a first lieutenant, Hansell entered the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth
, Kansas
, from which he was graduated in June 1939, shortly after promotion to captain. He then was assigned to the Office, Chief of Air Corps (OCAC), under General Henry H. Arnold
, working a series of assignments as Arnold assembled an Air Staff to plan and execute a massive expansion of the Air Corps.
After duty in the Public Relations Section, OCAC from 1 July to 5 September 1939, he became assistant Executive Officer, OCAC to Ira Eaker from 6 September to 20 November 1939. In November 1939 he created, with Major Thomas D. White
, the Intelligence Section, Information Division, OCAC. Hansell was its Officer in Charge, Air Corps Intelligence from 21 November 1939 to 30 June 1940; and its Chief, Operations Planning Branch, Foreign Intelligence Section from 1 July 1940 to 30 June 1941. He was promoted to major
on 15 March 1941.
In the Air Intelligence Section, Hansell became responsible for setting up strategic air intelligence and analysis operations, creating three sections: analysis of foreign air forces and their doctrines, analysis of airfields worldwide including climate data, and preparation of target selection for major foreign powers. Much of the work was accomplished despite hindrance from the War Department
’s G-2 office, which felt that such analysis was not "proper military intelligence." Development of sources of information for such analyses also was primitive, and he used his assignment to OPB to recruit a number of civilian economic experts who had recently been commissioned in the military. Hansell also created contacts among Royal Air Force
officers stationed in Washington, D.C. to enhance his sources.
On 7 July 1941, Hansell went to London, England, as a special observer attached to the military attaché, where he was privy to the inner workings of RAF intelligence and their target folders on the German
industrial infrastructure. In his memoir, Hansell stated that in the exchange of information, the AAF received nearly a ton of material, shipped back to the United States in a bomber.
of the newly-created AAF Air Staff in Washington, D.C., as its Chief of European Branch. There a strategic planning team of former "bomber mafia" members (himself, George, Kuter, and War Plans Group chief Lt. Col. Kenneth N. Walker), put together an estimate for President Franklin D. Roosevelt
of the numbers of aircraft and personnel needed to win a war against the Axis Powers, well beyond the scope requested of it by the War Plans Division of the General Staff.
Hansell’s responsibility in the plan, designated AWPD–1, was information on German targets. Arnold had given George nine days to write the plan, which would be "Annex 2, Air Requirements" to "The Victory Program," a plan of strategic estimates involving the entire U.S. military.
Beginning on 4 August 1941, they drew up the plan in accordance with strategic policies promulgated earlier that year, outlined in the ABC-1 agreement with the British Commonwealth, and Rainbow 5, the U.S. war plan. The group completed AWPD-1 in the allotted nine days and carefully rehearsed a presentation to the Army General Staff
. Its forecast figures, despite planning errors from lack of accurate information about weather and the German economic commitment to the war, were within 2 percent of the units and 5.5 percent of the personnel ultimately mobilized, and it accurately predicted the time frame when the invasion of Europe by the Allies
would take place.
Hansell’s contribution to the plan was based on a serious flaw, however. As had most observers, Hansell assumed that the Nazi economy
was working at maximum capacity, when in fact it was still at 1938 levels of production, an error that led to an underestimation of the numbers of sorties, bomb tonnage, and time required for bombing to have a decisive effect. However, a more significant error in planning, the omission of long-range fighter escorts for the bombers, seriously impacted the strategic bombing campaign that later took place. Hansell deeply regretted the omission but noted that it reflected the best available information at the time on fighter aircraft capabilities, which was that any means then available to extend range would also seriously degrade a fighter's air combat performance. Hansell wrote, "Failure to see this issue through proved one of the Air Corps Tactical School's major shortcomings."
A lack of knowledge about the capability of radar
to create an effective centralized early warning system also contributed to the over-reliance on the self-defense capabilities of bombers. However Hansell also argued that ignorance of radar was fortuitous in the long run. He surmised that had radar been a factor in making doctrine, many theorists would have reasoned that massed defenses would make all strategic air attacks too costly, inhibiting if not entirely suppressing the concepts that proved decisive in World War II and essential to the creation of the United States Air Force
.
on 5 January 1942, colonel
on 1 March 1942, and brigadier general
on 10 August 1942. In January 1942, he assisted George and Walker in presenting an organizational plan to the War Department for maintaining the Air Corps as part of the Army during World War II, while dividing the Army into three autonomous branches, a reorganization adopted on 9 March 1942, with the creation of the Army Air Forces, Army Ground Forces
and Services of Supply
. On 10 March 1942, Hansell was transferred from AWPD to the Strategy and Policy Group, Operations Division of the War Department General Staff and served on the eight-member Joint Strategy Committee as the USAAF representative.
Hansell, at the request of Major General Dwight D. Eisenhower
, was assigned on 12 July 1942 as Officer in Charge, Air Section, ETOUSA
headquarters, and simultaneously as deputy theater air officer for Major General Carl A. Spaatz, commander of the Eighth Air Force
. His duties were to mold Eisenhower’s opinion on the use of airpower, guided by Spaatz, but there is little indication that he succeeded. He also flew combat in a B-17 to gain first-hand experience with daylight precision bombing, attacking the Longueau
marshalling yard at Amiens
, France
, on 20 August 1942. During the mission he developed frostbite
on his hands and spent several days recovering from the effects.
On 26 August 1942 he was recalled to USAAF Headquarters to head the planning team for AWPD–42, a revision of the air strategy plan in light of ongoing crises in the war, completing it in 11 days. Even though the Navy rejected the plan outright (because it did not participate in its writing) and the Joint Chiefs of Staff
did not accept it, presidential advisor Harry Hopkins
recommended to Roosevelt that he follow the precepts unofficially, which was done. Hansell then returned to England, where he was ironically tasked with diverting a large portion of the strategic bomber force to the Twelfth Air Force to support Operation Torch
.
. Originally one of the three wings of General Headquarters Air Force,The 3rd Bombardment Wing was later redesignated the 98th Bomb Wing of the Ninth Air Force
. the 3rd was now part of the Eighth Air Force
in England
, planned as a Martin B-26 Marauder wing to support the Eighth's heavy bomber mission by bombing Luftwaffe
fighter airfields, but as yet had no aircraft or units assigned. However on 2 January 1943, he was shifted to command of the 1st Bomb Wing
, comprising the B-17 groups of VIII Bomber Command
, when its previous commander was transferred to North Africa
.Laurence Kuter preceded Hansell in this assignment. Hansell flew his first mission with his new command to Saint-Nazaire
, France
, the next day and saw first hand the effectiveness of German interceptors, as both wingmen of Hansell's bomber were shot down. Later that month, on a 13 January mission to Lille, France, the pilot of the B-17 he flew in was killed in action and the plane nearly shot down on.
Hansell commanded the 1st Wing during six critical months when the B-17 force, with only four inexperienced groups, struggled to prove itself. Among the combat doctrines that Hansell developed himself or approved were use of the defensive combat box formation
, detailed mission Standard Operating Procedures, and all aircraft bombing in unison with the lead bomber, each designed to improve bombing accuracy.
Hansell recognized the most serious flaws in the daylight precision bombardment theory, that:
These factors later influenced his planning of similar daylight raids against Japan.
On 23 March 1943, he headed up a committee of USAAF and RAF commanders to draw up a plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive
(CBO). Despite the fact that it altered the target system priorities outlined in AWPD-42, and changed the overall goal of the offensive from knocking Germany out of the war using airpower to one of preparing for the invasion of Europe, Hansell approved the designation of the German aircraft industry as its most important target and the destruction of the German Luftwaffe
as its top priority. Hansell wrote the final draft of the CBO plan himself. Although Hansell did not personally participate in later strategic bombing operations against Germany, he had been instrumental in setting in motion the plans and policies that led to the near total destruction of German war industry.
He continued to fly combat missions at the same rate as his group commanders, with his final mission to Antwerp on 4 May 1943, the date that the Joint Chiefs approved the CBO plan. On 15 June 1943, noting signs of fatigue and stress, Eaker replaced Hansell in command of the 1st Wing with Brigadier General Frank A. Armstrong
, and retained him as a staff officer, first as an air planner in the COSSAC (Chief of Staff Supreme Aliied Commander) headquarters until 1 August 1943, when Eisenhower named him deputy commander of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force
. He conjointly was part of the Tactical Air Force Planning Committee, where he oversaw the planning for Operation Tidal Wave, the low-level bombing of oil refineries
at Ploieşti
, Romania
, on 1 August 1943, and recommended approval of the Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission
. While in Washington on this task, he was "captured" by Arnold and accompanied him to the Quadrant Conference
in August, where he personally briefed President Roosevelt on strategic bombing to that point.
