IEEE 802.11
Encyclopedia
IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards for implementing wireless local area network
(WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE
LAN
/MAN
Standards Committee (IEEE 802
). The base version of the standard IEEE 802.11-2007 has had subsequent amendments. These standards provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi
brand name.
techniques that use the same basic protocol. The most popular are those defined by the 802.11b and 802.11g protocols, which are amendments to the original standard. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard, but 802.11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11g and 802.11n. 802.11n is a new multi-streaming modulation technique. Other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are service amendments and extensions or corrections to the previous specifications.
802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz
ISM band
, operating in the United States
under Part 15
of the US Federal Communications Commission
Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference
from microwave oven
s, cordless telephone
s and Bluetooth
devices. 802.11b and 802.11g control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using direct-sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS) and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
(OFDM) signaling methods, respectively. 802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band, which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 non-overlapping channels rather than the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band, where all channels overlap. Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) may be realized, depending on the environment.
The segment of the radio frequency
spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one through six of 802.11b and 802.11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio
band. Licensed amateur radio operator
s may operate 802.11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption.
for unlicensed use.
In 1991 NCR Corporation
/AT&T
(now Alcatel-Lucent
and LSI Corporation
) invented the precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein
, The Netherlands. The inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems; the first wireless products were brought on the market under the name WaveLAN
with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s.
Vic Hayes
, who held the chair of IEEE 802.11 for 10 years and has been called the "father of Wi-Fi" was involved in designing the initial 802.11b and 802.11a standards within the IEEE
.
In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance
was formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi
trademark under which most products are sold.
code. It specified three alternative physical layer
technologies: diffuse infrared
operating at 1 Mbit/s; frequency-hopping spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and direct-sequence spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. The latter two radio technologies used microwave
transmission over the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band
at 2.4 GHz. Some earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U.S.
900 MHz ISM band.
Legacy 802.11 with direct-sequence spread spectrum was rapidly supplanted and popularized by 802.11b.
Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point of being crowded, using the relatively unused 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant advantage. However, this high carrier frequency
also brings a disadvantage: the effective overall range of 802.11a is less than that of 802.11b/g. In theory, 802.11a signals are absorbed more readily by walls and other solid objects in their path due to their smaller wavelength and, as a result, cannot penetrate as far as those of 802.11b. In practice, 802.11b typically has a higher range at low speeds (802.11b will reduce speed to 5 Mbit/s or even 1 Mbit/s at low signal strengths). 802.11a too suffers from interference , but locally there may be fewer signals to interfere with, resulting in less interference and better throughput.
802.11b devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include: microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors, and cordless telephones.
based transmission scheme as 802.11a. It operates at a maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s exclusive of forward error correction codes, or about 22 Mbit/s average throughput. 802.11g hardware is fully backwards compatible with 802.11b hardware and therefore is encumbered with legacy issues that reduce throughput when compared to 802.11a by ~21%.
The then-proposed 802.11g standard was rapidly adopted by consumers starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the desire for higher data rates as well as to reductions in manufacturing costs. By summer 2003, most dual-band 802.11a/b products became dual-band/tri-mode, supporting a and b/g in a single mobile adapter card or access point. Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the lingering technical process; in an 802.11g network, however, activity of an 802.11b participant will reduce the data rate of the overall 802.11g network.
Like 802.11b, 802.11g devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band, for example wireless keyboards.
, e
, g, h
, i
, j
) with the base standard. Upon approval on March 8, 2007, 802.11REVma was renamed to the then-current base standard IEEE 802.11-2007.
's certification of products conforming to a 2007 draft of the 802.11n proposal.
Availability of channels is regulated by country, constrained in part by how each country allocates radio spectrum
to various services. At one extreme, Japan permits the use of all 14 channels for 802.11b, while other countries such as Spain initially allowed only channels 10 and 11, and France only allowed 10, 11, 12 and 13. They now allow channels 1 through 13. North America and some Central and South American countries allow only 1 through 11.
Besides specifying the centre frequency of each channel, 802.11 also specifies (in Clause 17) a spectral mask
defining the permitted distribution of power across each channel. The mask requires that the signal be attenuated
by at least 30 dB
from its peak energy at ±11 MHz from the centre frequency, the sense in which channels are effectively 22 MHz wide. One consequence is that stations can only use every fourth or fifth channel without overlap, typically 1, 6 and 11 in the Americas, and in theory, 1, 5, 9 and 13 in Europe although 1, 6, and 11 is typical there too. Another is that channels 1–13 effectively require the band 2.401–2.483 GHz, the actual allocations being, for example, 2.400–2.4835 GHz in the UK, 2.402–2.4735 GHz in the US, etc.
Since the spectral mask only defines power output restrictions up to ±11 MHz from the center frequency to be attenuated by −50 dBr, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. It is more correct to say that, given the separation between channels 1, 6, and 11, the signal on any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to minimally interfere with a transmitter on any other channel. Due to the near-far problem
a transmitter can impact a receiver on a "non-overlapping" channel, but only if it is close to the victim receiver (within a meter) or operating above allowed power levels.
Although the statement that channels 1, 6, and 11 are "non-overlapping" is limited to spacing or product density, the 1–6–11 guideline has merit. If transmitters are closer together than channels 1, 6, and 11 (for example, 1, 4, 7, and 10), overlap between the channels may cause unacceptable degradation of signal quality and throughput. However, overlapping channels may be used under certain circumstances. This way, more channels are available.
A regdomain in IEEE 802.11 is a regulatory region. Different countries define different levels of allowable transmitter power, time that a channel can be occupied, and different available channels. Domain codes are specified for the United States, Canada, ETSI (Europe)
, Spain, France, Japan, and China.
Most wifi
devices default to regdomain 0, which means least common denominator settings, i.e. the device will not transmit at a power above the allowable power in any nation, nor will it use frequencies that are not permitted in any nation.
