Hellas (theme)
Encyclopedia
The Theme of Hellas was a Byzantine
military-civilian province (thema, theme) located in southern Greece
. The theme encompassed parts of Central Greece
, Thessaly
and, until circa 800, the Peloponnese
. It was established in the late 7th century, and survived until the late 11th/12th century.
of Achaea
. During the 7th century, the final collapse of the Danube
frontier allowed large-scale Slavic invasions and settlements to occur all over the Balkan peninsula. In Greece, the Slavic tribes raided and settled almost at will, aided by the Empire's preoccupation with countering the Muslim conquests
in the East. Most of the native Greek population
fled to the fortified cities, to off-shore islands or to Italy
.
The creation of the theme of Hellas is dated to sometime between 687 and 695, during the first reign of Justinian II
(r. 685–695 and 705–711), probably as a direct result of his anti-Slavic campaign of 688/689. The first strategos
of Hellas is attested in 695: Leontios
, formerly strategos of the Anatolic Theme
, who had fallen into disgrace following his defeat at the Battle of Sebastopolis. Although the contemporary sources do not apply the term "theme" to Hellas until after the 8th century, using the term strategia ("generalship") instead, it is almost certain that it was established from the outset as a full administrative entity, controlling those lands of the old province of Achaea that still remained under imperial control. The original extent of the theme is unclear and debated, but based on the extent of Byzantine control, its territory must have comprised the eastern coast of the mainland (parts of Thessaly
, Phocis
, Phthiotis
and Boeotia
, along with Attica
and Euboea
), possibly including the eastern Peloponnese
, as well as some Aegean islands like Skyros
and Kea
. It is unclear whether Athens
or Thebes
was the province's original capital; most likely Thebes, as it certainly filled this role in the early 10th century. In the second half of the 10th century, however, the strategos seat was transferred to Larissa
.
Given its lack of depth into the hinterland
, the theme was originally probably oriented mostly towards the sea. Emperor Justinian II settled several thousand Mardaites
there, who provided garrisons and crews for local naval squadrons. The number of land troops on the other hand remained rather low throughout the theme's existence, numbering perhaps 2,000 according to Warren Treadgold. The fleet of Hellas played a prominent role during the anti-iconoclast revolt of 726. During the course of the 8th century, however, imperial authority was gradually extended to the interior. The local Slavic inhabitants were Christianized
and subjected to Byzantine authority, often in autonomous districts under their own archontes
. This process was interrupted but not halted by another wave of Slavic settlement in the 740s. The anti-Slavic expedition of the eunuch minister Staurakios
in 783 restored and extended imperial control once again, especially in the Peloponnese and northern Greece. This eventually led to the splitting off of the Peloponnese to form a separate theme
around or shortly after the year 800.
In the 9th and early 10th centuries, Hellas suffered from Saracen
raids, especially after the fall of Crete
to the Arabs in the 820s, and by repeated Bulgarian
raids under Tsar Simeon
(r. 893–927) that reached even into the Peloponnese. Nevertheless, from the late 9th century on Hellas, along with the rest of Greece, shows signs of increased prosperity, such as the foundation of new towns and the establishment of new industries (most notably the silk industry
in Thebes). The Bulgarian threat was renewed under Tsar Samuel, who occupied Thessaly in 987 and launched several devastating raids into Central Greece and the Peloponnese until his defeat at the Battle of Spercheios
in 997. The region enjoyed a long period of peace thereafter, interrupted only by raids during the uprising of Petar Delyan (1040–1041) and the unsuccessful Norman attacks into Thessaly in 1082–1083.
