Hepburn romanization
Encyclopedia
The is named after James Curtis Hepburn
, who used it to transcribe the sounds of the Japanese language
into the Latin alphabet
in the third edition of his Japanese–English dictionary
, published in 1887. The system was originally proposed by the in 1885. The revised edition by Romaji-Hirome-kai in 1908 is called Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji (standard style) and this system has been used as the Hepburn system in Japan traditionally.
The original and revised variants of Hepburn remain the most widely used methods of transcription of Japanese. As Hepburn is based on English and Italian phonology, an English speaker unfamiliar with Japanese will generally pronounce a word romanized in Hepburn more accurately than a word romanized in the competing Kunrei-shiki
.
ordinance
and is now known as Kunrei-shiki
. The ordinance was temporarily overturned by the Supreme Commander Allied Powers (SCAP) during the Occupation of Japan, but was reissued (with slight revisions) in 1954.
In 1972, a revised version of Hepburn was codified as ANSI
standard Z39.11-1972. It was proposed in 1989 as a draft for ISO 3602, but rejected in favor of Kunrei-shiki
. The Z39.11-1972 standard was consequently deprecated on October 6, 1994.
Although Hepburn is not a government standard, some government agencies mandate it. For example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
requires the use of Hepburn on passports, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
requires the use of Hepburn on transport signs, including road signs and railway station signs.
In many other areas where it lacks de jure
status, Hepburn remains the de facto
standard. Signs and notices in city offices and police stations, at shrines, temples and attractions also use it. English-language newspaper
s and media
use the simplified form of Hepburn. Cities and prefectures
use it in information for English-speaking residents and visitors, and English-language publications by the Japanese Foreign Ministry use simplified Hepburn too. Official tourism information put out by the government uses it, as do guidebooks, local and foreign, on Japan.
Many students of Japanese as a foreign language learn Hepburn.
In Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses:
Details of these variants can be found below.
is based on English phonology
. More technically, where syllables constructed systematically according to the Japanese syllabary contain the "unstable" consonant for the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that, as an English speaker would pronounce it, better matches the real sound, for example し is written shi not * si.
Some linguists such as H.E.Palmer, Daniel Jones
and Otto Jespersen
object to Hepburn, as the pronunciation-based spellings can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations. Supporters argue that Hepburn is not intended as a linguistic tool.
The combinations of vowels are written as follows in traditional/modified Hepburn::
In traditional Hepburn:
In modified Hepburn:
In traditional Hepburn:
In modified Hepburn:
, its vowel is lengthened and it is always indicated by a macron (ā, ī, ū, ē, ō):: ra + (chōonpu
) + me + n = rāmen - Ramen: hi + (chōonpu) + ta + (chōonpu) = hītā – Heater: su + (chōonpu) + pa + (chōonpu) + ma + n = Sūpāman – Superman: se + (chōonpu) + ra + (chōonpu) = sērā – Sailor: o + (chōonpu) + ke + su + to + ra = ōkesutora - Orchestra
s. This follows the rules of the traditional and modified Hepburn: systems, and is considered to be standard. Tokyo – not indicated at all. This is common for Japanese words that have been adopted into English. This is also the convention used in the de facto Hepburn used in signs and other English-language information around Japan, mentioned in the paragraph on legal status.
Tôkyô – indicated with circumflex
es. Circumflexes are how long vowels are indicated by the alternative Nihon-shiki
and Kunrei-shiki
romanizations. Circumflexes are often used when a word processor does not allow macrons. Tohkyoh – indicated with an h (only applies after o). This is sometimes known as "passport Hepburn", as the Japanese Foreign Ministry has authorized (but not required) this usage in passports.
Toukyou – written using kana
spelling: ō as ou or oo (depending on the kana) and ū as uu. This is sometimes called wāpuro
style, as this is how text is entered into a Japanese word processor (wādo purosessā) using a keyboard with Roman characters. This method most accurately represents the way that vowels are written in kana, differentiating between おう (as in とうきょう , written Toukyou in this system) and おお (as in とおい , written tooi in this system).Tookyoo – written by doubling the long vowels. Some dictionaries such as Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese dictionary and Basic English writers' Japanese-English wordbook follow this style, and this is also used in the JSL form of romanization. This rule is also used when writing words without reference to any particular system.