The regdomain setting is often made difficult or impossible to change so that the end users do not conflict with local regulatory agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission
.
Frames are divided into very specific and standardized sections. Each frame consists of a MAC header, payload and frame check sequence
(FCS). Some frames may not have the payload. The first two bytes of the MAC header form a frame control field specifying the form and function of the frame. The frame control field is further subdivided into the following sub-fields:
The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration ID field. This field can take one of three forms: Duration, Contention-Free Period (CFP), and Association ID (AID).
An 802.11 frame can have up to four address fields. Each field can carry a MAC address
. Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is the transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering purposes by the receiver.
Management Frames allow for the maintenance of communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes include:
Control frames facilitate in the exchange of data frames between stations. Some common 802.11 control frames include:
Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, etc. within the body.
Standard and Amendments exist:
To reduce confusion, no standard or task group was named 802.11l, 802.11o, 802.11x, 802.11ab, or 802.11ag.
802.11F and 802.11T are recommended practices rather than standards, and are capitalized as such.
802.11m is used for standard maintenance. 802.11ma was completed for 802.11-2007 and 802.11mb is expected to completed for 802.11-2011.
As far as the IEEE Standards Association is concerned, there is only one current standard; it is denoted by IEEE 802.11 followed by the date that it was published. IEEE 802.11-2007 is the only version currently in publication. The standard is updated by means of amendments. Amendments are created by task groups (TG). Both the task group and their finished document are denoted by 802.11 followed by a non-capitalized letter. For example IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b. Updating 802.11 is the responsibility of task group m. In order to create a new version, TGm combines the previous version of the standard and all published amendments. TGm also provides clarification and interpretation to industry on published documents. New versions of the IEEE 802.11 were published in 1999 and 2007.
The working title of 802.11-2007 was 802.11-REVma. This denotes a third type of document, a "revision". The complexity of combining 802.11-1999 with 8 amendments made it necessary to revise already agreed upon text. As a result, additional guidelines associated with a revision had to be followed.
For example, Time Unit
(usually abbreviated TU) is used to indicate a unit of time equal to 1024 microseconds. Numerous time constants are defined in terms of TU (rather than the nearly-equal millisecond).
Also the term "Portal" is used to describe an entity that is similar to an 802.1H
bridge. A Portal provides access to the WLAN by non-802.11 LAN STAs.
s and DSL
, there is an ever-increasing market of people who wish to establish small networks in their homes to share their broadband Internet
connection.
Many hotspot or free networks frequently allow anyone within range, including passersby outside, to connect to the Internet. There are also efforts by volunteer groups to establish wireless community network
s to provide free wireless connectivity to the public.
presented a paper describing weaknesses in the 802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper titled "Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4
". Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T
publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack, they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks.
The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously this work was handled as part of a broader 802.11e effort to enhance the MAC
layer). The Wi-Fi Alliance
announced an interim specification called Wi-Fi Protected Access
(WPA
) based on a subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft. These started to appear in products in mid-2003. IEEE 802.11i
(also known as WPA2) itself was ratified in June 2004, and uses government strength encryption in the Advanced Encryption Standard
AES, instead of RC4
, which was used in WEP. The modern recommended encryption for the home/consumer space is WPA2 (AES Pre-Shared Key) and for the Enterprise space is WPA2 along with a RADIUS
authentication server (or another type of authentication server) and a strong authentication method such as EAP-TLS.
In January 2005, IEEE set up yet task group "w" to protect management and broadcast frames, which previously were sent unsecured. Its standard was published in 2009.
Wireless LAN
A wireless local area network links two or more devices using some wireless distribution method , and usually providing a connection through an access point to the wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network...
(WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a non-profit professional association headquartered in New York City that is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence...
LAN
Local area network
A local area network is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building...
/MAN
Metropolitan area network
A metropolitan area network is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks and the...
Standards Committee (IEEE 802
IEEE 802
IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks.More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets. IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and...
). The base version of the standard IEEE 802.11-2007 has had subsequent amendments. These standards provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi or Wifi, is a mechanism for wirelessly connecting electronic devices. A device enabled with Wi-Fi, such as a personal computer, video game console, smartphone, or digital audio player, can connect to the Internet via a wireless network access point. An access point has a range of about 20...
brand name.
General description
The 802.11 family consists of a series of over-the-air modulationModulation
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal which typically contains information to be transmitted...
techniques that use the same basic protocol. The most popular are those defined by the 802.11b and 802.11g protocols, which are amendments to the original standard. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard, but 802.11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11g and 802.11n. 802.11n is a new multi-streaming modulation technique. Other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are service amendments and extensions or corrections to the previous specifications.
802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz
Hertz
The hertz is the SI unit of frequency defined as the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon. One of its most common uses is the description of the sine wave, particularly those used in radio and audio applications....
ISM band
ISM band
The industrial, scientific and medical radio bands are radio bands reserved internationally for the use of radio frequency energy for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than communications....
, operating in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
under Part 15
Part 15 (FCC rules)
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47, Part 15 is an oft-quoted part of Federal Communications Commission rules and regulations regarding unlicensed transmissions. It is a part of Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations , and regulates everything from spurious emissions to unlicensed...
of the US Federal Communications Commission
Federal Communications Commission
The Federal Communications Commission is an independent agency of the United States government, created, Congressional statute , and with the majority of its commissioners appointed by the current President. The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the...
Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference
Interference (communication)
In communications and electronics, especially in telecommunications, interference is anything which alters, modifies, or disrupts a signal as it travels along a channel between a source and a receiver. The term typically refers to the addition of unwanted signals to a useful signal...
from microwave oven
Microwave oven
A microwave oven is a kitchen appliance that heats food by dielectric heating, using microwave radiation to heat polarized molecules within the food...
s, cordless telephone
Cordless telephone
A cordless telephone or portable telephone is a telephone with a wireless handset that communicates via radio waves with a base station connected to a fixed telephone line, usually within a limited range of its base station...
s and Bluetooth
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks with high levels of security...
devices. 802.11b and 802.11g control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using direct-sequence spread spectrum
Direct-sequence spread spectrum
In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum is a modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals...