Hansell accompanied President Roosevelt and the Joint Chiefs aboard the USS Iowa
to the Sextant Conference
in November, then was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in December, working directly with Arnold. His main responsibility was developing the operational plans for the B-29 Superfortress
, and he succeeded in gaining three key decisions from the JCS: there would be no diversion of B-29s to General Douglas MacArthur
, the schedule for Operation Forager was moved forward more than a year to secure bases for the B-29 in the Mariana Islands
,The invasion, a pet project of CNO Admiral Ernest J. King, had tentatively been set for early 1946, if at all. and Twentieth Air Force
operations would be entirely independent of control by all three Pacific theater commanders (MacArthur, Chester W. Nimitz, and Joseph Stillwell), reporting directly to the JCS.
Hansell drew up the tactical doctrine, SOPs, and the table of organization and equipment of the Twentieth Air Force, which was to be commanded by Arnold personally, including use of AAF Air Staff as the staff of the Twentieth. In addition to his own Air Staff duties, Hansell became chief of staff of the Twentieth Air Force on 6 April 1944. When Arnold was incapacitated by a heart attack in May, Hansell acted as de facto commander of the Twentieth Air Force.
, despite misgivings among several senior leaders that while a superb staff officer, he did not have the "temperament" to be a combat commander. Aware of Arnold’s legendary impatience, deputy AAF commander General Barney Giles, who was doubtful that Hansell could accomplish the task given him—setting up an effective air campaign in a brief period using an untried aircraft—obtained a commitment from Arnold that he would not relieve Hansell in only a few months. However Hansell’s tenure was threatened from the start because his replacement on the Air Staff, Major General Lauris Norstad
, did not support the concept of daylight precision bombing, instead advocating massive destruction of Japanese cities by firebombing
, a tactic that had been promoted in AAF planning circles as early as November 1943. Fire raids on Japan were rapidly gaining widespread acceptance among AAF leaders, including Arnold, both to defeat Japan before an invasion was mounted and to satisfy a perception that the American public wanted revenge for three bloody years of war. Hansell, however, opposed the tactic as both morally repugnant and militarily unnecessary.
XXI Bomber Command arrived on Saipan
on 12 October 1944, and from the start Hansell was beset by a host of serious command problems, the worst of which were continued teething problems with the B-29, tardy delivery of aircraft, aircrews untrained in high altitude formation flying, primitive airfield conditions, lack of an air service command for logistical support, no repair depots, a total absence of target intelligence, stubborn internal resistance to daylight operations by his sole combat wing, subordinates who lobbied for his removal, and Hansell’s inferiority in rank in dealing with other AAF commanders in the theater. Furthermore, Hansell was soon prohibited from flying combat missions with his command, possibly because of limited knowledge of the atomic bomb or the perception that he knew the existence of Ultra
.
High altitude daylight B-29 raids against the Japanese aircraft industry began 24 November 1944 with operation San Antonio I, despite misgivings about high losses by both combat crews and Arnold.Only one B-29 was lost on the mission. They were hampered by bad weather and jet stream
winds, and as a result, appeared unproductive. Pressured by Arnold (through Norstad as an intermediary) for results, Hansell subjected his command to intensive corrective measures that caused more resentment among his aircrews. At the same time commanders in China
were strongly recommending removal of XX Bomber Command
to another theater as soon as possible, making Major General Curtis E. LeMay, now superior to Hansell in rank, available for command.
On 6 January 1945, Norstad visited Hansell’s headquarters and abruptly relieved him of command, replacing him with LeMay. Hansell was offered the option of commanding XX Bomber Command while it transitioned to Guam
, then becoming LeMay’s deputy. Although he and LeMay were friends, LeMay had been Hansell’s subordinate in the 1st Bomb Wing, and Hansell declined the offer. While all the command problems factored into his relief, the main reasons were Hansell’s persistence in daylight precision attacks, reluctance to night firebombing, Norstad's view that Hansell was an impediment to instituting incendiary attacks, and a perception by Arnold and Norstad that the public relations
effort by XXI Bomber Command had been unsatisfactory in preparing the American public for such attacks.
Hansell left Guam on 21 January 1945. Unknown at the time, his precision daylight attacks had succeeded, both in the immediate and ineffective dispersion of the aircraft engine industry, and later in actual destruction on the final raid under his command. A more immediate legacy of his command was his creation, in conjunction with the U.S. Navy
, of an effective air-sea rescue
system that saved half of all B-29 crews downed at sea in 1945.
Historian and Hansell biographer Dr. Charles Griffith concluded that Hansell sacrificed his B-29 command and his later career on principle, adhering to the idea that precision rather than area bombing was not only more moral, but more effective as a strategy. His dismissal, Griffith argues, was a pivotal event in U.S. airpower doctrine, as the Air Force moved toward a strategy of bombing civilian populations, which led to an increasing dependence on the more potentially devastating, inflexible, and "Douhetian" doctrine of nuclear warfare that lasted for decades.
Conrad Crane took a somewhat different stance, arguing that despite the firebombing
campaign in Japan, American air commanders throughout World War II and thereafter placed an emphasis on precision bombing and avoiding civilian casualties. The use of precision guided weapons in the Gulf War
and beyond, he wrote, demonstrated "continued adherence to precision-bombing doctrine and...significant progress toward the ideal...first envisioned" by Hansell and the other Air Corps Tactical School theorists.
Hansell lectured on the theory of precision air attack throughout his life, particularly at the United States Air Force Academy
and the Air War College
. He authored three books on air strategy: The Air War Plan That Defeated Hitler (1972), The Strategic Air War Against Japan (1980), and Strategic Air War Against Germany and Japan: A Memoir (1986). Hansell continued to study modern weapons systems, becoming an advocate of the Strategic Defense Initiative
and the B-2 Spirit
bomber. However his main focus was in promoting technical advances in precision guided weapons to make precision bombing more practical and therefore more desirable as a military strategy.
, Arizona
.Fogerty, Historical Study 91, specifically states Williams Field, not Kirtland, as is often seen. In June 1945, he was transferred to Air Transport Command
under his old mentor Lieutenant General Harold George, commanding the Caribbean Wing at West Palm Beach, Florida
, from 30 September 1945 to 14 January 1946, and the North Atlantic Wing at Westover Field, Massachusetts
, from 1 July 1946 to 18 August 1946.
Hansell took early retirement due to a loss-of-hearing disability, retiring with the rank of brigadier general on 31 December 1946. He held positions as vice president of Peruvian International Airlines
until Peru
nationalized the airline in 1949, and vice president of South Atlantic Gas Company from 1949 until his recall to the military.
He was recalled to active duty on 15 July 1951, by Air Force Chief of Staff
Hoyt S. Vandenberg and assigned as Chief, Military Assistance Program Headquarters, USAF, acting as a senior program manager and advisor to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. On 5 September 1952, he was promoted to major general
. In April 1953, General Hansell was appointed the senior Air Force representative to the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group in the Research and Development Office of the Secretary of Defense, Washington, D.C. He retired a second time from the USAF in 1955.
Hansell worked for General Electric
, becoming head of its subsidiary
in the Netherlands
until 1967, when he retired to Hilton Head, South Carolina. He died on 14 November 1988, in Hilton Head, of heart failure and pulmonary edema
, as he was preparing to leave for a lecture in Canada. He was interred with full military honors at the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery
.
United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II, and the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force....
(USAAF) during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, and later the United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
. He became an advocate of the doctrine of strategic bombardment
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
, and was one of the chief architects of the concept of daylight precision bombing that governed the use of airpower by the USAAF in the war.
Hansell played a key and largely unsung role in the strategic planning of air operations by the United States. This included drafting both the strategic air war plans (AWPD-1 and AWPD-42) and the plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive
Combined Bomber Offensive
The Combined Bomber Offensive was an Anglo-American offensive of strategic bombing during World War II in Europe. The primary portion of the CBO was against German Air Force targets which was the highest priority from June 1943 to 1944...
in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
; obtaining a base of operations for the B-29 Superfortress
B-29 Superfortress
The B-29 Superfortress is a four-engine propeller-driven heavy bomber designed by Boeing that was flown primarily by the United States Air Forces in late-World War II and through the Korean War. The B-29 was one of the largest aircraft to see service during World War II...
in the Mariana Islands
Mariana Islands
The Mariana Islands are an arc-shaped archipelago made up by the summits of 15 volcanic mountains in the north-western Pacific Ocean between the 12th and 21st parallels north and along the 145th meridian east...
