Huaynaputina
Encyclopedia
Huaynaputina is a stratovolcano
located in a volcanic upland in southern Peru
. The volcano does not have an identifiable mountain profile, but instead has the form of a large volcanic crater
. It has produced high-potassium
andesite
and dacite
. On 19 February 1600, it exploded catastrophically (Volcanic Explosivity Index
—or VEI—6), in the largest volcanic explosion in South America
in historic times. The eruption continued with a series of events into March. An account of the event was included in Fray Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa
's, Compendio y Descripción de las Indias, which was translated into English as Compendium and description of the West Indies in 1942.
, 80 kilometres (50 mi) of Arequipa
. The volcano is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, the segment of the Andes running through Peru and Chile. It is north of at least one another caldera complex with a resurgent dome
.
Despite the volcano's listed elevation of 4800 metres (15,748 ft), Huaynaputina has very little prominence, less than 1000 metres (3,281 ft). The mountain resides within a horseshoe-shaped crater 2.5 kilometres (2 mi) in width, and includes three 100 metres (328 ft) deep cones which formed from ash fallout of the 1600 eruption. Another external vent formed a maar
just outside the caldera.
, not much is known of the region's history. It is likely natives made human sacrifice
s ritualistically to the volcano, also sacrificing animals and articles of clothing. Though the Spanish introduced Catholicism and ended the practice of sacrifice, Navarro (1992) maintains that the indigenous people probably related the volcano's eruption to a lack of sacrifice which had angered Supay
, god of death. Father Alonso Ruiz of Arequipa predicted a "hit from heaven" in 1599, at which time activity may have begun at the volcano.
of the eastern edge of the Nazca Plate
under the western edge of the South American Plate
occurs about 160 kilometres (99 mi) west of Peru and Chile, at a rate of 9 to 11 centimetres (4 in) per year at 30 degrees south latitude. This subduction process has resulted in the formation of the Peru–Chile Trench, an oceanic trench
in the Pacific Ocean
. It also produced the Andean Volcanic Belt
and the rest of the Andes.
of the Central Volcanic Zone is unusually thick, the volcanoes that occur differ from the rest of the Andean edifices. Huaynaputina is rich in andesitic and dacitic rocks, which form a calc-alkalic suite high in potassium
. The current crater is underlain by sedimentary
and igneous rock
from the Barroso formation on its western edge, which sits atop a layer of gneiss
and granite
from the Precambrian
basement
that is cut by intrusive dikes
and faults. The eastern edge of Huaynaputina's caldera has been excavated by the Rio Tambo and tapers off into a gorge, while its northern and eastern edges lie atop sediment
from the Yura formation and intrusive rock including granodiorite
and tonalite
approximately 22.8 mya (million years ago), respectively.
The history of the Huaynaputina region is marked by silicic
volcanism, where lava is rich in silica. Records of silicic eruptions begin with remnants from the Barroso formation, from the Miocene
. Examination of the area's basement reveals rich evidence of intrusive and volcanic activity, most recently at the slightly older Ticsani Volcano, which bears a striking similarity to Huaynaputina in composition and age.
At 5 P.M. on February 19, Huaynaputina erupted violently, sending volcanic ash
into the atmosphere. Observers described the event as "a big explosion with cannonball-like explosions" that had the appearance of an enormous fire. Lava ran down the flanks of the mountain, creating river-like pyroclastic flows; the lava that flowed down the southern side mixed with water from the Rio Tambo to create lahar
s. One hour after the eruption, ash began to fall from the sky, and within 24 hours, Arequipa was covered with 25 centimetres (10 in) of ash.
Intermittent eruptions occurred for a little less than a month, concluding on March 5.
When Huaynaputina exploded, it produced about 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of tephra
and pyroclastic flow
s traveled 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) to the east and southeast, and lahar
s – volcanic mudflows – destroyed several villages and reached the coast of the Pacific Ocean
, a distance of 120 kilometres (74.6 mi). The eruption began with a Plinian
plume that extended into the stratosphere
, and the ashfall and accompanying earthquake
s caused substantial damage to the major cities of Arequipa
(70 kilometres (43.5 mi) to the west) and Moquegua
.
Ashfall was reported 250–500 km (155.3–310.7 ) away, throughout southern Peru and in what is now northern Chile
and western Bolivia
. The ash layer now forms a useful stratigraphic marker layer
throughout Peru.
In total, the volcano killed more than 1500 people, and ash buried ten villages. The atmospheric spike of acid as a result of the eruption was higher than that of Krakatau. Regional agricultural economies took 150 years to fully recover.
(Southern Hemispheric records are less complete), where 1601 was the coldest year in six centuries, leading to a famine in Russia
.