(DSSS) and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing is a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital communication, whether wireless or over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television and audio...
(OFDM) signaling methods, respectively. 802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band, which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 non-overlapping channels rather than the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band, where all channels overlap. Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) may be realized, depending on the environment.
The segment of the radio frequency
Radio frequency
Radio frequency is a rate of oscillation in the range of about 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which corresponds to the frequency of radio waves, and the alternating currents which carry radio signals...
spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one through six of 802.11b and 802.11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio
Amateur radio
Amateur radio is the use of designated radio frequency spectrum for purposes of private recreation, non-commercial exchange of messages, wireless experimentation, self-training, and emergency communication...
band. Licensed amateur radio operator
Amateur radio operator
An amateur radio operator is an individual who typically uses equipment at an amateur radio station to engage in two-way personal communications with other similar individuals on radio frequencies assigned to the amateur radio service. Amateur radio operators have been granted an amateur radio...
s may operate 802.11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption.
History
802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM bandISM band
The industrial, scientific and medical radio bands are radio bands reserved internationally for the use of radio frequency energy for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than communications....
for unlicensed use.
In 1991 NCR Corporation
NCR Corporation
NCR Corporation is an American technology company specializing in kiosk products for the retail, financial, travel, healthcare, food service, entertainment, gaming and public sector industries. Its main products are self-service kiosks, point-of-sale terminals, automated teller machines, check...
/AT&T
AT&T
AT&T Inc. is an American multinational telecommunications corporation headquartered in Whitacre Tower, Dallas, Texas, United States. It is the largest provider of mobile telephony and fixed telephony in the United States, and is also a provider of broadband and subscription television services...
(now Alcatel-Lucent
Alcatel-Lucent
Alcatel-Lucent is a global telecommunications corporation, headquartered in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France. It provides telecommunications solutions to service providers, enterprises, and governments around the world, enabling these customers to deliver voice, data, and video services...
and LSI Corporation
LSI Corporation
LSI Corporation is an electronics company based in Milpitas, California that designs semiconductors and software that accelerate storage and networking in datacenters and mobile networks.-History:...
) invented the precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein
Nieuwegein
Nieuwegein is a municipality and city in the Dutch province of Utrecht. It is bordered on the north by the city of Utrecht, the provincial capital...
, The Netherlands. The inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems; the first wireless products were brought on the market under the name WaveLAN
WaveLAN
WaveLAN is a brand that describes two completely different families of wireless network solutions:* Pre-IEEE 802.11 WaveLAN, also called Classic WaveLAN* IEEE 802.11-compliant WaveLAN, also known as WaveLAN IEEE or ORiNOCO-History:...
with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s.
Vic Hayes
Vic Hayes
Victor "Vic" Hayes is a Senior Research Fellow at the Delft University of Technology. His role in establishing and chairing the IEEE 802.11 Standards Working Group for Wireless Local Area Networks has led to him being referred to by some as the "Father of Wi-Fi".-Awards and honors:He is the...
, who held the chair of IEEE 802.11 for 10 years and has been called the "father of Wi-Fi" was involved in designing the initial 802.11b and 802.11a standards within the IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a non-profit professional association headquartered in New York City that is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence...
.
In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance
Wi-Fi Alliance
The Wi-Fi Alliance is a trade association that promotes Wireless LAN technology and certifies products if they conform to certain standards of interoperability. Not every IEEE 802.11-compliant device is submitted for certification to the Wi-Fi Alliance, sometimes because of costs associated with...
was formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi or Wifi, is a mechanism for wirelessly connecting electronic devices. A device enabled with Wi-Fi, such as a personal computer, video game console, smartphone, or digital audio player, can connect to the Internet via a wireless network access point. An access point has a range of about 20...
trademark under which most products are sold.
802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy)
The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999, but is today obsolete. It specified two net bit rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second (Mbit/s), plus forward error correctionForward error correction
In telecommunication, information theory, and coding theory, forward error correction or channel coding is a technique used for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable or noisy communication channels....
code. It specified three alternative physical layer
Physical layer
The physical layer or layer 1 is the first and lowest layer in the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. The implementation of this layer is often termed PHY....
technologies: diffuse infrared
Infrared
Infrared light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometres , and extending conventionally to 300 µm...
operating at 1 Mbit/s; frequency-hopping spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and direct-sequence spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. The latter two radio technologies used microwave
Microwave
Microwaves, a subset of radio waves, have wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF , and various sources use different boundaries...
transmission over the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band
ISM band
The industrial, scientific and medical radio bands are radio bands reserved internationally for the use of radio frequency energy for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than communications....
at 2.4 GHz. Some earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U.S.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
900 MHz ISM band.
Legacy 802.11 with direct-sequence spread spectrum was rapidly supplanted and popularized by 802.11b.
802.11a
The 802.11a standard uses the same data link layer protocol and frame format as the original standard, but an OFDM based air interface (physical layer). It operates in the 5 GHz band with a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus error correction code, which yields realistic net achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/sSince the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point of being crowded, using the relatively unused 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant advantage. However, this high carrier frequency
Center frequency
In electrical engineering and telecommunications, the center frequency of a filter or channel is a measure of a central frequency between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies...
also brings a disadvantage: the effective overall range of 802.11a is less than that of 802.11b/g. In theory, 802.11a signals are absorbed more readily by walls and other solid objects in their path due to their smaller wavelength and, as a result, cannot penetrate as far as those of 802.11b. In practice, 802.11b typically has a higher range at low speeds (802.11b will reduce speed to 5 Mbit/s or even 1 Mbit/s at low signal strengths). 802.11a too suffers from interference , but locally there may be fewer signals to interfere with, resulting in less interference and better throughput.