; and devising the command structure of the Twentieth Air Force
Twentieth Air Force
The Twentieth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command . It is headquartered at F.E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming.20 AF's primary mission is Intercontinental Ballistic Missile operations...
, the first global strategic air force and forerunner of the Strategic Air Command
Strategic Air Command
The Strategic Air Command was both a Major Command of the United States Air Force and a "specified command" of the United States Department of Defense. SAC was the operational establishment in charge of America's land-based strategic bomber aircraft and land-based intercontinental ballistic...
. He made precision air attack, as both the most humane and effective means of achieving military success, a lifelong personal crusade that eventually became the key tenet of American airpower employment.
Hansell also held combat commands during the war, carrying out the very plans and doctrines he helped draft. He pioneered strategic bombardment of both Germany and Japan, as commander of the first B-17 Flying Fortress combat wing
Wing (air force unit)
Wing is a term used by different military aviation forces for a unit of command. The terms wing, group or Staffel are used for different-sized units from one country or service to another....
in Europe, and as the first commander of the B-29 force in the Marianas.
Childhood
Hansell was born in Fort Monroe, Virginia, on 28 September 1903, the son of First LieutenantFirst Lieutenant
First lieutenant is a military rank and, in some forces, an appointment.The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
(later Colonel) Haywood S. Hansell, an Army surgeon
Surgeon
In medicine, a surgeon is a specialist in surgery. Surgery is a broad category of invasive medical treatment that involves the cutting of a body, whether human or animal, for a specific reason such as the removal of diseased tissue or to repair a tear or breakage...
, and Susan Watts Hansell, both considered members of the "southern aristocracy" from Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
. His great-great-great-grandfather John W. Hansell served in the American Revolution
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
, his great-great-grandfather William Young Hansell was an officer in the War of 1812
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...
, and his great-grandfather Andrew Jackson Hansell was a general in the Confederate States Army
Confederate States Army
The Confederate States Army was the army of the Confederate States of America while the Confederacy existed during the American Civil War. On February 8, 1861, delegates from the seven Deep South states which had already declared their secession from the United States of America adopted the...
and Georgia's adjutant general
Adjutant general
An Adjutant General is a military chief administrative officer.-Imperial Russia:In Imperial Russia, the General-Adjutant was a Court officer, who was usually an army general. He served as a personal aide to the Tsar and hence was a member of the H. I. M. Retinue...
. His grandfather, William Andrew Hansell, graduated from Georgia Military Institute
Georgia Military Institute
The Georgia Military Institute was established on in Marietta, Georgia, on July 1, 1851. It burned during the Civil War and was never rebuilt. The current GMI is a reactivation of the name for a Georgia National Guard Officer Candidate School curriculum.-Mission:In January 2010, the Georgia Army...
and also served as an officer in the Confederate Army, first in the 35th Alabama
Alabama Civil War Confederate Units
-Infantry Units:*1st Alabama Conscripts *Swanson Guards Lockhart's Battalion *1st Mobile Infantry *1st Regiment Alabama Infantry*1st Battalion Alabama Infantry Loomis'...
, then as a topographical engineer
Engineer
An engineer is a professional practitioner of engineering, concerned with applying scientific knowledge, mathematics and ingenuity to develop solutions for technical problems. Engineers design materials, structures, machines and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality,...
.According to Banning, p. 98, William Andrew Hansell was enrolled at LaGrange Military Academy
University of North Alabama
The University of North Alabama is a coeducational university located in Florence, Alabama, and the state's oldest four-year public university....
when the 35th Alabama was formed from its faculty and cadets, and served as its adjutant and a lieutenant in Company B. He resigned in 1862 to become a captain of CSA Engineers.
Shortly after his birth, the family was stationed in Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, then in the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
, and Hansell learned both Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
and Spanish
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
at an early age. Captain Hansell was next stationed at Fort McPherson
Fort McPherson
Fort McPherson was a U.S. Army military base located in East Point, Georgia, on the southwest edge of the City of Atlanta, Ga. It was the headquarters for the U.S. Army Installation Management Command, Southeast Region; the U.S. Army Forces Command; the U.S. Army Reserve Command; the U.S...
, Georgia, in 1913, and then at Fort Benning
Fort Benning
Fort Benning is a United States Army post located southeast of the city of Columbus in Muscogee and Chattahoochee counties in Georgia and Russell County, Alabama...
. His father, a firm disciplinarian, sent Hansell to live on a small, family-owned ranch in New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
because of a perceived lack of discipline in his schooling. There he learned horsemanship, shooting
Shooting
Shooting is the act or process of firing rifles, shotguns or other projectile weapons such as bows or crossbows. Even the firing of artillery, rockets and missiles can be called shooting. A person who specializes in shooting is a marksman...
, and studied with a tutor.
Education
Hansell entered Sewanee Military Academy
Sewanee, Tennessee
Sewanee is an unincorporated locality in Franklin County, Tennessee, United States, treated by the U.S. Census as a census-designated place . The population was 2,361 at the 2000 census...
, near Chattanooga, Tennessee
Chattanooga, Tennessee
Chattanooga is the fourth-largest city in the US state of Tennessee , with a population of 169,887. It is the seat of Hamilton County...
, in 1916, where he acquired the lifelong nickname "Possum
Possum
A possum is any of about 70 small to medium-sized arboreal marsupial species native to Australia, New Guinea, and Sulawesi .Possums are quadrupedal diprotodont marsupials with long tails...
." Although his biographers offer a number of explanations behind the nickname, the most likely is that his facial features gave him the appearance of a possum. At Sewanee he developed a fondness for English literature
English literature
English literature is the literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; for example, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Joseph Conrad was Polish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, J....
. As a senior Hansell rose to cadet captain and developed a reputation as a martinet
Martinet
The martinet is a punitive device traditionally used in France and other parts of Europe. The word also has other usages . It is also a term for a type of hammer in French, a diminutive of marteau , "hammer".-Object:...
. His harshness with the Corps of Cadets, combined with an excessive number of demerits acquired while the school was temporarily quartered in Jacksonville, Florida
Jacksonville, Florida
Jacksonville is the largest city in the U.S. state of Florida in terms of both population and land area, and the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. It is the county seat of Duval County, with which the city government consolidated in 1968...
, following a fire, led to his reduction to cadet private.
Partly as a result of this humiliation, Hansell declined an appointment to the United States Military Academy
United States Military Academy
The United States Military Academy at West Point is a four-year coeducational federal service academy located at West Point, New York. The academy sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River, north of New York City...
to attend the Georgia School of Technology
Georgia Institute of Technology
The Georgia Institute of Technology is a public research university in Atlanta, Georgia, in the United States...
, where he was a member of Sigma Nu
Sigma Nu
Sigma Nu is an undergraduate, college fraternity with chapters in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. Sigma Nu was founded in 1869 by three cadets at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia...
. Despite problems understanding differential equation
Differential equation
A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of various orders...
s, and twice attempting to transfer to another school (which his father would not permit), he overcame his difficulties with complex mathematics and graduated in 1924 with a Bachelor of Science
Bachelor of Science
A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years .-Australia:In Australia, the BSc is a 3 year degree, offered from 1st year on...
degree in mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies the principles of physics and materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the...
. While at Georgia Tech he participated in varsity football
College football
College football refers to American football played by teams of student athletes fielded by American universities, colleges, and military academies, or Canadian football played by teams of student athletes fielded by Canadian universities...
as a walk-on substitute, and boxing
Boxing
Boxing, also called pugilism, is a combat sport in which two people fight each other using their fists. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of between one to three minute intervals called rounds...
. Hansell was awarded Georgia Tech's highest individual recognition, membership in the ANAK Society
ANAK Society
The ANAK Society is the oldest known secret society and honor society at the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Founded in 1908, ANAK's purpose is "to honor outstanding juniors and seniors who have shown both exemplary leadership and a true love for Georgia Tech"...
.