, Switzerland
and Latvia
, there were bitterly cold winters in 1600–1602; in 1601 in France
, the wine
harvest came late; additionally, production of wine collapsed in Germany
and colonial Peru
.
had one of its earliest freezings in 500 years. In China
, peach trees bloomed late.
, the sulfuric acid
spike was larger than that from Krakatau (1883).
Stratovolcano
A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a tall, conical volcano built up by many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, explosive eruptions...
located in a volcanic upland in southern Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
. The volcano does not have an identifiable mountain profile, but instead has the form of a large volcanic crater
Volcanic crater
A volcanic crater is a circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity. It is typically a basin, circular in form within which occurs a vent from which magma erupts as gases, lava, and ejecta. A crater can be of large dimensions, and sometimes of great depth...
. It has produced high-potassium
Potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number 19. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the reaction.Potassium and sodium are...
andesite
Andesite
Andesite is an extrusive igneous, volcanic rock, of intermediate composition, with aphanitic to porphyritic texture. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between basalt and dacite. The mineral assemblage is typically dominated by plagioclase plus pyroxene and/or hornblende. Magnetite,...
and dacite
Dacite
Dacite is an igneous, volcanic rock. It has an aphanitic to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite. The relative proportions of feldspars and quartz in dacite, and in many other volcanic rocks, are illustrated in the QAPF diagram...
. On 19 February 1600, it exploded catastrophically (Volcanic Explosivity Index
Volcanic Explosivity Index
The Volcanic Explosivity Index was devised by Chris Newhall of the U.S. Geological Survey and Stephen Self at the University of Hawaii in 1982 to provide a relative measure of the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions....
—or VEI—6), in the largest volcanic explosion in South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
in historic times. The eruption continued with a series of events into March. An account of the event was included in Fray Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa
Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa
Fray Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa was a Spanish monk of the Discalced Carmelites originally from Jerez de la Frontera whose Compendio y Descripcion de las Indias Occidentales has become a source of detail for the history of South America, since the manuscript's discovery in the Vatican Library in...
's, Compendio y Descripción de las Indias, which was translated into English as Compendium and description of the West Indies in 1942.
Geography and structure
Huanaputina lies in Southern Peru's Moquegua RegionMoquegua Region
Moquegua is a small department in southern Peru that extends from the coast to the highlands. The region's name is of Quechua origin and means "quiet place". The regional capital is the city of Moquegua, but the port city of Ilo is more commercially active....
, 80 kilometres (50 mi) of Arequipa
Arequipa
Arequipa is the capital city of the Arequipa Region in southern Peru. With a population of 836,859 it is the second most populous city of the country...
. The volcano is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, the segment of the Andes running through Peru and Chile. It is north of at least one another caldera complex with a resurgent dome
Resurgent dome
In geology, a resurgent dome is a dome formed by swelling or rising of a caldera floor due to movement in the magma chamber beneath it. Unlike a lava dome, a resurgent dome is not formed by the extrusion of highly viscous lava onto the surface, but rather by the uplift and deformation of the...
.
Despite the volcano's listed elevation of 4800 metres (15,748 ft), Huaynaputina has very little prominence, less than 1000 metres (3,281 ft). The mountain resides within a horseshoe-shaped crater 2.5 kilometres (2 mi) in width, and includes three 100 metres (328 ft) deep cones which formed from ash fallout of the 1600 eruption. Another external vent formed a maar
Maar
A maar is a broad, low-relief volcanic crater that is caused by a phreatomagmatic eruption, an explosion caused by groundwater coming into contact with hot lava or magma. A maar characteristically fills with water to form a relatively shallow crater lake. The name comes from the local Moselle...
just outside the caldera.
History
Prior to the Spanish colonization of the AmericasSpanish colonization of the Americas
Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions...
, not much is known of the region's history. It is likely natives made human sacrifice
Human sacrifice
Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more human beings as part of a religious ritual . Its typology closely parallels the various practices of ritual slaughter of animals and of religious sacrifice in general. Human sacrifice has been practised in various cultures throughout history...
s ritualistically to the volcano, also sacrificing animals and articles of clothing. Though the Spanish introduced Catholicism and ended the practice of sacrifice, Navarro (1992) maintains that the indigenous people probably related the volcano's eruption to a lack of sacrifice which had angered Supay
Supay
In the Aymara and Inca mithologies, Supay or Zupay was both the god of death and ruler of the Uca Pacha, the Incan underworld, as well as a race of demons. Supay is associated with miners' rituals....
, god of death. Father Alonso Ruiz of Arequipa predicted a "hit from heaven" in 1599, at which time activity may have begun at the volcano.