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Hellas was often governed jointly with the Peloponnese under a single strategos, and as the civilian administration rose in importance, the same practice appears there as well, with protonotarioi, praitores
and kritai being appointed for both themes. Thessaly appears to have been detached from Hellas and joined to the theme of Thessalonica
from the early 11th century until sometime in the early 12th century. By the end of the 11th century, the joint theme of Hellas-Peloponnese came under the control of the megas doux
, the commander of the Byzantine navy
. Due to the latter's absence from the province, however, the local administration remained under the local praetor
, a position often held by senior and distinguished officials like the legal scholars Alexios Aristenos and Nicholas Hagiotheodorites. Increasingly, however, smaller jurisdictions appeared within the boundaries of both themes. These eventually evolved into the smaller districts variously termed oria, chartoularata and episkepseis in the 12th century, while the old themes of Hellas and the Peloponnese gradually disappear. The territory of Hellas remained under Byzantine control until the early 13th century (1204–1205), when, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade
, it came under control of the Latin states of Thessalonica
and Athens
.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
military-civilian province (thema, theme) located in southern Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
. The theme encompassed parts of Central Greece
Central Greece
Continental Greece or Central Greece , colloquially known as Roúmeli , is a geographical region of Greece. Its territory is divided into the administrative regions of Central Greece, Attica, and part of West Greece...
, Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
and, until circa 800, the Peloponnese
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus , is a large peninsula , located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth...
. It was established in the late 7th century, and survived until the late 11th/12th century.
History
"Hellas" was already in use in the 6th century to designate southern Greece in an administrative context, being employed in the Synekdemos as an alternative name for the Roman provinceRoman province
In Ancient Rome, a province was the basic, and, until the Tetrarchy , largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside of Italy...
of Achaea
Achaea (Roman province)
Achaea, or Achaia, was a province of the Roman Empire, consisting of the Peloponnese, eastern Central Greece and parts of Thessaly. It bordered on the north by the provinces of Epirus vetus and Macedonia...
. During the 7th century, the final collapse of the Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
frontier allowed large-scale Slavic invasions and settlements to occur all over the Balkan peninsula. In Greece, the Slavic tribes raided and settled almost at will, aided by the Empire's preoccupation with countering the Muslim conquests
Muslim conquests
Muslim conquests also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab conquests, began with the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He established a new unified polity in the Arabian Peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Muslim power.They...
in the East. Most of the native Greek population
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
fled to the fortified cities, to off-shore islands or to Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
.
The creation of the theme of Hellas is dated to sometime between 687 and 695, during the first reign of Justinian II
Justinian II
Justinian II , surnamed the Rhinotmetos or Rhinotmetus , was the last Byzantine Emperor of the Heraclian Dynasty, reigning from 685 to 695 and again from 705 to 711...
(r. 685–695 and 705–711), probably as a direct result of his anti-Slavic campaign of 688/689. The first strategos
Strategos
Strategos, plural strategoi, is used in Greek to mean "general". In the Hellenistic and Byzantine Empires the term was also used to describe a military governor...
of Hellas is attested in 695: Leontios
Leontios
Leontios was Byzantine emperor from 695 to 698. He came to power by overthrowing the Emperor Justinian II, but was overthrown in his turn by Tiberios III. His actual and official name was Leo , but he is known by the name used for him in Byzantine chronicles.- Early life :Leontios was born in...
, formerly strategos of the Anatolic Theme
Anatolic Theme
The Anatolic Theme , more properly known as the Theme of the Anatolics was a Byzantine theme in central Asia Minor...
, who had fallen into disgrace following his defeat at the Battle of Sebastopolis. Although the contemporary sources do not apply the term "theme" to Hellas until after the 8th century, using the term strategia ("generalship") instead, it is almost certain that it was established from the outset as a full administrative entity, controlling those lands of the old province of Achaea that still remained under imperial control. The original extent of the theme is unclear and debated, but based on the extent of Byzantine control, its territory must have comprised the eastern coast of the mainland (parts of Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
, Phocis
Phocis
Phocis is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the administrative region of Central Greece. It stretches from the western mountainsides of Parnassus on the east to the mountain range of Vardousia on the west, upon the Gulf of Corinth...
, Phthiotis
Phthiotis
Phthiotis is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the administrative region of Central Greece. The capital is the city of Lamia. It is bordered by the Malian Gulf to the east, Boeotia in the south, Phocis in the south, Aetolia-Acarnania in the southwest, Evrytania in the west,...
and Boeotia
Boeotia
Boeotia, also spelled Beotia and Bœotia , is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. It was also a region of ancient Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, the second largest city being Thebes.-Geography:...