In modified Hepburn:
In modified Hepburn:
Digraphs with orange backgrounds are the general ones used for loanwords or foreign places or names, and the ones with blue backgrounds are used for more accurate transliterations of foreign sounds, both suggested by the Cabinet of Japan
's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Katakana combinations with beige backgrounds are suggested by the American National Standards Institute
and the British Standards Institution as possible uses. Ones with purple backgrounds appear on the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting.
James Curtis Hepburn
James Curtis Hepburn, M.D., LL.D. was a physician who became a Christian missionary. He is known for the Hepburn romanization system for transliteration of the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet, which he popularized in his Japanese–English dictionary.- Biography :Hepburn was born in...
, who used it to transcribe the sounds of the Japanese language
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
into the Latin alphabet
Latin alphabet
The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most recognized alphabet used in the world today. It evolved from a western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, which was adopted and modified by the Etruscans who ruled early Rome...
in the third edition of his Japanese–English dictionary
Dictionary
A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically, with usage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information; or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon...
, published in 1887. The system was originally proposed by the in 1885. The revised edition by Romaji-Hirome-kai in 1908 is called Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji (standard style) and this system has been used as the Hepburn system in Japan traditionally.
The original and revised variants of Hepburn remain the most widely used methods of transcription of Japanese. As Hepburn is based on English and Italian phonology, an English speaker unfamiliar with Japanese will generally pronounce a word romanized in Hepburn more accurately than a word romanized in the competing Kunrei-shiki
Kunrei-shiki
is a Japanese romanization system, i.e. a system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. It is abbreviated as Kunrei-shiki. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki using Kunrei-shiki itself....
.
Legal status
Hepburn is based on English phonology and has competed with the alternative Nihon-shiki romanization, which was developed in Japan as a replacement of Japanese script. In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission was appointed to compare the two. The Commission eventually decided in favor of a slightly modified version of Nihon-shiki, which was proclaimed to be Japan's official romanization for all purpose by a September 21, 1937 cabinetCabinet of Japan
The of Japan is the executive branch of the government of Japan. It consists of the Prime Minister and up to fourteen other members, called Ministers of State. The Prime Minister is designated by the Diet, and the remaining ministers are appointed and dismissed by the Prime Minister...
ordinance
Japanese law
-Historical Developments:Pre-Modern History The early law of Japan was heavily influenced by Chinese law. Little is known about Japanese law prior to the seventh century, when the Ritsuryō was developed and codified. Before Chinese characters were transplanted and adopted by the Japanese, the...
and is now known as Kunrei-shiki
Kunrei-shiki
is a Japanese romanization system, i.e. a system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. It is abbreviated as Kunrei-shiki. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki using Kunrei-shiki itself....
. The ordinance was temporarily overturned by the Supreme Commander Allied Powers (SCAP) during the Occupation of Japan, but was reissued (with slight revisions) in 1954.
In 1972, a revised version of Hepburn was codified as ANSI
American National Standards Institute
The American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international...
standard Z39.11-1972. It was proposed in 1989 as a draft for ISO 3602, but rejected in favor of Kunrei-shiki
Kunrei-shiki
is a Japanese romanization system, i.e. a system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. It is abbreviated as Kunrei-shiki. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki using Kunrei-shiki itself....
. The Z39.11-1972 standard was consequently deprecated on October 6, 1994.
Although Hepburn is not a government standard, some government agencies mandate it. For example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)
The is a cabinet level ministry of Japan responsible for the country's foreign relations.The ministry is due to the second term of the third article of the National Government Organization Act , and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Establishment Act establishes the ministry...
requires the use of Hepburn on passports, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Japan)
The , abbreviated MLIT, is a ministry of the Japanese government. It is responsible for one-third of all the laws and orders in Japan and the largest Japanese ministry in terms of employees, as well as the second-largest organ of the Japanese government after the Ministry of Defense...
requires the use of Hepburn on transport signs, including road signs and railway station signs.