Geology
Tectonic setting
SubductionSubduction
In geology, subduction is the process that takes place at convergent boundaries by which one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate, sinking into the Earth's mantle, as the plates converge. These 3D regions of mantle downwellings are known as "Subduction Zones"...
of the eastern edge of the Nazca Plate
Nazca Plate
]The Nazca Plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction along the Peru-Chile Trench of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate is largely responsible for the...
under the western edge of the South American Plate
South American Plate
The South American Plate is a continental tectonic plate which includes the continent of South America and also a sizeable region of the Atlantic Ocean seabed extending eastward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge....
occurs about 160 kilometres (99 mi) west of Peru and Chile, at a rate of 9 to 11 centimetres (4 in) per year at 30 degrees south latitude. This subduction process has resulted in the formation of the Peru–Chile Trench, an oceanic trench
Oceanic trench
The oceanic trenches are hemispheric-scale long but narrow topographic depressions of the sea floor. They are also the deepest parts of the ocean floor....
in the Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.At 165.2 million square kilometres in area, this largest division of the World...
. It also produced the Andean Volcanic Belt
Andean Volcanic Belt
The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. It formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic...
and the rest of the Andes.
Local geology
Because the crustLithosphere
The lithosphere is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. On Earth, it comprises the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater.- Earth's lithosphere :...
of the Central Volcanic Zone is unusually thick, the volcanoes that occur differ from the rest of the Andean edifices. Huaynaputina is rich in andesitic and dacitic rocks, which form a calc-alkalic suite high in potassium
Potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number 19. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the reaction.Potassium and sodium are...
. The current crater is underlain by sedimentary
Sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock are types of rock that are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution....
and igneous rock
Igneous rock
Igneous rock is one of the three main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava...
from the Barroso formation on its western edge, which sits atop a layer of gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss is a common and widely distributed type of rock formed by high-grade regional metamorphic processes from pre-existing formations that were originally either igneous or sedimentary rocks.-Etymology:...
and granite
Granite
Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granite usually has a medium- to coarse-grained texture. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic...
from the Precambrian
Precambrian
The Precambrian is the name which describes the large span of time in Earth's history before the current Phanerozoic Eon, and is a Supereon divided into several eons of the geologic time scale...
basement
Basement (geology)
In geology, the terms basement and crystalline basement are used to define the rocks below a sedimentary platform or cover, or more generally any rock below sedimentary rocks or sedimentary basins that are metamorphic or igneous in origin...
that is cut by intrusive dikes
Dike (geology)
A dike or dyke in geology is a type of sheet intrusion referring to any geologic body that cuts discordantly across* planar wall rock structures, such as bedding or foliation...
and faults. The eastern edge of Huaynaputina's caldera has been excavated by the Rio Tambo and tapers off into a gorge, while its northern and eastern edges lie atop sediment
Sediment
Sediment is naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of fluids such as wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity acting on the particle itself....
from the Yura formation and intrusive rock including granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite is an intrusive igneous rock similar to granite, but containing more plagioclase than orthoclase-type feldspar. Officially, it is defined as a phaneritic igneous rock with greater than 20% quartz by volume where at least 65% of the feldspar is plagioclase. It usually contains abundant...
and tonalite
Tonalite
Tonalite is an igneous, plutonic rock, of felsic composition, with phaneritic texture. Feldspar is present as plagioclase with 10% or less alkali feldspar. Quartz is present as more than 20% of the rock. Amphiboles and pyroxenes are common accessory minerals.In older references tonalite is...
approximately 22.8 mya (million years ago), respectively.
The history of the Huaynaputina region is marked by silicic
Silicic
Silicic is a term used to describe magma or igneous rock rich in silica. The amount of silica that constitutes a silicic rock is usually put at at least 65 percent. Granite and rhyolite are typical silicic rocks....
volcanism, where lava is rich in silica. Records of silicic eruptions begin with remnants from the Barroso formation, from the Miocene
Miocene
The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words and and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene...
. Examination of the area's basement reveals rich evidence of intrusive and volcanic activity, most recently at the slightly older Ticsani Volcano, which bears a striking similarity to Huaynaputina in composition and age.
