Hokan languages
Encyclopedia
The Hokan language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families spoken in California
, Arizona
and Mexico
. In nearly a century since Edward Sapir
first proposed the "Hokan" hypothesis, little additional evidence has been found that these families were related
to each other. Although some Hokan families may indeed be related, especially in northern California, few linguists today expect Hokan as a whole to prove to be valid, and the term is often used as a convenient label to simplify one of the most linguistically diverse areas of the world.
The name Hokan is loosely based on the word for "two" in the various Hokan languages: *xwak in Proto-Yuman, c-oocj in Seri
, ha'k in Achumawi
, etc.
Geographic distribution of the Hokan languages suggests that they became separated around the great central valley of California by the influx of later-arriving Penutian
and other peoples; archaeological evidence for this is summarized in Chase-Dunn & Mann (1998). These languages are spoken by Native American communities around and east of Mount Shasta
, others near Lake Tahoe
, the Pomo
on the California coast, and the Yuman peoples along the lower Colorado River
. Some linguists also include Chumash, between San Francisco and Los Angeles, and other families, but the evidence is insubstantial, and most now restrict Hokan to some or all of the languages listed below.
The Yurumanguí language
of Colombia
was claimed to be Hokan by Rivet. This claim has not been accepted by historical linguists.
A relationship between Salinan and Seri
was proposed by Edward Sapir
at a time when the information about Seri was very scanty and when hypotheses about genetic relationships were being proposed on the basis of such. Bright provided a small amount of data which might have been developed as supporting evidence, but never was. The relationship is now considered doubtful and is certainly not at the level of a close-knit language family. M. Langdon (1974) only reported the proposal in her historical review, and suggested instead (in a short paragraph) that perhaps a relationship between Seri and some other languages (Chumash, and Chontal of Oaxaca) might be possible. Both Seri and Salinan are currently considered language isolates since evidence relating them to the putative Hokan family has not been systematically or convincingly presented.
The inclusion of the Tequistlatecan languages has also not received much support. The Chumash languages were also once included, but that position has been almost universally abandoned.
. One form of the carvings was known as Pecked curvilinear nucleated
, a notable example of which can be found on Ring Mountain, California. Although all of the symbols are not clearly translated, it is clear that considerable thought and effort went into the production of these carvings, many of which survive to the present day.
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
and Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
. In nearly a century since Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir was an American anthropologist-linguist, widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the discipline of linguistics....
first proposed the "Hokan" hypothesis, little additional evidence has been found that these families were related
Comparative method
In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the method of internal reconstruction, which analyzes the internal...
to each other. Although some Hokan families may indeed be related, especially in northern California, few linguists today expect Hokan as a whole to prove to be valid, and the term is often used as a convenient label to simplify one of the most linguistically diverse areas of the world.
The name Hokan is loosely based on the word for "two" in the various Hokan languages: *xwak in Proto-Yuman, c-oocj in Seri
Seri language
Seri is a language isolate spoken by the Seri people by between 716 and 900 people in two villages on the coast of Sonora, Mexico.-Classification:...
, ha'k in Achumawi
Achumawi language
The Achumawi language is the native language spoken by the Pit River people of present-day California. The term Achumawi is an anglicization of the name of the Fall River band, ajúmmááwí, from ajúmmá "river"...
, etc.
Geographic distribution of the Hokan languages suggests that they became separated around the great central valley of California by the influx of later-arriving Penutian
Penutian languages
Penutian is a proposed grouping of language families that includes many Native American languages of western North America, predominantly spoken at one time in Washington, Oregon, and California. The existence of a Penutian stock or phylum has been the subject of debate among specialists. Even the...
and other peoples; archaeological evidence for this is summarized in Chase-Dunn & Mann (1998). These languages are spoken by Native American communities around and east of Mount Shasta
Mount Shasta
Mount Shasta is located at the southern end of the Cascade Range in Siskiyou County, California and at is the second highest peak in the Cascades and the fifth highest in California...
, others near Lake Tahoe
Lake Tahoe
Lake Tahoe is a large freshwater lake in the Sierra Nevada of the United States. At a surface elevation of , it is located along the border between California and Nevada, west of Carson City. Lake Tahoe is the largest alpine lake in North America. Its depth is , making it the USA's second-deepest...
, the Pomo
Pomo people
The Pomo people are an indigenous peoples of California. The historic Pomo territory in northern California was large, bordered by the Pacific Coast to the west, extending inland to Clear Lake, and mainly between Cleone and Duncans Point...
on the California coast, and the Yuman peoples along the lower Colorado River
Colorado River
The Colorado River , is a river in the Southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, approximately long, draining a part of the arid regions on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The watershed of the Colorado River covers in parts of seven U.S. states and two Mexican states...