In many other areas where it lacks de jure
De jure
De jure is an expression that means "concerning law", as contrasted with de facto, which means "concerning fact".De jure = 'Legally', De facto = 'In fact'....
status, Hepburn remains the de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
standard. Signs and notices in city offices and police stations, at shrines, temples and attractions also use it. English-language newspaper
Newspaper
A newspaper is a scheduled publication containing news of current events, informative articles, diverse features and advertising. It usually is printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper such as newsprint. By 2007, there were 6580 daily newspapers in the world selling 395 million copies a...
s and media
Mass media
Mass media refers collectively to all media technologies which are intended to reach a large audience via mass communication. Broadcast media transmit their information electronically and comprise of television, film and radio, movies, CDs, DVDs and some other gadgets like cameras or video consoles...
use the simplified form of Hepburn. Cities and prefectures
Prefectures of Japan
The prefectures of Japan are the country's 47 subnational jurisdictions: one "metropolis" , Tokyo; one "circuit" , Hokkaidō; two urban prefectures , Osaka and Kyoto; and 43 other prefectures . In Japanese, they are commonly referred to as...
use it in information for English-speaking residents and visitors, and English-language publications by the Japanese Foreign Ministry use simplified Hepburn too. Official tourism information put out by the government uses it, as do guidebooks, local and foreign, on Japan.
Many students of Japanese as a foreign language learn Hepburn.
Variants of Hepburn romanization
There are many variants of Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are:- Traditional Hepburn, as defined in various editions of Hepburn's dictionary, with the third edition (1886) often considered authoritative (although changes in kana usageHistorical kana usageThe , or , refers to the in general use until orthographic reforms after World War II; the current orthography was adopted by Cabinet order in 1946. By that point the historical orthography was no longer in accord with Japanese pronunciation...
must be accounted for). This variant is characterized by the rendering of syllabic n as m before the consonants b, m and p, e.g. Shimbashi for 新橋. - Modified Hepburn, also known as Revised Hepburn, in which the rendering of syllabic n as m before certain consonants is no longer used, resulting in e.g. Shinbashi for 新橋. This style was introduced in the third edition of KenkyushaKenkyushaThe is a publishing house with headquarters in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. Its product range is centered around foreign language—mainly English—dictionaries and textbooks. The name, Kenkyūsha, can be translated as "study/research company".- History :...
's New Japanese-English Dictionary (1954), adopted by the Library of CongressLibrary of CongressThe Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the United States, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and...
as one of its ALA-LC romanizationALA-LC RomanizationALA-LC is a set of standards for romanization, or the representation of text in other writing systems using the Latin alphabet. The initials stand for American Library Association - Library of Congress....
s, and is the most common version of the system today.
In Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses:
- Kunrei-shiki romanization , which permits Hepburn system and Nihon-shiki romanization conditionally. The first five columns in the chart 2 are defined for Hepburn system (see also here).
- Railway Standard , which follows the Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji. All JR railways and other major railways use this type for station names.
- Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Standard, which follows the modified Hepburn style. This is used for road signs.
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs Standard , a permissive standard with explicitly allows the use of in personal names, notably for passports. In particular, rendering the syllabic n as m before b, m, p, and romanizing long o as any of oh, oo or ou (e.g. any of Satoh, Satoo or Satou for 佐藤) is permitted.
Details of these variants can be found below.
Obsolete variants
The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburn's dictionary are primarily of historical interest. Notable differences from the third and later versions include:Second version
- エ and ヱ were written as ye (e.g. Yedo)
- ズ and ヅ were written as dzu (e.g. kudzuKudzuKudzu is a plant in the genus Pueraria in the pea family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. It is a climbing, coiling, and trailing vine native to southern Japan and southeast China. Its name comes from the Japanese name for the plant, . It is a weed that climbs over trees or shrubs and grows so...
, tsudzuku) - キャ, キョ, and キュ were written as kiya, kiyo and kiu
- クワ was written as kwa (e.g. Kwannon)
First version
The following differences are in addition to those in the second version:- ス was written as sz
- ツ was written as tsz
- ズ and ヅ were written as dz
- クワ was written as kuwa
Features of Hepburn romanization
The main feature of Hepburn is that its spellingOrthography
The orthography of a language specifies a standardized way of using a specific writing system to write the language. Where more than one writing system is used for a language, for example Kurdish, Uyghur, Serbian or Inuktitut, there can be more than one orthography...
is based on English phonology
Phonology
Phonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
. More technically, where syllables constructed systematically according to the Japanese syllabary contain the "unstable" consonant for the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that, as an English speaker would pronounce it, better matches the real sound, for example し is written shi not * si.