802.11b
802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s and uses the same media access method defined in the original standard. 802.11b products appeared on the market in early 2000, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation technique defined in the original standard. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology.802.11b devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include: microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors, and cordless telephones.
802.11g
In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b), but uses the same OFDMOrthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing is a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital communication, whether wireless or over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television and audio...
based transmission scheme as 802.11a. It operates at a maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s exclusive of forward error correction codes, or about 22 Mbit/s average throughput. 802.11g hardware is fully backwards compatible with 802.11b hardware and therefore is encumbered with legacy issues that reduce throughput when compared to 802.11a by ~21%.
The then-proposed 802.11g standard was rapidly adopted by consumers starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the desire for higher data rates as well as to reductions in manufacturing costs. By summer 2003, most dual-band 802.11a/b products became dual-band/tri-mode, supporting a and b/g in a single mobile adapter card or access point. Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the lingering technical process; in an 802.11g network, however, activity of an 802.11b participant will reduce the data rate of the overall 802.11g network.
Like 802.11b, 802.11g devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band, for example wireless keyboards.
802.11-2007
In 2003, task group TGma was authorized to "roll up" many of the amendments to the 1999 version of the 802.11 standard. REVma or 802.11ma, as it was called, created a single document that merged 8 amendments (802.11a, b, dIEEE 802.11d
IEEE 802.11d-2001 or 802.11d is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 specification that adds support for "additional regulatory domains". This support includes the addition of a country information element to beacons, probe requests, and probe responses...
, e
IEEE 802.11e
IEEE 802.11e-2005 or 802.11e is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard that defines a set of Quality of Service enhancements for wireless LAN applications through modifications to the Media Access Control layer. The standard is considered of critical importance for delay-sensitive...
, g, h
IEEE 802.11h
IEEE 802.11h-2003, or just 802.11h, refers to the amendment added to the IEEE 802.11 standard for Spectrum and Transmit Power Management Extensions. It solves problems like interference with satellites and radar using the same 5 GHz frequency band. It was originally designed to address European...
, i
IEEE 802.11i
IEEE 802.11i-2004 or 802.11i, implemented as WPA2, is an amendment to the original IEEE 802.11. The draft standard was ratified on 24 June 2004. This standard specifies security mechanisms for wireless networks. It replaced the short Authentication and privacy clause of the original standard with...
, j
IEEE 802.11j
802.11j-2004 or 802.11j is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard designed specially for Japanese market. It allows Wireless LAN operation in the 4.9 to 5 GHz band to conform to the Japanese rules for radio operation for indoor, outdoor and mobile applications...
) with the base standard. Upon approval on March 8, 2007, 802.11REVma was renamed to the then-current base standard IEEE 802.11-2007.
802.11n
802.11n is an amendment which improves upon the previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple-input multiple-output antennas (MIMO). 802.11n operates on both the 2.4 GHz and the lesser used 5 GHz bands. The IEEE has approved the amendment and it was published in October 2009. Prior to the final ratification, enterprises were already migrating to 802.11n networks based on the Wi-Fi AllianceWi-Fi Alliance
The Wi-Fi Alliance is a trade association that promotes Wireless LAN technology and certifies products if they conform to certain standards of interoperability. Not every IEEE 802.11-compliant device is submitted for certification to the Wi-Fi Alliance, sometimes because of costs associated with...
's certification of products conforming to a 2007 draft of the 802.11n proposal.
Channels and international compatibility
802.11 divides each of the above-described bands into channels, analogously to how radio and TV broadcast bands are sub-divided. For example the 2.4000–2.4835 GHz band is divided into 13 channels spaced 5 MHz apart, with channel 1 centered on 2.412 GHz and 13 on 2.472 GHz (to which Japan added a 14th channel 12 MHz above channel 13 which was only allowed for 802.11b). 802.11b was based on DSSS waveforms which used 22 MHz and did not have sharp borders. Consequently only three channels did not overlap. Even now many devices are shipped with channels 1, 6 and 11 as preset options even though with the newer 802.11g standard there are four non-overlapping channels: 1, 5, 9 and 13. There are now four because 802.11g signals use 20 MHz signals with OFDM waveforms.Availability of channels is regulated by country, constrained in part by how each country allocates radio spectrum
Frequency allocation
Use of radio frequency bands of the electromagnetic spectrum is regulated by governments in most countries, in a Spectrum management process known as frequency allocation or spectrum allocation. Radio propagation does not stop at national boundaries...
to various services. At one extreme, Japan permits the use of all 14 channels for 802.11b, while other countries such as Spain initially allowed only channels 10 and 11, and France only allowed 10, 11, 12 and 13. They now allow channels 1 through 13. North America and some Central and South American countries allow only 1 through 11.
Besides specifying the centre frequency of each channel, 802.11 also specifies (in Clause 17) a spectral mask
Spectral mask
In telecommunications, a spectral mask, also known as a channel mask or transmission mask, is a mathematically-defined set of lines applied to the levels of radio transmissions. The spectral mask is generally intended to reduce adjacent-channel interference by limiting excessive radiation at...
defining the permitted distribution of power across each channel. The mask requires that the signal be attenuated
Attenuation
In physics, attenuation is the gradual loss in intensity of any kind of flux through a medium. For instance, sunlight is attenuated by dark glasses, X-rays are attenuated by lead, and light and sound are attenuated by water.In electrical engineering and telecommunications, attenuation affects the...
by at least 30 dB
Decibel
The decibel is a logarithmic unit that indicates the ratio of a physical quantity relative to a specified or implied reference level. A ratio in decibels is ten times the logarithm to base 10 of the ratio of two power quantities...
from its peak energy at ±11 MHz from the centre frequency, the sense in which channels are effectively 22 MHz wide. One consequence is that stations can only use every fourth or fifth channel without overlap, typically 1, 6 and 11 in the Americas, and in theory, 1, 5, 9 and 13 in Europe although 1, 6, and 11 is typical there too. Another is that channels 1–13 effectively require the band 2.401–2.483 GHz, the actual allocations being, for example, 2.400–2.4835 GHz in the UK, 2.402–2.4735 GHz in the US, etc.