From 1924 to 1928 he attempted without success to find employment as a civil engineer
Civil engineer
A civil engineer is a person who practices civil engineering; the application of planning, designing, constructing, maintaining, and operating infrastructures while protecting the public and environmental health, as well as improving existing infrastructures that have been neglected.Originally, a...
in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, where his father was now stationed. Instead he worked as an apprentice and journeyman
Journeyman
A journeyman is someone who completed an apprenticeship and was fully educated in a trade or craft, but not yet a master. To become a master, a journeyman had to submit a master work piece to a guild for evaluation and be admitted to the guild as a master....
boilermaker
Boilermaker
A boilermaker is a trained craftsman who produces steel fabrications from plates and sections. The name originated from craftsmen who would fabricate boilers, but they may work on projects as diverse as bridges to blast furnaces to the construction of mining equipment.-Boilermaking:Many...
with the Steel Tank and Pipe Company in Berkeley, California
Berkeley, California
Berkeley is a city on the east shore of the San Francisco Bay in Northern California, United States. Its neighbors to the south are the cities of Oakland and Emeryville. To the north is the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington...
. Advances in aviation
Aviation
Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft. Aviation is derived from avis, the Latin word for bird.-History:...
in the 1920s led Hansell to undertake a career in aeronautical engineering, and to gain flying experience, he decided to join the United States Army Air Corps
United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps was a forerunner of the United States Air Force. Renamed from the Air Service on 2 July 1926, it was part of the United States Army and the predecessor of the United States Army Air Forces , established in 1941...
.
Personality and family
Short in stature and slightly built, Hansell worked at being an athlete, becoming proficient in tennisTennis
Tennis is a sport usually played between two players or between two teams of two players each . Each player uses a racket that is strung to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over a net into the opponent's court. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society at all...
, polo
Polo
Polo is a team sport played on horseback in which the objective is to score goals against an opposing team. Sometimes called, "The Sport of Kings", it was highly popularized by the British. Players score by driving a small white plastic or wooden ball into the opposing team's goal using a...
, and squash
Squash (sport)
Squash is a high-speed racquet sport played by two players in a four-walled court with a small, hollow rubber ball...
. Socially, he was a noted dancer, and acquired a reputation as "the unofficial poet laureate
Poet Laureate
A poet laureate is a poet officially appointed by a government and is often expected to compose poems for state occasions and other government events...
of the Air Corps." He was fond of Gilbert and Sullivan
Gilbert and Sullivan
Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan . The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896, of which H.M.S...
, Shakespeare, and Miguel Cervantes’ Don Quixote. General Ira C. Eaker described him as "nervous and high strung," and one biographer noted several incidents of imperious temper in social situations. However his correspondence secretary during World War II, T/Sgt. James Cooper, described him as "pleasant and diplomatic," and an aviation historian described him as "a forward-looking optimist with a sense of humor."
While stationed at Langley Field, Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
, Hansell met his wife, Dorothy "Dotta" Rogers, a teacher
Teacher
A teacher or schoolteacher is a person who provides education for pupils and students . The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional...
from Waco, Texas
Waco, Texas
Waco is a city in and the county seat of McLennan County, Texas. Situated along the Brazos River and on the I-35 corridor, halfway between Dallas and Austin, it is the economic, cultural, and academic center of the 'Heart of Texas' region....
, where they were married in 1932. He fathered three children, son "Tony" (Haywood S. Hansell III, born in 1933), daughter Lucia (1940), and son Dennett (1941). While frequent absences, long working hours, and Hansell’s autocratic nature severely stressed their marriage during World War II, they remained married for 56 years until his death in 1988. Hansell's eldest son continued the family military tradition, graduating from the United States Military Academy
United States Military Academy
The United States Military Academy at West Point is a four-year coeducational federal service academy located at West Point, New York. The academy sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River, north of New York City...
in 1955, becoming a colonel in the United States Air Force,Col. Tony Hansell was a KC-97 and KC-135 pilot, a Forward Air Controller in Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, and F-4 Phantom pilot with the 80th TFS
80th Fighter Squadron
The 80th Fighter Squadron is an F-16 fighter squadron of the United States Air Force, currently part of the 8th Operations Group of the 8th Fighter Wing, and stationed at Kunsan Air Base, Republic of Korea.The 80th has served in combat operations in World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam...
in Japan. He followed in his father's footsteps by instructing at the Air Command and Staff College
Air Command and Staff College
The Air Command and Staff College is located at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama and is the United States Air Force's intermediate professional military education school. It prepares field grade and equivalent officers of all U.S...
, and then holding staff positions in Strategy and Doctrine, with a tour as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff-Plans, Headquarters USAF. Col. Hansell retired in 1985 and died in 2004. General Hansell's granddaughter, Lt.Col. Jennifer Hansell Perry, USAF, is the seventh generation to serve in the military, fourth generation career officer, and third generation Air Force. Per West-Point.org and obituary, San Antonio Express-News, December 6, 2004. and marrying Olivia Twining, the daughter of General Nathan F. Twining.
Pursuit pilot
Fighter aircraft
A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with other aircraft, as opposed to a bomber, which is designed primarily to attack ground targets...
at Kelly Field
Kelly Air Force Base
Kelly Field Annex and is a former United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas. In 2001, the runway and land west of the runway became "Kelly Field Annex" and control of it was transferred to the adjacent Lackland Air Force Base, part of Joint Base San Antonio...
, Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
. He graduated from pilot training on 28 February 1929, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Army Reserve
United States Army Reserve
The United States Army Reserve is the federal reserve force of the United States Army. Together, the Army Reserve and the Army National Guard constitute the reserve components of the United States Army....
. He received a regular commission as a second lieutenant, Air Corps, on 2 May 1929.
Hansell's first duty assignment was with the 2nd Bombardment Group
2d Bomb Wing
The 2d Bomb Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Force Global Strike Command and Eighth Air Force. It is stationed at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. The wing is also the host unit at Barksdale...
at Langley Field, testing repaired aircraft. In June 1930, he spent three months temporary duty with the 6th Field Artillery at Fort Hoyle
Aberdeen Proving Ground
Aberdeen Proving Ground is a United States Army facility located near Aberdeen, Maryland, . Part of the facility is a census-designated place , which had a population of 3,116 at the 2000 census.- History :...
, Maryland
Maryland
Maryland is a U.S. state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware to its east...
. In September 1930, he returned to Langley Field and was detached to the Air Corps Tactical School
Air Corps Tactical School
The Air Corps Tactical School, also known as ACTS and "the Tactical School", was a military professional development school for officers of the United States Army Air Service and United States Army Air Corps, the first such school in the world. Created in 1920 at Langley Field, Virginia, it...
as armament officer. While stationed at Langley, Hansell was involved in two minor accidents in aircraft he was piloting, and in early 1931 was forced to parachute to safety when his Boeing P-12
Boeing P-12
The Boeing P-12 or F4B was an American pursuit aircraft that was operated by the United States Army Air Corps and United States Navy.-Design and development:...
stalled during a test flight, going into an unrecoverable spin. He was found at fault for the accident and initially charged $10,000 by the Air Corps for the expense of the aircraft, but the cost was eventually written off.
In August 1931, Hansell was transferred to Maxwell Field
Maxwell Air Force Base
Maxwell Air Force Base , officially known as Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base, is a United States Air Force installation under the Air Education and Training Command . The installation is located in Montgomery, Alabama, US. It was named in honor of Second Lieutenant William C...
, Alabama
Alabama
Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...
, as assistant operations officer, with flying duties in the 54th School Squadron, to support the ACTS, which had located to Maxwell from Langley in July. During that tour of duty he met Captain Claire L. Chennault, an instructor at the Tactical School, and joined "The Men on the Flying Trapeze,"Sometimes incorrectly seen as "Three Men on a Flying Trapeze". an Air Corps aerobatic and demonstration team.The team in 1932 consisted of Chennault, Hansell, Sgt. William C. "Billy" McDonald, and Sgt. John H. "Luke" Williamson. The two sergeants were reserve officers and later became Flying Tigers
Flying Tigers
The 1st American Volunteer Group of the Chinese Air Force in 1941–1942, famously nicknamed the Flying Tigers, was composed of pilots from the United States Army , Navy , and Marine Corps , recruited under presidential sanction and commanded by Claire Lee Chennault. The ground crew and headquarters...
. The team performed at the National Air Races
National Air Races
The National Air Races were a series of pylon and cross-country races that took place in the United States from 1920 to 1949. The science of aviation, and the speed and reliability of aircraft and engines grew rapidly during this period; the National Air Races were both a proving ground and...
at Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the most populous county in the state. The city is located in northeastern Ohio on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately west of the Pennsylvania border...
, in September 1934. Hansell also worked with Captain Harold L. George
Harold L. George
Harold Lee George was an American aviation pioneer who helped shape and promote the concept of daylight precision bombing...
, chief of the Tactical School’s bombardment section, where his military interest shifted from pursuits to bomber
Bomber
A bomber is a military aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets, by dropping bombs on them, or – in recent years – by launching cruise missiles at them.-Classifications of bombers:...
s. The friendship that developed from the working relationship led to George becoming both Hansell’s mentor and patron.