Some linguists such as H.E.Palmer, Daniel Jones
Daniel Jones (phonetician)
Daniel Jones was a London-born British phonetician. A pupil of Paul Passy, professor of phonetics at the École des Hautes Études at the Sorbonne , Daniel Jones is considered by many to be the greatest phonetician of the early 20th century...
and Otto Jespersen
Otto Jespersen
Jens Otto Harry Jespersen or Otto Jespersen was a Danish linguist who specialized in the grammar of the English language.He was born in Randers in northern Jutland and attended Copenhagen University, earning degrees in English, French, and Latin...
object to Hepburn, as the pronunciation-based spellings can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations. Supporters argue that Hepburn is not intended as a linguistic tool.
Long vowels
The long vowels are generally indicated by macrons. Since this diacritical sign usually is missing on typewriter and in the computer, also the circumflex is often used.The combinations of vowels are written as follows in traditional/modified Hepburn::
A + A
In traditional and modified:- The combination of a + a is written aa, if a word-border exists between them.: ma + a + ta + ra + shi + i = maatarashii – Brand-new
In traditional Hepburn:
- The long vowel a is written aa: o + ba + a + sa + n = obaa-san – Grandmother
In modified Hepburn:
- The long vowel a is indicated by a macron in other case:: o + ba + a + sa + n = obāsan – Grandmother
I + I
In traditional and modified:- The combination i + i is always written ii.: ni + i + sa + n = niisan – (Older) Brother: o + ji + i + sa + n = ojiisan – Grandfather: o + i + shi + i = oishii – Delicious: ni + i + ga + ta = Niigata: ha + i + i + ro = haiiro – Grey
U + U
In traditional and modified:- The combination u + u is written uu, if a word-border exists between them or it is the end part of terminal form of a verb:: ku + u = kuu – Eat: nu + u = nuu – Sew
- The long vowel u is indicated by a macron in other case:: su + u + ga + ku = sūgaku – MathematicsMathematicsMathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
: chu + u + i = chūi – Attention: gu + u + ta + ra = gūtara – Loafer
E + E
In traditional and modified:- The combination e + e is written ee, if a word-border exists between them:: nu + re + e + n = nureen – Open veranda
In traditional Hepburn:
- The long vowel e is written e or ee in other case:: ne + e + sa + n = nesan – Older sister
In modified Hepburn:
- The long vowel e is indicated by a macron in other case:: o + ne + e + sa + n = onēsan – Older sister
O + O
In traditional and modified:- The combination o + o is written oo, if a word-border exists between them:: ko + o + do + ri = koodori – Dance
- The long vowel o is indicated by a macron in other case:: o + o + fu + na = Ōfuna – ŌfunaOfuna Stationis a railway station in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan, operated by East Japan Railway Company .-Lines:Ōfuna Station is served by the Tōkaidō Main Line, Shōnan-Shinjuku Line, Negishi Line , Yokosuka Line as well as the Shonan Monorail....
: to + o + ma + wa + ri = tōmawari – Roundabout route: o + o + sa + ka = Ōsaka – OsakaOsakais a city in the Kansai region of Japan's main island of Honshu, a designated city under the Local Autonomy Law, the capital city of Osaka Prefecture and also the biggest part of Keihanshin area, which is represented by three major cities of Japan, Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe...
O + U
In traditional and modified:- The combination o + u is written ou, if a word-border exists between them or it is the end part of terminal form of a verb:: o + u = ou – To chase: ma + yo + u = mayou – To get lost: ko + u + ma = kouma – Foal
- The long vowel o is indicated by a macron in other case:: ga + （t) + ko + u = gakkō – SchoolSchoolA school is an institution designed for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools...
: to + u + kyo + u = Tōkyō – TokyoTokyo, ; officially , is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. Tokyo is the capital of Japan, the center of the Greater Tokyo Area, and the largest metropolitan area of Japan. It is the seat of the Japanese government and the Imperial Palace, and the home of the Japanese Imperial Family...