Since the spectral mask only defines power output restrictions up to ±11 MHz from the center frequency to be attenuated by −50 dBr, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. It is more correct to say that, given the separation between channels 1, 6, and 11, the signal on any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to minimally interfere with a transmitter on any other channel. Due to the near-far problem
Near-far problem
The near-far problem or hearability problem is a situation that is common in wireless communication systems, in particular, CDMA. In some signal jamming techniques, the near-far problem is exploited to disrupt communications.-Technical explanation:...
a transmitter can impact a receiver on a "non-overlapping" channel, but only if it is close to the victim receiver (within a meter) or operating above allowed power levels.
Although the statement that channels 1, 6, and 11 are "non-overlapping" is limited to spacing or product density, the 1–6–11 guideline has merit. If transmitters are closer together than channels 1, 6, and 11 (for example, 1, 4, 7, and 10), overlap between the channels may cause unacceptable degradation of signal quality and throughput. However, overlapping channels may be used under certain circumstances. This way, more channels are available.
A regdomain in IEEE 802.11 is a regulatory region. Different countries define different levels of allowable transmitter power, time that a channel can be occupied, and different available channels. Domain codes are specified for the United States, Canada, ETSI (Europe)
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
The European Telecommunications Standards Institute is an independent, non-profit, standardization organization in the telecommunications industry in Europe, with worldwide projection...
, Spain, France, Japan, and China.
Most wifi
WIFI
WIFI is a radio station broadcasting a brokered format. Licensed to Florence, New Jersey, USA, the station is currently operated by Florence Broadcasting Partners, LLC.This station was previously owned by Real Life Broadcasting...
devices default to regdomain 0, which means least common denominator settings, i.e. the device will not transmit at a power above the allowable power in any nation, nor will it use frequencies that are not permitted in any nation.
The regdomain setting is often made difficult or impossible to change so that the end users do not conflict with local regulatory agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission
Federal Communications Commission
The Federal Communications Commission is an independent agency of the United States government, created, Congressional statute , and with the majority of its commissioners appointed by the current President. The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the...
.
Frames
Current 802.11 standards define "frame" types for use in transmission of data as well as management and control of wireless links.Frames are divided into very specific and standardized sections. Each frame consists of a MAC header, payload and frame check sequence
Frame Check Sequence
A frame check sequence refers to the extra checksum characters added to a frame in a communication protocol for error detection and correction. Frames are used to send upper-layer data and ultimately the user application data from a source to a destination. The data package includes the message...
(FCS). Some frames may not have the payload. The first two bytes of the MAC header form a frame control field specifying the form and function of the frame. The frame control field is further subdivided into the following sub-fields:
- Protocol Version: two bits representing the protocol version. Currently used protocol version is zero. Other values are reserved for future use.
- Type: two bits identifying the type of WLAN frame. Control, Data and Management are various frame types defined in IEEE 802.11.
- Sub Type: Four bits providing addition discrimination between frames. Type and Sub type together to identify the exact frame.
- ToDS and FromDS: Each is one bit in size. They indicate whether a data frame is headed for a distributed system. Control and management frames set these values to zero. All the data frames will have one of these bits set. However communication within an IBSS network always set these bits to zero.
- More Fragments: The More Fragments bit is set when a packet is divided into multiple frames for transmission. Every frame except the last frame of a packet will have this bit set.
- Retry: Sometimes frames require retransmission, and for this there is a Retry bit which is set to one when a frame is resent. This aids in the elimination of duplicate frames.
- Power Management: This bit indicates the power management state of the sender after the completion of a frame exchange. Access points are required to manage the connection and will never set the power saver bit.
- More Data: The More Data bit is used to buffer frames received in a distributed system. The access point uses this bit to facilitate stations in power saver mode. It indicates that at least one frame is available and addresses all stations connected.
- WEP: The WEP bit is modified after processing a frame. It is toggled to one after a frame has been decrypted or if no encryption is set it will have already been one.
- Order: This bit is only set when the "strict ordering" delivery method is employed. Frames and fragments are not always sent in order as it causes a transmission performance penalty.
The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration ID field. This field can take one of three forms: Duration, Contention-Free Period (CFP), and Association ID (AID).
An 802.11 frame can have up to four address fields. Each field can carry a MAC address
MAC address
A Media Access Control address is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications on the physical network segment. MAC addresses are used for numerous network technologies and most IEEE 802 network technologies, including Ethernet...
. Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is the transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering purposes by the receiver.
- The Sequence Control field is a two-byte section used for identifying message order as well as eliminating duplicate frames. The first 4 bits are used for the fragmentation number and the last 12 bits are the sequence number.
- An optional two-byte Quality of Service control field which was added with 802.11e.
- The Frame Body field is variable in size, from 0 to 2304 bytes plus any overhead from security encapsulation and contains information from higher layers.
- The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the last four bytes in the standard 802.11 frame. Often referred to as the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC), it allows for integrity check of retrieved frames. As frames are about to be sent the FCS is calculated and appended. When a station receives a frame it can calculate the FCS of the frame and compare it to the one received. If they match, it is assumed that the frame was not distorted during transmission.