Disciple of strategic airpower
Hansell was promoted to first lieutenantFirst Lieutenant
First lieutenant is a military rank and, in some forces, an appointment.The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
on 1 October 1934 and entered the Air Corps Tactical School
Air Corps Tactical School
The Air Corps Tactical School, also known as ACTS and "the Tactical School", was a military professional development school for officers of the United States Army Air Service and United States Army Air Corps, the first such school in the world. Created in 1920 at Langley Field, Virginia, it...
at Maxwell Field as a student in the comprehensive 845-hour, 36-week course, studying not only air tactics
Military tactics
Military tactics, the science and art of organizing an army or an air force, are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating an enemy in battle. Changes in philosophy and technology over time have been reflected in changes to military tactics. In...
and airpower theory, which comprised more than half of the curriculum
Curriculum
See also Syllabus.In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults...
, but also tactics of other services, combined (joint) warfare, armament and gunnery, logistics
Logistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of destination in order to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and...
, navigation
Navigation
Navigation is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks...
and meteorology
Meteorology
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries...
, staff duties, photography
Photography
Photography is the art, science and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an image sensor or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film...
, combat orders, and antiaircraft defenses. Among his instructors was Captain George, now director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy. George's classes were half lecture, half free discussion and conceptualizing, with George or his assistant Capt. Odas Moon expounding theories and having the students critically examine them for flaws and alternative ideas, debates that continued beyond the classroom as well.
Making up the 59 members of his class were five majors, 40 captains, 13 first lieutenants including himself, and one second lieutenant. In addition to 49 Air Corps officers were four Army officers, one from each of that service's combat arms, two Turkish Army
Turkish Army
The Turkish Army or Turkish Land Forces is the main branch of the Turkish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The modern history of the army began with its formation after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire...
aviators, one Mexican
Mexican people
Mexican people refers to all persons from Mexico, a multiethnic country in North America, and/or who identify with the Mexican cultural and/or national identity....
captain, and three Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
aviators, including two future major generals.The future USMC generals were Lawson Sanderson, who commanded Pappy Boyington
Pappy Boyington
Gregory "Pappy" Boyington was a United States Marine Corps officer who was an American fighter ace during World War II. For his heroic actions, he was awarded both the Medal of Honor and the Navy Cross. Boyington flew initially with the American Volunteer Group in the Republic of China Air Force...
's air group in World War II, and future Director of Marine Aviation William J. Wallace. Among Hansell's Air Corps peers were future generals Muir S. Fairchild
Muir S. Fairchild
General Muir Stephen Fairchild was former vice chief of staff of the United States Air Force. He was born September 2, 1894 at Bellingham, Washington, and died March 17, 1950 at Fort Myer, Virginia.-Early service:Muir S...
, Barney Giles, Laurence S. Kuter
Laurence S. Kuter
General Laurence Sherman Kuter was a Cold War-era U.S. Air Force general and former commander of NORAD...
, and Hoyt S. Vandenberg; test pilot Lester J. Maitland
Lester J. Maitland
Lester James Maitland was an aviation pioneer and career officer in the United States Army Air Forces and its predecessors. Maitland began his career as a Reserve pilot in the U.S. Army Air Service during World War I and rose to brigadier general in the Michigan Air National Guard following World...
; and aviation pioneer Major Vernon Burge
Vernon Burge
Vernon Lee Burge was an aviation pioneer—the first American enlisted man to be certified as a military pilot. After ten years as an enlisted man, Burge was commissioned during World War I and served the next 25 years as an officer....
, who as a corporal in June 1912 had been the first certified enlisted military pilot. Hansell graduated in June 1935 and was invited to become an instructor at ACTS, one of nine in his class to become ACTS instructors, and the youngest in its history. He served on the faculty from 1935-1938 in the Department of Air Tactic's all-important Air Force Section, first under George, then Major Donald Wilson
Donald Wilson (general)
Donald Wilson was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II.Wilson enlisted in the Maryland National Guard as a private in 1916 and served with it on the Mexican border and the Western Front during World War I before transferring to the United States Army Air Service. After the...
(another strategic bombing advocate), and lastly Fairchild.
Hansell became a member of a group known as the "Bomber Mafia
Bomber Mafia
The Bomber Mafia were a close-knit group of American military men who believed that long-range heavy bomber aircraft in large numbers were able to win a war...
," ACTS instructors who were both outspoken proponents of the doctrine of daylight precision strategic bombardment and advocates for an independent Air Force. Among the students instructed by Hansell were Ira C. Eaker, Elwood R. Quesada, Nathan F. Twining, Earle E. Partridge
Earle E. Partridge
Earle Everard "Pat" Partridge was an United States Air Force general.Partridge enlisted in the United States Army in July 1918 at Fort Slocum, New York, and was assigned to the 5th Engineer Training Regiment...
, Kenneth Wolfe, Orvil Anderson, John K. Cannon
John K. Cannon
General John Kenneth Cannon was a World War II Mediterranean combat commander and former chief of United States Air Forces in Europe for whom Cannon Air Force Base, Clovis, New Mexico, is named.-Biography:...
, and Newton Longfellow, all of whom became general officers and strategic airpower advocates during World War II. During this time, Hansell also had a permanent falling out with Chennault after Chennault tried to recruit him to go to China to fly fighters
Flying Tigers
The 1st American Volunteer Group of the Chinese Air Force in 1941–1942, famously nicknamed the Flying Tigers, was composed of pilots from the United States Army , Navy , and Marine Corps , recruited under presidential sanction and commanded by Claire Lee Chennault. The ground crew and headquarters...
for the Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
government.
In September 1938, still a first lieutenant, Hansell entered the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth
Fort Leavenworth
Fort Leavenworth is a United States Army facility located in Leavenworth County, Kansas, immediately north of the city of Leavenworth in the upper northeast portion of the state. It is the oldest active United States Army post west of Washington, D.C. and has been in operation for over 180 years...
, Kansas
Kansas
Kansas is a US state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south...
, from which he was graduated in June 1939, shortly after promotion to captain. He then was assigned to the Office, Chief of Air Corps (OCAC), under General Henry H. Arnold
Henry H. Arnold
Henry Harley "Hap" Arnold was an American general officer holding the grades of General of the Army and later General of the Air Force. Arnold was an aviation pioneer, Chief of the Air Corps , Commanding General of the U.S...
, working a series of assignments as Arnold assembled an Air Staff to plan and execute a massive expansion of the Air Corps.
After duty in the Public Relations Section, OCAC from 1 July to 5 September 1939, he became assistant Executive Officer, OCAC to Ira Eaker from 6 September to 20 November 1939. In November 1939 he created, with Major Thomas D. White
Thomas D. White
General Thomas Dresser White was the fourth Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force.White was born in Walker, Minnesota, in 1901...
, the Intelligence Section, Information Division, OCAC. Hansell was its Officer in Charge, Air Corps Intelligence from 21 November 1939 to 30 June 1940; and its Chief, Operations Planning Branch, Foreign Intelligence Section from 1 July 1940 to 30 June 1941. He was promoted to major
Major (United States)
In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, major is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel...
on 15 March 1941.
In the Air Intelligence Section, Hansell became responsible for setting up strategic air intelligence and analysis operations, creating three sections: analysis of foreign air forces and their doctrines, analysis of airfields worldwide including climate data, and preparation of target selection for major foreign powers. Much of the work was accomplished despite hindrance from the War Department
United States Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
’s G-2 office, which felt that such analysis was not "proper military intelligence." Development of sources of information for such analyses also was primitive, and he used his assignment to OPB to recruit a number of civilian economic experts who had recently been commissioned in the military. Hansell also created contacts among Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
officers stationed in Washington, D.C. to enhance his sources.
On 7 July 1941, Hansell went to London, England, as a special observer attached to the military attaché, where he was privy to the inner workings of RAF intelligence and their target folders on the German
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
industrial infrastructure. In his memoir, Hansell stated that in the exchange of information, the AAF received nearly a ton of material, shipped back to the United States in a bomber.
AWPD-1
On 12 July 1941, Hansell, just returned from London, was recruited by Harold George to join the Air War Plans DivisionAir War Plans Division
The Air War Plans Division was an American military organization established to make long-term plans for war. Headed by Harold L. George, the unit was tasked in July 1941 to provide President Franklin D...
of the newly-created AAF Air Staff in Washington, D.C., as its Chief of European Branch. There a strategic planning team of former "bomber mafia" members (himself, George, Kuter, and War Plans Group chief Lt. Col. Kenneth N. Walker), put together an estimate for President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt , also known by his initials, FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States and a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war...
of the numbers of aircraft and personnel needed to win a war against the Axis Powers, well beyond the scope requested of it by the War Plans Division of the General Staff.