: be + n + kyo + u = benkyō – Lerning: de + n + po + u = dempō or denpō – TelegraphyTelegraphyTelegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages via some form of signalling technology. Telegraphy requires messages to be converted to a code which is known to both sender and receiver...
: ki + n + yo + u + bi = kinyōbi or kin'yōbi – FridayFridayFriday is the day between Thursday and Saturday. In countries adopting Monday-first conventions as recommended by the international standard ISO 8601, it is the fifth day of the week. It is the sixth day in countries that adopt a Sunday-first convention as in Abrahamic tradition...
: ha + na + so + u = hanasō – Let's talk!
E + I
In traditional and modified:- The combination e + i is written ei.: ga + ku + se + i = gakusei – StudentStudentA student is a learner, or someone who attends an educational institution. In some nations, the English term is reserved for those who attend university, while a schoolchild under the age of eighteen is called a pupil in English...
: ke + i + ke + n = keiken – Experience: se + i + fu + ku = seifuku – UniformUniformA uniform is a set of standard clothing worn by members of an organization while participating in that organization's activity. Modern uniforms are worn by armed forces and paramilitary organizations such as police, emergency services, security guards, in some workplaces and schools and by inmates...
: me + i = mei – Niece: ma + ne + i + te = maneite – Call/invite and then
Other combination of vowels
All remaining combinations of two different vowels are written separately:: ka + ru + i = karui – Light: u + gu + i + su = uguisu – Bush warbler: o + i = oi – NephewChōonpu
When a kana is followed by a chōonpuChōonpu
The , also known as ', ', or Katakana-Hiragana Prolonged Sound Mark by the Unicode Consortium, is a Japanese symbol which indicates a chōon, or a long vowel of two morae in length. Its form is a horizontal or vertical line in the center of the text with the width of one kanji or kana character...
, its vowel is lengthened and it is always indicated by a macron (ā, ī, ū, ē, ō):: ra + (chōonpu
Chōonpu
The , also known as ', ', or Katakana-Hiragana Prolonged Sound Mark by the Unicode Consortium, is a Japanese symbol which indicates a chōon, or a long vowel of two morae in length. Its form is a horizontal or vertical line in the center of the text with the width of one kanji or kana character...
) + me + n = rāmen - Ramen: hi + (chōonpu) + ta + (chōonpu) = hītā – Heater: su + (chōonpu) + pa + (chōonpu) + ma + n = Sūpāman – Superman: se + (chōonpu) + ra + (chōonpu) = sērā – Sailor: o + (chōonpu) + ke + su + to + ra = ōkesutora - Orchestra
Variations
There are many variations of the Hepburn system for indicating the long vowels. For example, 東京 (とうきょう) can be written as:Macron
A macron, from the Greek , meaning "long", is a diacritic placed above a vowel . It was originally used to mark a long or heavy syllable in Greco-Roman metrics, but now marks a long vowel...
s. This follows the rules of the traditional and modified Hepburn: systems, and is considered to be standard.
Circumflex
The circumflex is a diacritic used in the written forms of many languages, and is also commonly used in various romanization and transcription schemes. It received its English name from Latin circumflexus —a translation of the Greek περισπωμένη...
es. Circumflexes are how long vowels are indicated by the alternative Nihon-shiki
Nihon-shiki
Nihon-shiki or Nippon-shiki Rōmaji is a romanization system for transliterating the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. In discussion about romaji, it is abbreviated as Nihon-shiki or Nippon-shiki. Among the major romanization systems for Japanese, Nippon-shiki is the most regular, and has...
and Kunrei-shiki
Kunrei-shiki
is a Japanese romanization system, i.e. a system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. It is abbreviated as Kunrei-shiki. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki using Kunrei-shiki itself....
romanizations. Circumflexes are often used when a word processor does not allow macrons.
Kana
Kana are the syllabic Japanese scripts, as opposed to the logographic Chinese characters known in Japan as kanji and the Roman alphabet known as rōmaji...
spelling: ō as ou or oo (depending on the kana) and ū as uu. This is sometimes called wāpuro
Wapuro romaji
, or kana spelling, is a style of romanization of Japanese originally devised for entering Japanese into word processors while using a Western QWERTY keyboard....
style, as this is how text is entered into a Japanese word processor (wādo purosessā) using a keyboard with Roman characters. This method most accurately represents the way that vowels are written in kana, differentiating between おう (as in とうきょう , written Toukyou in this system) and おお (as in とおい , written tooi in this system).