Management Frames allow for the maintenance of communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes include:
- Authentication frame: 802.11 authentication begins with the WNICWireless network interface cardA wireless network interface controller is a network interface controller which connects to a radio-based computer network rather than a wire-based network such as Token Ring or Ethernet. A WNIC, just like other NICs, works on the Layer 1 and Layer 2 of the OSI Model. A WNIC is an essential...
sending an authentication frame to the access point containing its identity. With an open system authentication the WNIC only sends a single authentication frame and the access point responds with an authentication frame of its own indicating acceptance or rejection. With shared key authentication, after the WNIC sends its initial authentication request it will receive an authentication frame from the access point containing challenge text. The WNIC sends an authentication frame containing the encrypted version of the challenge text to the access point. The access point ensures the text was encrypted with the correct key by decrypting it with its own key. The result of this process determines the WNIC's authentication status. - Association request frame: sent from a station it enables the access point to allocate resources and synchronize. The frame carries information about the WNIC including supported data rates and the SSID of the network the station wishes to associate with. If the request is accepted, the access point reserves memory and establishes an association ID for the WNIC.
- Association response frame: sent from an access point to a station containing the acceptance or rejection to an association request. If it is an acceptance, the frame will contain information such an association ID and supported data rates.
- Beacon frameBeacon frameBeacon frame is one of the management frames in IEEE 802.11 based WLANs. It contains all the information about the network. Beacon frames are transmitted periodically to announce the presence of a Wireless LAN network. Beacon frames are transmitted by the Access Point in an infrastructure BSS...
: Sent periodically from an access point to announce its presence and provide the SSID, and other parameters for WNICs within range. - Deauthentication frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection from another station.
- Disassociation frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection. It's an elegant way to allow the access point to relinquish memory allocation and remove the WNIC from the association table.
- Probe request frame: Sent from a station when it requires information from another station.
- Probe response frame: Sent from an access point containing capability information, supported data rates, etc., after receiving a probe request frame.
- Reassociation request frame: A WNIC sends a reassociation request when it drops from range of the currently associated access point and finds another access point with a stronger signal. The new access point coordinates the forwarding of any information that may still be contained in the buffer of the previous access point.
- Reassociation response frame: Sent from an access point containing the acceptance or rejection to a WNIC reassociation request frame. The frame includes information required for association such as the association ID and supported data rates.
Control frames facilitate in the exchange of data frames between stations. Some common 802.11 control frames include:
- Acknowledgement (ACK) frame: After receiving a data frame, the receiving station will send an ACK frame to the sending station if no errors are found. If the sending station doesn't receive an ACK frame within a predetermined period of time, the sending station will resend the frame.
- Request to Send (RTS) frame: The RTS and CTS frames provide an optional collision reduction scheme for access point with hidden stations. A station sends a RTS frame to as the first step in a two-way handshake required before sending data frames.
- Clear to Send (CTS) frame: A station responds to an RTS frame with a CTS frame. It provides clearance for the requesting station to send a data frame. The CTS provides collision control management by including a time value for which all other stations are to hold off transmission while the requesting stations transmits.
Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, etc. within the body.
Standard and amendments
Within the IEEE 802.11 Working Group, the following IEEE Standards AssociationIEEE Standards Association
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Association is an organization within IEEE that develops global standards in a broad range of industries, including: power and energy, biomedical and health care, information technology, telecommunication, transportation,...
Standard and Amendments exist:
- IEEE 802.11-1997: The WLAN standard was originally 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and infraredInfraredInfrared light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometres , and extending conventionally to 300 µm...
(IR) standard (1997), all the others listed below are Amendments to this standard, except for Recommended Practices 802.11F and 802.11T. - IEEE 802.11a: 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (1999, shipping products in 2001)
- IEEE 802.11b: Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s (1999)
- IEEE 802.11c: Bridge operation procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1DIEEE 802.1D802.1D is the IEEE MAC Bridges standard which includes Bridging, Spanning Tree and others. It is standardized by the IEEE 802.1 working group. It includes details specific to linking many of the other 802 projects including the widely deployed 802.3 , 802.11 and 802.16 standards.VLANs are not...
standard (2001) - IEEE 802.11dIEEE 802.11dIEEE 802.11d-2001 or 802.11d is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 specification that adds support for "additional regulatory domains". This support includes the addition of a country information element to beacons, probe requests, and probe responses...
: International (country-to-country) roaming extensions (2001) - IEEE 802.11eIEEE 802.11eIEEE 802.11e-2005 or 802.11e is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard that defines a set of Quality of Service enhancements for wireless LAN applications through modifications to the Media Access Control layer. The standard is considered of critical importance for delay-sensitive...
: Enhancements: QoSQuality of serviceThe quality of service refers to several related aspects of telephony and computer networks that allow the transport of traffic with special requirements...
, including packet bursting (2005) - IEEE 802.11F: Inter-Access Point ProtocolInter-Access Point ProtocolIEEE 802.11F or Inter-Access Point Protocol is a recommendation that describes an optional extension to IEEE 802.11 that provides wireless access point communications among multivendor systems. 802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods...
(2003) Withdrawn February 2006 - IEEE 802.11g: 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003)
- IEEE 802.11hIEEE 802.11hIEEE 802.11h-2003, or just 802.11h, refers to the amendment added to the IEEE 802.11 standard for Spectrum and Transmit Power Management Extensions. It solves problems like interference with satellites and radar using the same 5 GHz frequency band. It was originally designed to address European...
: Spectrum Managed 802.11a (5 GHz) for European compatibility (2004) - IEEE 802.11iIEEE 802.11iIEEE 802.11i-2004 or 802.11i, implemented as WPA2, is an amendment to the original IEEE 802.11. The draft standard was ratified on 24 June 2004. This standard specifies security mechanisms for wireless networks. It replaced the short Authentication and privacy clause of the original standard with...
: Enhanced security (2004) - IEEE 802.11jIEEE 802.11j802.11j-2004 or 802.11j is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard designed specially for Japanese market. It allows Wireless LAN operation in the 4.9 to 5 GHz band to conform to the Japanese rules for radio operation for indoor, outdoor and mobile applications...