. Some linguists also include Chumash, between San Francisco and Los Angeles, and other families, but the evidence is insubstantial, and most now restrict Hokan to some or all of the languages listed below.
The Yurumanguí language
Yurumanguí language
Yurumanguí is an extinct language of Colombia. It is known to us only through a short list of words and phrases recorded by Father Christoval Romero and given by him to Captain Sebastián Lanchas de Estrada, who included them in the report of his travels of 1768...
of Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
was claimed to be Hokan by Rivet. This claim has not been accepted by historical linguists.
Family outline
Hokan languages (28):- Esselen–Yuman languages (10)
- Esselen languageEsselen languageEsselen is a language isolate that was spoken by the Esselen Native Americans on the Central Coast of California, south of Monterey....
- Yuman languages
- Esselen language
- Northern Hokan languages (13)
- Chimariko languageChimariko languageChimariko is an extinct language isolate formerly spoken in Trinity County in northwestern California by Chimariko peoples.-Genetic relations:...
- Karok–Shasta languages (4)
- Karuk languageKaruk languageKaruk or Karok is an endangered language of northwestern California. It is the traditional language of the Karuk people, most of whom now speak English....
- Shasta–Palaihnihan languages (3)
- Palaihnihan languagesPalaihnihan languages-Family division:Palaihnihan is said to comprise:# Atsugewi # Achumawi -Genetic relations:The basis of this Palaihnihan grouping is weakened by poor quality of data...
(2) - Shastan languagesShastan languagesThe Shastan family consisted of four languages, spoken in present-day northern California and southern Oregon.-Family division:# Konomihu # New River Shasta # Okwanuchu # Shasta ...
- Palaihnihan languages
- Karuk language
- Pomoan languagesPomoan languagesPomoan is a family of endangered languages spoken in northern California by the Pomo people on the Pacific Coast. According to the 2000 census, there are 255 speakers of the languages...
(7) - Yana languageYana languageYana is an extinct language isolate formerly spoken in north-central California between the Feather and Pit rivers in what is now Shasta and Tehama counties....
- Chimariko language
- Salinan languageSalinan languageSalinan was the indigenous language of the Salinan people of the central coast of California. It has been extinct since the death of the last speaker in 1958....
- Washo language
A relationship between Salinan and Seri
Seri language
Seri is a language isolate spoken by the Seri people by between 716 and 900 people in two villages on the coast of Sonora, Mexico.-Classification:...
was proposed by Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir was an American anthropologist-linguist, widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the discipline of linguistics....
at a time when the information about Seri was very scanty and when hypotheses about genetic relationships were being proposed on the basis of such. Bright provided a small amount of data which might have been developed as supporting evidence, but never was. The relationship is now considered doubtful and is certainly not at the level of a close-knit language family. M. Langdon (1974) only reported the proposal in her historical review, and suggested instead (in a short paragraph) that perhaps a relationship between Seri and some other languages (Chumash, and Chontal of Oaxaca) might be possible. Both Seri and Salinan are currently considered language isolates since evidence relating them to the putative Hokan family has not been systematically or convincingly presented.
The inclusion of the Tequistlatecan languages has also not received much support. The Chumash languages were also once included, but that position has been almost universally abandoned.
Petroglyphs
Hokan peoples left rock carvings, which can be construed as some of the earliest "written language" from the western part of North AmericaNorth America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
. One form of the carvings was known as Pecked curvilinear nucleated
Pecked curvilinear nucleated
Pecked curvilinear nucleated, in archaeology, is a form of prehistoric rock carving. The term was originally proposed by Teresa Miller and Reed Haslam in 1976 to describe a widespread type of rock carving in western North America. The form is characterized by a circular or oval groove element,...
, a notable example of which can be found on Ring Mountain, California. Although all of the symbols are not clearly translated, it is clear that considerable thought and effort went into the production of these carvings, many of which survive to the present day.
Sources
- Kaufman, Terrence. 1988. "A Research Program for Reconstructing Proto-Hokan: First Gropings." In Scott DeLancey, ed. Papers from the 1988 Hokan–Penutian Languages Workshop, pp. 50–168. Eugene, Oregon: Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon. (University of Oregon Papers in Linguistics. Publications of the Center for Amerindian Linguistics and Ethnography 1.)
- Marlett, Stephen A. 2008. The Seri and Salinan connection revisited. International Journal of American Linguistics 74.3: 393–99.
- C. Michael Hogan (2008) Ring Mountain, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=19244
- Greg White and Mark Basgal. 1993. There Grows a Green Tree: Papers in Honor of David A. Fredrickson, Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Davis, Calif., 423 pages ISBN 1883019125, 9781883019129