1600 eruption
A few days prior to the eruption, someone reported booming noise from the volcano and fog-like gas being emitted from its crater. The locals scrambled to appease the volcano, preparing girls, pets, and flowers for sacrifice. During the sacrifice ceremony, the volcano ejected ash. By February 15, the activity had noticeably increased, as earthquakes began to occur. By February 18, seismic activity occurred as frequently as three or four times every fifteen minutes, some tremors powerful enough to wake sleepers up.At 5 P.M. on February 19, Huaynaputina erupted violently, sending volcanic ash
Volcanic ash
Volcanic ash consists of small tephra, which are bits of pulverized rock and glass created by volcanic eruptions, less than in diameter. There are three mechanisms of volcanic ash formation: gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions; thermal contraction from chilling on contact...
into the atmosphere. Observers described the event as "a big explosion with cannonball-like explosions" that had the appearance of an enormous fire. Lava ran down the flanks of the mountain, creating river-like pyroclastic flows; the lava that flowed down the southern side mixed with water from the Rio Tambo to create lahar
Lahar
A lahar is a type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a river valley. The term is a shortened version of "berlahar" which originated in the Javanese language of...
s. One hour after the eruption, ash began to fall from the sky, and within 24 hours, Arequipa was covered with 25 centimetres (10 in) of ash.
Intermittent eruptions occurred for a little less than a month, concluding on March 5.
When Huaynaputina exploded, it produced about 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of tephra
Tephra
200px|thumb|right|Tephra horizons in south-central [[Iceland]]. The thick and light coloured layer at center of the photo is [[rhyolitic]] tephra from [[Hekla]]....
and pyroclastic flow
Pyroclastic flow
A pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving current of superheated gas and rock , which reaches speeds moving away from a volcano of up to 700 km/h . The flows normally hug the ground and travel downhill, or spread laterally under gravity...
s traveled 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) to the east and southeast, and lahar
Lahar
A lahar is a type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a river valley. The term is a shortened version of "berlahar" which originated in the Javanese language of...
s – volcanic mudflows – destroyed several villages and reached the coast of the Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.At 165.2 million square kilometres in area, this largest division of the World...
, a distance of 120 kilometres (74.6 mi). The eruption began with a Plinian
Plinian eruption
Plinian eruptions, also known as 'Vesuvian eruptions', are volcanic eruptions marked by their similarity to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 ....
plume that extended into the stratosphere
Stratosphere
The stratosphere is the second major layer of Earth's atmosphere, just above the troposphere, and below the mesosphere. It is stratified in temperature, with warmer layers higher up and cooler layers farther down. This is in contrast to the troposphere near the Earth's surface, which is cooler...
, and the ashfall and accompanying earthquake
Earthquake
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time...
s caused substantial damage to the major cities of Arequipa
Arequipa
Arequipa is the capital city of the Arequipa Region in southern Peru. With a population of 836,859 it is the second most populous city of the country...
(70 kilometres (43.5 mi) to the west) and Moquegua
Moquegua
Moquegua is a city in southern Peru, located in the Moquegua Region, of which it is the regional capital. It is also capital of Mariscal Nieto Province and Moquegua District. It is located 1144 kilometers south from the capital city of Lima.-History:...
.
Ashfall was reported 250–500 km (155.3–310.7 ) away, throughout southern Peru and in what is now northern Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
and western Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
. The ash layer now forms a useful stratigraphic marker layer
Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy, a branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering . It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks....
throughout Peru.
In total, the volcano killed more than 1500 people, and ash buried ten villages. The atmospheric spike of acid as a result of the eruption was higher than that of Krakatau. Regional agricultural economies took 150 years to fully recover.
Russia
The explosion had effects on climate around the Northern HemisphereNorthern Hemisphere
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of its equator—the word hemisphere literally means “half sphere”. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator...
(Southern Hemispheric records are less complete), where 1601 was the coldest year in six centuries, leading to a famine in Russia
Russian famine of 1601–1603
The Russian famine of 1601–1603 was Russia's worst famine in terms of proportional effect on the population, killing perhaps two million people, a third of Russians, during the Time of Troubles, when the country was unsettled politically and later invaded by the Polish Commonwealth...
.
Elsewhere in Europe
In EstoniaEstonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
, Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
and Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
, there were bitterly cold winters in 1600–1602; in 1601 in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, the wine
Wine
Wine is an alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, or other nutrients. Grape wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast...
harvest came late; additionally, production of wine collapsed in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and colonial Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
.
Asia
In Japan, Lake SuwaLake Suwa
is a lake in the central part of Nagano Prefecture, Japan. It ranks 24th in Japan in surface area.Lake Suwa is the site of , an interesting natural phenomenon. The lake has a natural hot spring under the surface, so that when the top freezes in the winter, the lower waters are still warm and...
had one of its earliest freezings in 500 years. In China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, peach trees bloomed late.
Greenland
In GreenlandGreenland
Greenland is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for...
, the sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is a strong mineral acid with the molecular formula . Its historical name is oil of vitriol. Pure sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, colorless, viscous liquid. The salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates...
spike was larger than that from Krakatau (1883).