: Extensions for Japan (2004) - IEEE 802.11-2007: A new release of the standard that includes amendments a, b, d, e, g, h, i & j. (July 2007)
- IEEE 802.11k: Radio resource measurement enhancements (2008)
- IEEE 802.11nIEEE 802.11nIEEE 802.11n-2009 is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11-2007 wireless networking standard to improve network throughput over the two previous standards—802.11a and 802.11g—with a significant increase in the maximum net data rate from 54 Mbit/s to 600 Mbit/s with the use of four...
: Higher throughput improvements using MIMO (multiple input, multiple output antennas) - IEEE 802.11pIEEE 802.11pIEEE 802.11p is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to add wireless access in vehicular environments . It defines enhancements to 802.11 required to support Intelligent Transportation Systems applications...
: WAVE—Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment (such as ambulances and passenger cars) (July 2010) - IEEE 802.11rIEEE 802.11rIEEE 802.11r-2008 or fast BSS transition is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to permit continuous connectivity aboard wireless devices in motion, with fast and secure handoffs from one base station to another managed in a seamless manner...
: Fast BSS transition (FT) (2008) - IEEE 802.11sIEEE 802.11sIEEE 802.11s is an IEEE 802.11 amendment for mesh networking, defining how wireless devices can interconnect to create a WLAN mesh network, which may be used for static topologies and ad-hoc networks....
: Mesh Networking, Extended Service Set (ESS) (~ June 2011) - IEEE 802.11T: Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP)—test methods and metrics Recommendation cancelled
- IEEE 802.11uIEEE 802.11uIEEE 802.11u-2011 is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11-2007 standard to add features that improve interworking with external networks.802.11 is a family of IEEE technical standards for mobile communication devices such as laptop computers or multi-mode phones to join a wireless local area network ...
: Interworking with non-802 networks (for example, cellular) (February 2011) - IEEE 802.11vIEEE 802.11vIEEE 802.11v is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to allow configuration of client devices while connected to wireless networks.802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods...
: Wireless network managementNetwork managementNetwork management refers to the activities, methods, procedures, and tools that pertain to the operation, administration, maintenance, and provisioning of networked systems....
February 2011) - IEEE 802.11wIEEE 802.11wIEEE 802.11w-2009 is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to increase the security of its management frames.- Protected Management Frames :...
: Protected Management Frames (September 2009) - IEEE 802.11yIEEE 802.11yIEEE 802.11y-2008 is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11-2007 standard that enables high powered Wi-Fi equipment to operate on a co-primary basis in the 3650 to 3700 MHz band in the United States, except when near a grandfathered satellite earth station...
: 3650–3700 MHz Operation in the U.S. (2008) - IEEE 802.11z: Extensions to Direct Link Setup (DLS) (September 2010)
- IEEE 802.11mb: Maintenance of the standard; will become 802.11-2011 (~ December 2011)
- IEEE 802.11aa: Robust streaming of Audio Video Transport Streams (~ March 2012)
- IEEE 802.11acIEEE 802.11acIEEE 802.11ac is a wireless computer networking standard of 802.11 currently under development which will provide high throughput Wireless Local Area Networks below 6 GHz ....
: Very High Throughput <6 GHz; potential improvements over 802.11n: better modulation scheme (expected ~10% throughput increase); wider channels (80 or even 160 MHz), multi user MIMO; (~ December 2012) - IEEE 802.11ad: Very High Throughput 60 GHz (~ Dec 2012)
- IEEE 802.11ae: QoS Management (~ Dec 2011)
- IEEE 802.11af: TV Whitespace (~ Mar 2012)
- IEEE 802.11ah: Sub 1Ghz (~ July 2013)
- IEEE 802.11ai: Fast Initial Link Setup
To reduce confusion, no standard or task group was named 802.11l, 802.11o, 802.11x, 802.11ab, or 802.11ag.
802.11F and 802.11T are recommended practices rather than standards, and are capitalized as such.
802.11m is used for standard maintenance. 802.11ma was completed for 802.11-2007 and 802.11mb is expected to completed for 802.11-2011.
Standard or amendment?
Both the terms "standard" and "amendment" are used when referring to the different variants of IEEE standards.As far as the IEEE Standards Association is concerned, there is only one current standard; it is denoted by IEEE 802.11 followed by the date that it was published. IEEE 802.11-2007 is the only version currently in publication. The standard is updated by means of amendments. Amendments are created by task groups (TG). Both the task group and their finished document are denoted by 802.11 followed by a non-capitalized letter. For example IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b. Updating 802.11 is the responsibility of task group m. In order to create a new version, TGm combines the previous version of the standard and all published amendments. TGm also provides clarification and interpretation to industry on published documents. New versions of the IEEE 802.11 were published in 1999 and 2007.
The working title of 802.11-2007 was 802.11-REVma. This denotes a third type of document, a "revision". The complexity of combining 802.11-1999 with 8 amendments made it necessary to revise already agreed upon text. As a result, additional guidelines associated with a revision had to be followed.
Nomenclature
Various terms in 802.11 are used to specify aspects of wireless local-area networking operation, and may be unfamiliar to some readers.For example, Time Unit
TU (Time Unit)
In the IEEE 802.11 standard, a unit of time equal to 1024 microseconds. A whole number of such units are used to describe several intervals in that standard. The use of the term is to avoid using the term "millisecond", which is slightly different...
(usually abbreviated TU) is used to indicate a unit of time equal to 1024 microseconds. Numerous time constants are defined in terms of TU (rather than the nearly-equal millisecond).
Also the term "Portal" is used to describe an entity that is similar to an 802.1H
IEEE 802.1
IEEE 802.1 is a working group of the IEEE 802 project of the IEEE Standards Association.It is concerned with:* 802 LAN/MAN architecture* internetworking among 802 LANs, MANs and other wide area networks* 802 Link Security* 802 overall network management...
bridge. A Portal provides access to the WLAN by non-802.11 LAN STAs.