- However, using this method, the pronunciation of ou becomes ambiguous; it could either be a long o or two different vowels, o and u. See Wāpuro rōmaji#Phonetic accuracy for details.
Particles
In traditional Hepburn:- When he へ is used as a particle it is written he.
- When ha は is used as a particle it is written wa.
- When wo を is used as a particle it is written wo.
In modified Hepburn:
- When he へ is used as a particle it is written e.
- When ha は is used as a particle it is written wa.
- When wo を is used as a particle it is written o.
Syllabic n
In traditional Hepburn:- Syllabic n (ん) is written as n before consonants, but as m before labial consonantLabial consonantLabial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...
s, i.e. b, m, and p. It is sometimes written as n- (with a hyphen) before vowels and y (to avoid confusion between, for example, んあ n + a and な na, and んや n + ya and にゃ nya), but its hyphen usage is not clear.
- Examples: annai あんない, gumma ぐんま, shinyo しんよ, shin-yō しんよう
In modified Hepburn:
- The rendering m before labial consonants is not used, being replaced with n. It is written n (with an apostrophe) before vowels and y.
- Examples: annai あんない, kin'en きんえん, gunma ぐんま
Double consonants
- Double (or "geminate") consonants are marked by doubling the consonant following the sokuonSokuonThe is a Japanese symbol consisting of a small hiragana or katakana tsu. In less formal language it is called or , meaning "little tsu". Compare to a full-sized tsu:The sokuon is used for various purposes...
, っ, except for sh → ssh, ch → tch, ts → tts.- けっか
- ざっし zasshi, いっしょ issho, みっつ mittsu, こっち kotchi (not kocchi), まっちゃ matchaMatcharefers to finely-milled green tea, most popular in Japan. The cultural activity called the Japanese tea ceremony centers on the preparation, serving, and drinking of matcha. In modern times, matcha has also come to be used to flavour and dye foods such as mochi and soba noodles, green tea ice cream...
(not maccha)
Hepburn romanization charts
| Gojūon Gojuon The is a Japanese ordering of kana.It is named for the 5×10 grid in which the characters are displayed, but the grid is not completely filled, and, further, there is an extra character added outside the grid at the end: with 5 gaps and 1 extra character, the current number of distinct kana in a... |
Yōon Yoon is a feature of the Japanese language in which a mora is formed with an added sound.Yōon are represented in hiragana using a kana ending in i, such as き , plus a smaller-than-usual version of one of the three y kana, ya, yu or yo. For example kyō, "today", is written きょう, using a small version of... |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| あ ア a | い イ i | う ウ u | え エ e | お オ o | |||
| か カ ka | き キ ki | く ク ku | け ケ ke | こ コ ko | きゃ キャ kya | きゅ キュ kyu | きょ キョ kyo |
| さ サ sa | し シ shi | す ス su | せ セ se | そ ソ so | しゃ シャ sha | しゅ シュ shu | しょ ショ sho |
| た タ ta | ち チ chi | つ ツ tsu | て テ te | と ト to | ちゃ チャ cha | ちゅ チュ chu | ちょ チョ cho |
| な ナ na | に ニ ni | ぬ ヌ nu | ね ネ ne | の ノ no | にゃ ニャ nya | にゅ ニュ nyu | にょ ニョ nyo |
| は ハ ha | ひ ヒ hi | ふ フ fu | へ ヘ he | ほ ホ ho | ひゃ ヒャ hya | ひゅ ヒュ hyu | ひょ ヒョ hyo |
| ま マ ma | み ミ mi | む ム mu | め メ me | も モ mo | みゃ ミャ mya | みゅ ミュ myu | みょ ミョ myo |
| や ヤ ya | ゆ ユ yu | よ ヨ yo | |||||
| ら ラ ra | り リ ri | る ル ru | れ レ re | ろ ロ ro | りゃ リャ rya | りゅ リュ ryu | りょ リョ ryo |
| わ ワ wa | † | † | ‡ | ||||
| ん ン n-n | |||||||
| が ガ ga | ぎ ギ gi | ぐ グ gu | げ ゲ ge | ご ゴ go | ぎゃ ギャ gya | ぎゅ ギュ gyu | ぎょ ギョ gyo |
| ざ ザ za | じ ジ ji | ず ズ zu | ぜ ゼ ze | ぞ ゾ zo | じゃ ジャ ja | じゅ ジュ ju | じょ ジョ jo |
| だ ダ da | ぢ ヂ ji | づ ヅ zu | で デ de | ど ド do | ぢゃ ヂャ ja | ぢゅ ヂュ ju | ぢょ ヂョ jo |
| ば バ ba | び ビ bi | ぶ ブ bu | べ ベ be | ぼ ボ bo | びゃ ビャ bya | びゅ ビュ byu | びょ ビョ byo |
| ぱ パ pa | ぴ ピ pi | ぷ プ pu | ぺ ペ pe | ぽ ポ po | ぴゃ ピャ pya | ぴゅ ピュ pyu | ぴょ ピョ pyo |
- † — The characters in are rare historical characters and are obsolete in modern Japanese. In modern usage they are either undefined, or romanized varyingly with or without the w.