Hansell’s responsibility in the plan, designated AWPD–1, was information on German targets. Arnold had given George nine days to write the plan, which would be "Annex 2, Air Requirements" to "The Victory Program," a plan of strategic estimates involving the entire U.S. military.
Beginning on 4 August 1941, they drew up the plan in accordance with strategic policies promulgated earlier that year, outlined in the ABC-1 agreement with the British Commonwealth, and Rainbow 5, the U.S. war plan. The group completed AWPD-1 in the allotted nine days and carefully rehearsed a presentation to the Army General Staff
General Staff
A military staff, often referred to as General Staff, Army Staff, Navy Staff or Air Staff within the individual services, is a group of officers and enlisted personnel that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commanding officer and subordinate military units...
. Its forecast figures, despite planning errors from lack of accurate information about weather and the German economic commitment to the war, were within 2 percent of the units and 5.5 percent of the personnel ultimately mobilized, and it accurately predicted the time frame when the invasion of Europe by the Allies
Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord was the code name for the Battle of Normandy, the operation that launched the invasion of German-occupied western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation commenced on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings...
would take place.
Hansell’s contribution to the plan was based on a serious flaw, however. As had most observers, Hansell assumed that the Nazi economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
was working at maximum capacity, when in fact it was still at 1938 levels of production, an error that led to an underestimation of the numbers of sorties, bomb tonnage, and time required for bombing to have a decisive effect. However, a more significant error in planning, the omission of long-range fighter escorts for the bombers, seriously impacted the strategic bombing campaign that later took place. Hansell deeply regretted the omission but noted that it reflected the best available information at the time on fighter aircraft capabilities, which was that any means then available to extend range would also seriously degrade a fighter's air combat performance. Hansell wrote, "Failure to see this issue through proved one of the Air Corps Tactical School's major shortcomings."
A lack of knowledge about the capability of radar
Radar
Radar is an object-detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio...
to create an effective centralized early warning system also contributed to the over-reliance on the self-defense capabilities of bombers. However Hansell also argued that ignorance of radar was fortuitous in the long run. He surmised that had radar been a factor in making doctrine, many theorists would have reasoned that massed defenses would make all strategic air attacks too costly, inhibiting if not entirely suppressing the concepts that proved decisive in World War II and essential to the creation of the United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
.
Planning duties
Following the entry of the United States into World War II, Hansell received a rapid series of promotions, to lieutenant colonelLieutenant Colonel (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, a lieutenant colonel is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of major and just below the rank of colonel. It is equivalent to the naval rank of commander in the other uniformed services.The pay...
on 5 January 1942, colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
on 1 March 1942, and brigadier general
Brigadier general (United States)
A brigadier general in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, is a one-star general officer, with the pay grade of O-7. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general. Brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed...
on 10 August 1942. In January 1942, he assisted George and Walker in presenting an organizational plan to the War Department for maintaining the Air Corps as part of the Army during World War II, while dividing the Army into three autonomous branches, a reorganization adopted on 9 March 1942, with the creation of the Army Air Forces, Army Ground Forces
Army Ground Forces
The Army Ground Forces were one of the three autonomous components of the Army of the United States during World War II, the others being the Army Air Forces and Army Service Forces. Throughout their existence, Army Ground Forces were the largest training organization ever established in the United...
and Services of Supply
Services of Supply
The Services Of Supply or "SOS" branch of the Army of the USA was created on 28 February 1942 by Executive Order Number 9082 "Reorganizing the Army and the War Department" and War Department Circular No. 59, dated 2 March 1942. Services of Supply became one of the three autonomous components of the...
. On 10 March 1942, Hansell was transferred from AWPD to the Strategy and Policy Group, Operations Division of the War Department General Staff and served on the eight-member Joint Strategy Committee as the USAAF representative.
Hansell, at the request of Major General Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
, was assigned on 12 July 1942 as Officer in Charge, Air Section, ETOUSA
European Theater of Operations
The European Theater of Operations, United States Army was a United States Army formation which directed U.S. Army operations in parts of Europe from 1942 to 1945. It referred to Army Ground Forces, United States Army Air Forces, and Army Service Forces operations north of Italy and the...
headquarters, and simultaneously as deputy theater air officer for Major General Carl A. Spaatz, commander of the Eighth Air Force
Eighth Air Force
The Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command . It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana....
. His duties were to mold Eisenhower’s opinion on the use of airpower, guided by Spaatz, but there is little indication that he succeeded. He also flew combat in a B-17 to gain first-hand experience with daylight precision bombing, attacking the Longueau
Longueau
Longueau is a commune in the Somme department in Picardie in northern France.-Geography:Longueau is situated southeast of Amiens, a suburb just by the airport, on the N29 road-Population:-Places of interest:The town was once a railway centre...
marshalling yard at Amiens
Amiens
Amiens is a city and commune in northern France, north of Paris and south-west of Lille. It is the capital of the Somme department in Picardy...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, on 20 August 1942. During the mission he developed frostbite
Frostbite
Frostbite is the medical condition where localized damage is caused to skin and other tissues due to extreme cold. Frostbite is most likely to happen in body parts farthest from the heart and those with large exposed areas...
on his hands and spent several days recovering from the effects.
On 26 August 1942 he was recalled to USAAF Headquarters to head the planning team for AWPD–42, a revision of the air strategy plan in light of ongoing crises in the war, completing it in 11 days. Even though the Navy rejected the plan outright (because it did not participate in its writing) and the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Joint Chiefs of Staff is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President on military matters...
did not accept it, presidential advisor Harry Hopkins
Harry Hopkins
Harry Lloyd Hopkins was one of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's closest advisers. He was one of the architects of the New Deal, especially the relief programs of the Works Progress Administration , which he directed and built into the largest employer in the country...
recommended to Roosevelt that he follow the precepts unofficially, which was done. Hansell then returned to England, where he was ironically tasked with diverting a large portion of the strategic bomber force to the Twelfth Air Force to support Operation Torch
Operation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
.
Combat wing commander in Europe
On 5 December 1942 Hansell received his first combat command, the 3rd Bombardment Wing98th Bombardment Wing (World War II)
The 98th Bombardment Wing is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with the United States Air Force Reserve, based at Bedford Field, Massachusetts...
. Originally one of the three wings of General Headquarters Air Force,The 3rd Bombardment Wing was later redesignated the 98th Bomb Wing of the Ninth Air Force
Ninth Air Force
The Ninth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force's Air Combat Command . It is headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina....
. the 3rd was now part of the Eighth Air Force
Eighth Air Force
The Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command . It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana....
in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, planned as a Martin B-26 Marauder wing to support the Eighth's heavy bomber mission by bombing Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
fighter airfields, but as yet had no aircraft or units assigned. However on 2 January 1943, he was shifted to command of the 1st Bomb Wing
1st Bombardment Wing (World War II)
The 1st Bombardment Wing is an inactive United States Army Air Force unit. It was the first wing formed in the reorganized United States Army Air Service, created in August 1919 to control three groups patrolling the border with Mexico after revolution broke out there. Its last assignment was with...
, comprising the B-17 groups of VIII Bomber Command
VIII Bomber Command
The VIII Bomber Command is an inactive United States Army Air Forces unit that is better known as the later appellation Eighth Air Force, as was popularized in post-World War II filmsand is frequently called the First Eighth Air Force by its veterans and successors in the services.The command was...
, when its previous commander was transferred to North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
.Laurence Kuter preceded Hansell in this assignment. Hansell flew his first mission with his new command to Saint-Nazaire
Saint-Nazaire
Saint-Nazaire , is a commune in the Loire-Atlantique department in western France.The town has a major harbour, on the right bank of the Loire River estuary, near the Atlantic Ocean. The town is at the south of the second-largest swamp in France, called "la Brière"...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, the next day and saw first hand the effectiveness of German interceptors, as both wingmen of Hansell's bomber were shot down. Later that month, on a 13 January mission to Lille, France, the pilot of the B-17 he flew in was killed in action and the plane nearly shot down on.
Combat box
The Combat box was a tactical formation used by heavy bombers of the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II. The combat box was also referred to as a "staggered formation"...
, detailed mission Standard Operating Procedures, and all aircraft bombing in unison with the lead bomber, each designed to improve bombing accuracy.