Community networks
With the proliferation of cable modemCable modem
A cable modem is a type of network bridge and modem that provides bi-directional data communication via radio frequency channels on a HFC and RFoG infrastructure. Cable modems are primarily used to deliver broadband Internet access in the form of cable Internet, taking advantage of the high...
s and DSL
Digital Subscriber Line
Digital subscriber line is a family of technologies that provides digital data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network. DSL originally stood for digital subscriber loop. In telecommunications marketing, the term DSL is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line ,...
, there is an ever-increasing market of people who wish to establish small networks in their homes to share their broadband Internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
connection.
Many hotspot or free networks frequently allow anyone within range, including passersby outside, to connect to the Internet. There are also efforts by volunteer groups to establish wireless community network
Wireless community network
Wireless community networks or wireless community projects are the organizations that attempt to take a grassroots approach to providing a viable alternative to municipal wireless networks for consumers....
s to provide free wireless connectivity to the public.
Security
In 2001, a group from the University of California, BerkeleyUniversity of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley , is a teaching and research university established in 1868 and located in Berkeley, California, USA...
presented a paper describing weaknesses in the 802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy
Wired Equivalent Privacy
Wired Equivalent Privacy is a weak security algorithm for IEEE 802.11 wireless networks. Introduced as part of the original 802.11 standard ratified in September 1999, its intention was to provide data confidentiality comparable to that of a traditional wired network...
(WEP) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper titled "Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4
RC4
In cryptography, RC4 is the most widely used software stream cipher and is used in popular protocols such as Secure Sockets Layer and WEP...
". Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T
AT&T
AT&T Inc. is an American multinational telecommunications corporation headquartered in Whitacre Tower, Dallas, Texas, United States. It is the largest provider of mobile telephony and fixed telephony in the United States, and is also a provider of broadband and subscription television services...
publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack, they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks.
The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously this work was handled as part of a broader 802.11e effort to enhance the MAC
Media Access Control
The media access control data communication protocol sub-layer, also known as the medium access control, is a sublayer of the data link layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model , and in the four-layer TCP/IP model...
layer). The Wi-Fi Alliance
Wi-Fi Alliance
The Wi-Fi Alliance is a trade association that promotes Wireless LAN technology and certifies products if they conform to certain standards of interoperability. Not every IEEE 802.11-compliant device is submitted for certification to the Wi-Fi Alliance, sometimes because of costs associated with...
announced an interim specification called Wi-Fi Protected Access
Wi-Fi Protected Access
Wi-Fi Protected Access and Wi-Fi Protected Access II are two security protocols and security certification programs developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks...
(WPA
Wi-Fi Protected Access
Wi-Fi Protected Access and Wi-Fi Protected Access II are two security protocols and security certification programs developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks...
) based on a subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft. These started to appear in products in mid-2003. IEEE 802.11i
IEEE 802.11i
IEEE 802.11i-2004 or 802.11i, implemented as WPA2, is an amendment to the original IEEE 802.11. The draft standard was ratified on 24 June 2004. This standard specifies security mechanisms for wireless networks. It replaced the short Authentication and privacy clause of the original standard with...
(also known as WPA2) itself was ratified in June 2004, and uses government strength encryption in the Advanced Encryption Standard
Advanced Encryption Standard
Advanced Encryption Standard is a specification for the encryption of electronic data. It has been adopted by the U.S. government and is now used worldwide. It supersedes DES...
AES, instead of RC4
RC4
In cryptography, RC4 is the most widely used software stream cipher and is used in popular protocols such as Secure Sockets Layer and WEP...
, which was used in WEP. The modern recommended encryption for the home/consumer space is WPA2 (AES Pre-Shared Key) and for the Enterprise space is WPA2 along with a RADIUS
RADIUS
Remote Authentication Dial In User Service is a networking protocol that provides centralized Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting management for computers to connect and use a network service...
authentication server (or another type of authentication server) and a strong authentication method such as EAP-TLS.
In January 2005, IEEE set up yet task group "w" to protect management and broadcast frames, which previously were sent unsecured. Its standard was published in 2009.
Non-standard 802.11 extensions and equipment
Many companies implement wireless networking equipment with non-IEEE standard 802.11 extensions either by implementing proprietary or draft features. These changes may lead to incompatibilities between these extensions.See also
- BluetoothBluetoothBluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks with high levels of security...
, another wireless protocol primarily designed for shorter-range applications. - Comparison of wireless data standardsComparison of wireless data standards- Introduction :A wide variety of different wireless data technologies exist, some in direct competition with one another, others designed for specific applications...
- MLMEMLMEMLME Stands for Media Access Control Sublayer Management Entity. MLME is the management entity where the Physical layer MAC state machines reside...
- OFDM system comparison table
- Ultra-widebandUltra-widebandUltra-wideband is a radio technology that can be used at very low energy levels for short-range high-bandwidth communications by using a large portion of the radio spectrum. UWB has traditional applications in non-cooperative radar imaging...
- Wi-Fi AllianceWi-Fi AllianceThe Wi-Fi Alliance is a trade association that promotes Wireless LAN technology and certifies products if they conform to certain standards of interoperability. Not every IEEE 802.11-compliant device is submitted for certification to the Wi-Fi Alliance, sometimes because of costs associated with...
- Wi-Fi operating system support
- Wibree
- Wireless Gigabit AllianceWireless Gigabit AllianceThe Wireless Gigabit Alliance is an organization promoting the adoption of multi-gigabit speed wireless communications technology operating over the unlicensed 60 GHz frequency band....
, also known as WiGig - Fujitsu Ltd. v. Netgear Inc.Fujitsu Ltd. v. Netgear Inc.Fujitsu v. Netgear, Inc was a patent infringement case centered around three patents claimed to be required for full compliance of the IEEE 802.11 standard and the WiFi Alliance Wireless Multi-Media Specification. US patents 4.974,952, 6,018,642, and 6,469,993 were owned by Philips...