, along with Attica
Attica
Attica is a historical region of Greece, containing Athens, the current capital of Greece. The historical region is centered on the Attic peninsula, which projects into the Aegean Sea...
and Euboea
Euboea
Euboea is the second largest Greek island in area and population, after Crete. The narrow Euripus Strait separates it from Boeotia in mainland Greece. In general outline it is a long and narrow, seahorse-shaped island; it is about long, and varies in breadth from to...
), possibly including the eastern Peloponnese
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus , is a large peninsula , located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth...
, as well as some Aegean islands like Skyros
Skyros
Skyros is an island in Greece, the southernmost of the Sporades, an archipelago in the Aegean Sea. Around the 2nd millennium BC and slightly later, the island was known as The Island of the Magnetes where the Magnetes used to live and later Pelasgia and Dolopia and later Skyros...
and Kea
Kea
The Kea is a large species of parrot found in forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand. About long, it is mostly olive-green with a brilliant orange under its wings and has a large narrow curved grey-brown upper beak. The Kea is the world's only alpine parrot...
. It is unclear whether Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
or Thebes
Thebes, Greece
Thebes is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. It played an important role in Greek myth, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus and others...
was the province's original capital; most likely Thebes, as it certainly filled this role in the early 10th century. In the second half of the 10th century, however, the strategos seat was transferred to Larissa
Larissa
Larissa is the capital and biggest city of the Thessaly region of Greece and capital of the Larissa regional unit. It is a principal agricultural centre and a national transportation hub, linked by road and rail with the port of Volos, the city of Thessaloniki and Athens...
.
Given its lack of depth into the hinterland
Hinterland
The hinterland is the land or district behind a coast or the shoreline of a river. Specifically, by the doctrine of the hinterland, the word is applied to the inland region lying behind a port, claimed by the state that owns the coast. The area from which products are delivered to a port for...
, the theme was originally probably oriented mostly towards the sea. Emperor Justinian II settled several thousand Mardaites
Mardaites
The Mardaites inhabited the highland regions of southern Anatolia, Isauria, Syria, and Lebanon. Their origins are little known, but they may have been of Armenian origin...
there, who provided garrisons and crews for local naval squadrons. The number of land troops on the other hand remained rather low throughout the theme's existence, numbering perhaps 2,000 according to Warren Treadgold. The fleet of Hellas played a prominent role during the anti-iconoclast revolt of 726. During the course of the 8th century, however, imperial authority was gradually extended to the interior. The local Slavic inhabitants were Christianized
Christianization
The historical phenomenon of Christianization is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire peoples at once...
and subjected to Byzantine authority, often in autonomous districts under their own archontes
Archon
Archon is a Greek word that means "ruler" or "lord", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem ἀρχ-, meaning "to rule", derived from the same root as monarch, hierarchy, and anarchy.- Ancient Greece :In ancient Greece the...
. This process was interrupted but not halted by another wave of Slavic settlement in the 740s. The anti-Slavic expedition of the eunuch minister Staurakios
Staurakios (eunuch)
Staurakios was a Byzantine eunuch official, who rose to be one of the most important and influential associates of Byzantine empress Irene of Athens . He effectively acted as chief minister during her regency for her young son, Emperor Constantine VI Staurakios (or Stauracius) (died on June 3,...
in 783 restored and extended imperial control once again, especially in the Peloponnese and northern Greece. This eventually led to the splitting off of the Peloponnese to form a separate theme
Peloponnese (theme)
The Theme of the Peloponnese was a Byzantine military-civilian province encompassing the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece. It was established in circa 800, and its capital was Corinth.-History:...
around or shortly after the year 800.