- ‡ — The characters in are rarely used outside of their status as a particle in modern Japanese, and romanization follows the rules above, but they are sometimes used in loanwords where it is transliterated as wo.
For extended katakana
These combinations are used mainly to represent the sounds in words in other languages.Digraphs with orange backgrounds are the general ones used for loanwords or foreign places or names, and the ones with blue backgrounds are used for more accurate transliterations of foreign sounds, both suggested by the Cabinet of Japan
Cabinet of Japan
The of Japan is the executive branch of the government of Japan. It consists of the Prime Minister and up to fourteen other members, called Ministers of State. The Prime Minister is designated by the Diet, and the remaining ministers are appointed and dismissed by the Prime Minister...
's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Katakana combinations with beige backgrounds are suggested by the American National Standards Institute
American National Standards Institute
The American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international...
and the British Standards Institution as possible uses. Ones with purple backgrounds appear on the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting.
| イィ yi | イェ ye | |||
| ウァ wa | ウィ wi | ウゥ wu* | ウェ we | ウォ wo |
| ウュ wyu | ||||
| ヴァ va | ヴィ vi | ヴ vu⁑ | ヴェ ve | ヴォ vo |
| ヴャ vya | ヴュ vyu | ヴィェ vye | ヴョ vyo | |
| キェ kye | ||||
| ギェ gye | ||||
| クァ kwa | クィ kwi | クェ kwe | クォ kwo | |
| クヮ kwa | ||||
| グァ gwa | グィ gwi | グェ gwe | グォ gwo | |
| グヮ gwa | ||||
| シェ she | ||||
| ジェ je | ||||
| スィ si | ||||
| ズィ zi | ||||
| チェ che | ||||
| ツァ tsa | ツィ tsi | ツェ tse | ツォ tso | |
| ツュ tsyu | ||||
| ティ ti | トゥ tu | |||
| テュ tyu | ||||
| ディ di | ドゥ du | |||
| デュ dyu | ||||
| ニェ nye | ||||
| ヒェ hye | ||||
| ビェ bye | ||||
| ピェ pye | ||||
| ファ fa | フィ fi | フェ fe | フォ fo | |
| フャ fya | フュ fyu | フィェ fye | フョ fyo | |
| ホゥ hu | ||||
| ミェ mye | ||||
| リェ rye | ||||
| ラ゜ la | リ゜ li | ル゜ lu | レ゜ le | ロ゜ lo |
| ⁂ | ⁂ | ⁂ | ⁂ | |
- * — The use of ウゥ to represent wu is rare in modern Japanese outside of Internet slang and transcription of the Latin digraph VV into katakana.
- ⁑ ヴ has a rarely used hiraganaHiraganais a Japanese syllabary, one basic component of the Japanese writing system, along with katakana, kanji, and the Latin alphabet . Hiragana and katakana are both kana systems, in which each character represents one mora...
form in ゔ that is also vu in the Hepburn romanization systems. - ⁂ — The characters in are obsolete in modern Japanese and used very rarely.