Hansell recognized the most serious flaws in the daylight precision bombardment theory, that:
- radarRadarRadar is an object-detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio...
early warning and the lack of long-range escort fighters made deep penetration raids by massed bombers too costly to achieve strategic goals until a means of air superiority was attained, and that - German industry, rather than being fragile and fixed, proved to be resilient and mobile.
These factors later influenced his planning of similar daylight raids against Japan.
On 23 March 1943, he headed up a committee of USAAF and RAF commanders to draw up a plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive
Combined Bomber Offensive
The Combined Bomber Offensive was an Anglo-American offensive of strategic bombing during World War II in Europe. The primary portion of the CBO was against German Air Force targets which was the highest priority from June 1943 to 1944...
(CBO). Despite the fact that it altered the target system priorities outlined in AWPD-42, and changed the overall goal of the offensive from knocking Germany out of the war using airpower to one of preparing for the invasion of Europe, Hansell approved the designation of the German aircraft industry as its most important target and the destruction of the German Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
as its top priority. Hansell wrote the final draft of the CBO plan himself. Although Hansell did not personally participate in later strategic bombing operations against Germany, he had been instrumental in setting in motion the plans and policies that led to the near total destruction of German war industry.
He continued to fly combat missions at the same rate as his group commanders, with his final mission to Antwerp on 4 May 1943, the date that the Joint Chiefs approved the CBO plan. On 15 June 1943, noting signs of fatigue and stress, Eaker replaced Hansell in command of the 1st Wing with Brigadier General Frank A. Armstrong
Frank A. Armstrong
Frank Alton Armstrong, Jr. was a brigadier general in the United States Army Air Forces and the inspiration for the main character in the novel and subsequent film, Twelve O'Clock High. After the war he became a lieutenant general in the United States Air Force.Armstrong was born in Hamilton,...
, and retained him as a staff officer, first as an air planner in the COSSAC (Chief of Staff Supreme Aliied Commander) headquarters until 1 August 1943, when Eisenhower named him deputy commander of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force
Allied Expeditionary Air Force
The Allied Expeditionary Air Force was a component of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force which controlled the tactical air power of the Allied forces during Operation Overlord.Its effectiveness was less than optimal on two counts...
. He conjointly was part of the Tactical Air Force Planning Committee, where he oversaw the planning for Operation Tidal Wave, the low-level bombing of oil refineries
Oil refinery
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful petroleum products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas...
at Ploieşti
Ploiesti
Ploiești is the county seat of Prahova County and lies in the historical region of Wallachia in Romania. The city is located north of Bucharest....
, Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, on 1 August 1943, and recommended approval of the Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission
Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission
The Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission was an air combat battle in World War II. A strategic bombing attack flown by B-17 Flying Fortresses of the U.S. Army Air Forces on August 17, 1943, it was conceived as an ambitious plan to cripple the German aircraft industry...
. While in Washington on this task, he was "captured" by Arnold and accompanied him to the Quadrant Conference
Quebec Conference, 1943
The First Quebec Conference was a highly secret military conference held during World War II between the British, Canadian and United States governments. The conference was held in Quebec City, August 17, 1943 – August 24, 1943. It took place at the Citadelle and at the Château Frontenac. The...
in August, where he personally briefed President Roosevelt on strategic bombing to that point.
B-29 operations planning
In October 1943, General Hansell was appointed chief of the Combined and Joint Staff Division, in the Office of the Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Plans, located at Headquarters USAAF. As such he became Air Planner on the Joint Planning Staff. He immediately had an impact on planning of strategic air attacks on Japan. The JPS draft outline denigrated strategic bombing and declared that an invasion of the home islands was the only means of defeating Japan, but Hansell successfully argued that an invasion should only be a contingency if bombing and a sea blockade of Japan failed to compel a surrender.Hansell accompanied President Roosevelt and the Joint Chiefs aboard the USS Iowa
USS Iowa (BB-61)
USS Iowa was the lead ship of her class of battleship and the fourth in the United States Navy to be named in honor of the 29th state...
to the Sextant Conference
Cairo Conference
The Cairo Conference of November 22–26, 1943, held in Cairo, Egypt, addressed the Allied position against Japan during World War II and made decisions about postwar Asia...
in November, then was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in December, working directly with Arnold. His main responsibility was developing the operational plans for the B-29 Superfortress
B-29 Superfortress
The B-29 Superfortress is a four-engine propeller-driven heavy bomber designed by Boeing that was flown primarily by the United States Air Forces in late-World War II and through the Korean War. The B-29 was one of the largest aircraft to see service during World War II...
, and he succeeded in gaining three key decisions from the JCS: there would be no diversion of B-29s to General Douglas MacArthur
Douglas MacArthur
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur was an American general and field marshal of the Philippine Army. He was a Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and played a prominent role in the Pacific theater during World War II. He received the Medal of Honor for his service in the...
, the schedule for Operation Forager was moved forward more than a year to secure bases for the B-29 in the Mariana Islands
Mariana Islands
The Mariana Islands are an arc-shaped archipelago made up by the summits of 15 volcanic mountains in the north-western Pacific Ocean between the 12th and 21st parallels north and along the 145th meridian east...
,The invasion, a pet project of CNO Admiral Ernest J. King, had tentatively been set for early 1946, if at all. and Twentieth Air Force
Twentieth Air Force
The Twentieth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command . It is headquartered at F.E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming.20 AF's primary mission is Intercontinental Ballistic Missile operations...
operations would be entirely independent of control by all three Pacific theater commanders (MacArthur, Chester W. Nimitz, and Joseph Stillwell), reporting directly to the JCS.
Hansell drew up the tactical doctrine, SOPs, and the table of organization and equipment of the Twentieth Air Force, which was to be commanded by Arnold personally, including use of AAF Air Staff as the staff of the Twentieth. In addition to his own Air Staff duties, Hansell became chief of staff of the Twentieth Air Force on 6 April 1944. When Arnold was incapacitated by a heart attack in May, Hansell acted as de facto commander of the Twentieth Air Force.
B-29 commander
On 28 August 1944, Arnold made Hansell commander of the XXI Bomber CommandXXI Bomber Command
The XXI Bomber Command was a unit of the Twentieth Air Force in Guam for strategic bombing during World War II.- Lineage:* Constituted as XXI Bomber Command on 1 Mar 1944, and activated the same day.-Assignments:...
, despite misgivings among several senior leaders that while a superb staff officer, he did not have the "temperament" to be a combat commander. Aware of Arnold’s legendary impatience, deputy AAF commander General Barney Giles, who was doubtful that Hansell could accomplish the task given him—setting up an effective air campaign in a brief period using an untried aircraft—obtained a commitment from Arnold that he would not relieve Hansell in only a few months. However Hansell’s tenure was threatened from the start because his replacement on the Air Staff, Major General Lauris Norstad
Lauris Norstad
Lauris Norstad was an American General in the United States Army Air Forces and United States Air Force.-Early life and military career:...
, did not support the concept of daylight precision bombing, instead advocating massive destruction of Japanese cities by firebombing
Firebombing
Firebombing is a bombing technique designed to damage a target, generally an urban area, through the use of fire, caused by incendiary devices, rather than from the blast effect of large bombs....
, a tactic that had been promoted in AAF planning circles as early as November 1943. Fire raids on Japan were rapidly gaining widespread acceptance among AAF leaders, including Arnold, both to defeat Japan before an invasion was mounted and to satisfy a perception that the American public wanted revenge for three bloody years of war. Hansell, however, opposed the tactic as both morally repugnant and militarily unnecessary.
XXI Bomber Command arrived on Saipan
Saipan
Saipan is the largest island of the United States Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands , a chain of 15 tropical islands belonging to the Marianas archipelago in the western Pacific Ocean with a total area of . The 2000 census population was 62,392...
on 12 October 1944, and from the start Hansell was beset by a host of serious command problems, the worst of which were continued teething problems with the B-29, tardy delivery of aircraft, aircrews untrained in high altitude formation flying, primitive airfield conditions, lack of an air service command for logistical support, no repair depots, a total absence of target intelligence, stubborn internal resistance to daylight operations by his sole combat wing, subordinates who lobbied for his removal, and Hansell’s inferiority in rank in dealing with other AAF commanders in the theater. Furthermore, Hansell was soon prohibited from flying combat missions with his command, possibly because of limited knowledge of the atomic bomb or the perception that he knew the existence of Ultra
Ultra
Ultra was the designation adopted by British military intelligence in June 1941 for wartime signals intelligence obtained by "breaking" high-level encrypted enemy radio and teleprinter communications at the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park. "Ultra" eventually became the standard...