In the 9th and early 10th centuries, Hellas suffered from Saracen
Saracen
Saracen was a term used by the ancient Romans to refer to a people who lived in desert areas in and around the Roman province of Arabia, and who were distinguished from Arabs. In Europe during the Middle Ages the term was expanded to include Arabs, and then all who professed the religion of Islam...
raids, especially after the fall of Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
to the Arabs in the 820s, and by repeated Bulgarian
First Bulgarian Empire
The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state founded in the north-eastern Balkans in c. 680 by the Bulgars, uniting with seven South Slavic tribes...
raids under Tsar Simeon
Simeon I of Bulgaria
Simeon I the Great ruled over Bulgaria from 893 to 927, during the First Bulgarian Empire. Simeon's successful campaigns against the Byzantines, Magyars and Serbs led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion ever, making it the most powerful state in contemporary Eastern Europe...
(r. 893–927) that reached even into the Peloponnese. Nevertheless, from the late 9th century on Hellas, along with the rest of Greece, shows signs of increased prosperity, such as the foundation of new towns and the establishment of new industries (most notably the silk industry
Byzantine silk
Byzantine silk is silk woven in the Byzantine Empire from about the 4th century until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.The Byzantine capital of Constantinople was the first significant silk-weaving center in Europe. Silk was one of the most important commodities in the Byzantine economy, used by...
in Thebes). The Bulgarian threat was renewed under Tsar Samuel, who occupied Thessaly in 987 and launched several devastating raids into Central Greece and the Peloponnese until his defeat at the Battle of Spercheios
Battle of Spercheios
The Battle of Spercheios took place in 997 AD, on the shores of the river of the same name in present-day central Greece. It was fought between a Bulgarian army led by Tsar Samuil, that in the previous year had penetrated far south into Greece, and a Byzantine army under the command of Nikephoros...
in 997. The region enjoyed a long period of peace thereafter, interrupted only by raids during the uprising of Petar Delyan (1040–1041) and the unsuccessful Norman attacks into Thessaly in 1082–1083.
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Hellas was often governed jointly with the Peloponnese under a single strategos, and as the civilian administration rose in importance, the same practice appears there as well, with protonotarioi, praitores
Praetor
Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
and kritai being appointed for both themes. Thessaly appears to have been detached from Hellas and joined to the theme of Thessalonica
Thessalonica (theme)
The Theme of Thessalonica was a military-civilian province of the Byzantine Empire located in the southern Balkans, comprising varying parts of Central and Western Macedonia and centred around Thessalonica, the Empire's second-most important city.-History:In Late Antiquity, Thessalonica was the...
from the early 11th century until sometime in the early 12th century. By the end of the 11th century, the joint theme of Hellas-Peloponnese came under the control of the megas doux
Megas Doux
The megas doux was one of the highest positions in the hierarchy of the later Byzantine Empire, denoting the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy. It is sometimes also given by the half-Latinizations megaduke or megadux...
, the commander of the Byzantine navy
Byzantine navy
The Byzantine navy was the naval force of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. Like the empire it served, it was a direct continuation from its imperial Roman predecessor, but played a far greater role in the defense and survival of the state then its earlier iterations...
. Due to the latter's absence from the province, however, the local administration remained under the local praetor
Praetor
Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
, a position often held by senior and distinguished officials like the legal scholars Alexios Aristenos and Nicholas Hagiotheodorites. Increasingly, however, smaller jurisdictions appeared within the boundaries of both themes. These eventually evolved into the smaller districts variously termed oria, chartoularata and episkepseis in the 12th century, while the old themes of Hellas and the Peloponnese gradually disappear. The territory of Hellas remained under Byzantine control until the early 13th century (1204–1205), when, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade
Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade was originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of Western Europe invaded and conquered the Christian city of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire...
, it came under control of the Latin states of Thessalonica
Kingdom of Thessalonica
The Kingdom of Thessalonica was a short-lived Crusader State founded after the Fourth Crusade over the conquered Byzantine lands.- Background :...
and Athens
Duchy of Athens
The Duchy of Athens was one of the Crusader States set up in Greece after the conquest of the Byzantine Empire during the Fourth Crusade, encompassing the regions of Attica and Boeotia, and surviving until its conquest by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century....
.