.
Jet stream
Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow air currents found in the atmospheres of some planets, including Earth. The main jet streams are located near the tropopause, the transition between the troposphere and the stratosphere . The major jet streams on Earth are westerly winds...
winds, and as a result, appeared unproductive. Pressured by Arnold (through Norstad as an intermediary) for results, Hansell subjected his command to intensive corrective measures that caused more resentment among his aircrews. At the same time commanders in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
were strongly recommending removal of XX Bomber Command
XX Bomber Command
The XX Bomber Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with Far East Air Forces, based on Okinawa. It was inactivated on July 16, 1945.- History:...
to another theater as soon as possible, making Major General Curtis E. LeMay, now superior to Hansell in rank, available for command.
On 6 January 1945, Norstad visited Hansell’s headquarters and abruptly relieved him of command, replacing him with LeMay. Hansell was offered the option of commanding XX Bomber Command while it transitioned to Guam
Guam
Guam is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States located in the western Pacific Ocean. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government. Guam is listed as one of 16 Non-Self-Governing Territories by the Special Committee on Decolonization of the United...
, then becoming LeMay’s deputy. Although he and LeMay were friends, LeMay had been Hansell’s subordinate in the 1st Bomb Wing, and Hansell declined the offer. While all the command problems factored into his relief, the main reasons were Hansell’s persistence in daylight precision attacks, reluctance to night firebombing, Norstad's view that Hansell was an impediment to instituting incendiary attacks, and a perception by Arnold and Norstad that the public relations
Public relations
Public relations is the actions of a corporation, store, government, individual, etc., in promoting goodwill between itself and the public, the community, employees, customers, etc....
effort by XXI Bomber Command had been unsatisfactory in preparing the American public for such attacks.
Hansell left Guam on 21 January 1945. Unknown at the time, his precision daylight attacks had succeeded, both in the immediate and ineffective dispersion of the aircraft engine industry, and later in actual destruction on the final raid under his command. A more immediate legacy of his command was his creation, in conjunction with the U.S. Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
, of an effective air-sea rescue
Search and rescue
Search and rescue is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger.The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, mostly based upon terrain considerations...
system that saved half of all B-29 crews downed at sea in 1945.
Impact on strategic doctrine
Hansell outlined an alternate strategy for defeating Japan, using precision bombing as its basis, that he believed would have also succeeded by November 1945 while obviating the need for area bombing using incendiaries or the atomic bomb. He did not find fault with the incendiary strategy per se, but rather with the premise that fire-bombing was necessary because otherwise Japan could not be defeated except by invasion of her home islands. Historian Michael Sherry concluded that the case he presented was "powerful". Arnold by implication had erred in changing AAF strategy, especially taking into account the "deep and pervasive revulsion among the American people against strategic bombing of all sorts" that was a consequence.Historian and Hansell biographer Dr. Charles Griffith concluded that Hansell sacrificed his B-29 command and his later career on principle, adhering to the idea that precision rather than area bombing was not only more moral, but more effective as a strategy. His dismissal, Griffith argues, was a pivotal event in U.S. airpower doctrine, as the Air Force moved toward a strategy of bombing civilian populations, which led to an increasing dependence on the more potentially devastating, inflexible, and "Douhetian" doctrine of nuclear warfare that lasted for decades.
Conrad Crane took a somewhat different stance, arguing that despite the firebombing
Firebombing
Firebombing is a bombing technique designed to damage a target, generally an urban area, through the use of fire, caused by incendiary devices, rather than from the blast effect of large bombs....
campaign in Japan, American air commanders throughout World War II and thereafter placed an emphasis on precision bombing and avoiding civilian casualties. The use of precision guided weapons in the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
and beyond, he wrote, demonstrated "continued adherence to precision-bombing doctrine and...significant progress toward the ideal...first envisioned" by Hansell and the other Air Corps Tactical School theorists.
Hansell lectured on the theory of precision air attack throughout his life, particularly at the United States Air Force Academy
United States Air Force Academy
The United States Air Force Academy is an accredited college for the undergraduate education of officer candidates for the United States Air Force. Its campus is located immediately north of Colorado Springs in El Paso County, Colorado, United States...
and the Air War College
Air War College
The Air War College is a part of the United States Air Force's Air University, headquartered at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama. Air University's higher headquarters is Air Education and Training Command headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas. The Air War...
. He authored three books on air strategy: The Air War Plan That Defeated Hitler (1972), The Strategic Air War Against Japan (1980), and Strategic Air War Against Germany and Japan: A Memoir (1986). Hansell continued to study modern weapons systems, becoming an advocate of the Strategic Defense Initiative
Strategic Defense Initiative
The Strategic Defense Initiative was proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic...
and the B-2 Spirit
B-2 Spirit
The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit is an American heavy bomber with low observable stealth technology designed to penetrate dense anti-aircraft defenses and deploy both conventional and nuclear weapons. The bomber has a crew of two and can drop up to eighty -class JDAM GPS-guided bombs, or sixteen ...
bomber. However his main focus was in promoting technical advances in precision guided weapons to make precision bombing more practical and therefore more desirable as a military strategy.
Retirement
Following his removal from command on Guam, Hansell at his own request received a training assignment on 15 February 1945, command of the 38th Flying Training Wing at Williams FieldWilliams Air Force Base
Williams Air Force Base is a former United States Air Force base, located in Mesa, and about southeast of Phoenix, Arizona.It was active as a training base for both the United States Army Air Forces, as well as the USAF from 1941 until its closure in 1993...
, Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
.Fogerty, Historical Study 91, specifically states Williams Field, not Kirtland, as is often seen. In June 1945, he was transferred to Air Transport Command
Air Transport Command
Air Transport Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its mission was to meet the urgent demand for the speedy reinforcement of the United States' military bases worldwide during World War II, using an air supply system to supplement surface transport...
under his old mentor Lieutenant General Harold George, commanding the Caribbean Wing at West Palm Beach, Florida
West Palm Beach, Florida
West Palm Beach, is a city located on the Atlantic coast in southeastern Florida and is the most populous city in and county seat of Palm Beach County, the third most populous county in Florida with a 2010 population of 1,320,134. The city is also the oldest incorporated municipality in South Florida...
, from 30 September 1945 to 14 January 1946, and the North Atlantic Wing at Westover Field, Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
, from 1 July 1946 to 18 August 1946.
Hansell took early retirement due to a loss-of-hearing disability, retiring with the rank of brigadier general on 31 December 1946. He held positions as vice president of Peruvian International Airlines
Peruvian International Airlines
Peruvian International Airways was the first international airline from Peru and operated from 1947 to 1949.-Company history:The international air services provided to and from Peru from the mid forties until the beginning of the decade of the sixties was under dominance of the Panagra...
until Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
nationalized the airline in 1949, and vice president of South Atlantic Gas Company from 1949 until his recall to the military.
He was recalled to active duty on 15 July 1951, by Air Force Chief of Staff
Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
The Chief of Staff of the Air Force is a statutory office held by a four-star general in the United States Air Force, and is the most senior uniformed officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Air Force, and as such is the principal military advisor and a deputy to the Secretary of the...
Hoyt S. Vandenberg and assigned as Chief, Military Assistance Program Headquarters, USAF, acting as a senior program manager and advisor to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. On 5 September 1952, he was promoted to major general
Major general (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general...
. In April 1953, General Hansell was appointed the senior Air Force representative to the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group in the Research and Development Office of the Secretary of Defense, Washington, D.C. He retired a second time from the USAF in 1955.
Hansell worked for General Electric
General Electric
General Electric Company , or GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in Schenectady, New York and headquartered in Fairfield, Connecticut, United States...
, becoming head of its subsidiary
Subsidiary
A subsidiary company, subsidiary, or daughter company is a company that is completely or partly owned and wholly controlled by another company that owns more than half of the subsidiary's stock. The subsidiary can be a company, corporation, or limited liability company. In some cases it is a...
in the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
until 1967, when he retired to Hilton Head, South Carolina. He died on 14 November 1988, in Hilton Head, of heart failure and pulmonary edema
Pulmonary edema
Pulmonary edema , or oedema , is fluid accumulation in the air spaces and parenchyma of the lungs. It leads to impaired gas exchange and may cause respiratory failure...
, as he was preparing to leave for a lecture in Canada. He was interred with full military honors at the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery
United States Air Force Academy Cemetery
The United States Air Force Academy Cemetery is a cemetery at the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado.-Notable interments:* William J. Crawford, World War II Medal of Honor recipient...
.