Imperial Reform
Encyclopedia
In 1495, an attempt was made at an Imperial Diet in the City of Worms
to give the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire
a new structure, commonly referred to as Imperial Reform .
The fundamental idea of the reform was largely based on the theory of inter-political concordance between the Emperor
and the Imperial State
s developed by Nicholas of Kues.
After the fall of the House of Hohenstaufen in the mid-13th century the Emperors had to face a continuous loss of power in favour of the estates, especially of the Prince-elector
s assigned by the Golden Bull of 1356
. The autonomous Reichsstände nevertheless had painfully become aware of the disadvantages in the defiency of a centralised authority on the occasion of threats and armed conflicts like the Hussite Wars
.
Maximilian I of Habsburg
, elected King of the Romans
since 1493, after 1477 had to defend his claims to the heritage of his deceased wife Mary of Burgundy
against intriguing Louis XI of France
, while subsequent to the 1453 Fall of Constantinople
the expansion of the Ottoman Empire
on the Balkans
proceeded. At the 1495 diet Maximilian asked the representatives of the estates not only for contributions, but also for the implementation of an imperial tax
and commitment in troops. The deputies, led by Chancellor Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild
, the Archbishop of Mainz
, in principle agreed on a Common Penny (Gemeiner Pfennig) tax paid directly to the Empire but in return set conditions:
The Swiss Confederacy
did not accept the resolutions of the Imperial Diet and explicitly refused to pay the Common Penny, one of the circumstances leading to the Swabian War
of 1499 and the Confederacy's exemption from imperial legislation. Due to the obstinate resistance of several States the collection of the tax was finally suspended in 1505.
Whether the Reform can be considered successful depends on how its goals are defined; today, many scholars believe that the Reform was not really aimed at producing a modern state (in which it would be considered a failure), but rather attempted to consolidate and distribute power between the Empire and the States by consensus, an aim in which it did succeed.
The reform was more or less concluded with the Imperial Execution Order of 1555, part of the Peace of Augsburg
, which regulated more details of the tasks of the Imperial Circle
Estates.
Worms, Germany
Worms is a city in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, on the Rhine River. At the end of 2004, it had 85,829 inhabitants.Established by the Celts, who called it Borbetomagus, Worms today remains embattled with the cities Trier and Cologne over the title of "Oldest City in Germany." Worms is the only...
to give the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
a new structure, commonly referred to as Imperial Reform .
The fundamental idea of the reform was largely based on the theory of inter-political concordance between the Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
and the Imperial State
Imperial State
An Imperial State or Imperial Estate was an entity in the Holy Roman Empire with a vote in the Imperial Diet assemblies. Several territories of the Empire were not represented, while some officials were non-voting members; neither qualified as Imperial States.Rulers of Imperial States were...
s developed by Nicholas of Kues.
Prince-elector
The Prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Roman king or, from the middle of the 16th century onwards, directly the Holy Roman Emperor.The heir-apparent to a prince-elector was known as an...
s assigned by the Golden Bull of 1356
Golden Bull of 1356
The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by the Reichstag assembly in Nuremberg headed by the Luxembourg Emperor Charles IV that fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire...
. The autonomous Reichsstände nevertheless had painfully become aware of the disadvantages in the defiency of a centralised authority on the occasion of threats and armed conflicts like the Hussite Wars
Hussite Wars
The Hussite Wars, also called the Bohemian Wars involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia in the period 1419 to circa 1434. The Hussite Wars were notable for the extensive use of early hand-held gunpowder weapons such as hand cannons...
.
Maximilian I of Habsburg
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian I , the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1493 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky...
, elected King of the Romans
King of the Romans
King of the Romans was the title used by the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire following his election to the office by the princes of the Kingdom of Germany...
since 1493, after 1477 had to defend his claims to the heritage of his deceased wife Mary of Burgundy
Mary of Burgundy
Mary of Burgundy ruled the Burgundian territories in Low Countries and was suo jure Duchess of Burgundy from 1477 until her death...
against intriguing Louis XI of France
Louis XI of France
Louis XI , called the Prudent , was the King of France from 1461 to 1483. He was the son of Charles VII of France and Mary of Anjou, a member of the House of Valois....
, while subsequent to the 1453 Fall of Constantinople
Fall of Constantinople
The Fall of Constantinople was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire, which occurred after a siege by the Ottoman Empire, under the command of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, against the defending army commanded by Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI...
the expansion of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
on the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
proceeded. At the 1495 diet Maximilian asked the representatives of the estates not only for contributions, but also for the implementation of an imperial tax
Tax
To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many subnational entities...
and commitment in troops. The deputies, led by Chancellor Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild
Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild
Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild was Archbishop of Mainz and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 1484 to 1504.The son of George, Count of Henneberg and Johanna, daughter of Count Philipp I of Nassau-Weilburg entered the ecclesiastical profession and, after passing through its lower stages,...
, the Archbishop of Mainz
Archbishopric of Mainz
The Archbishopric of Mainz or Electorate of Mainz was an influential ecclesiastic and secular prince-bishopric in the Holy Roman Empire between 780–82 and 1802. In the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy, the Archbishop of Mainz was the primas Germaniae, the substitute of the Pope north of the Alps...
, in principle agreed on a Common Penny (Gemeiner Pfennig) tax paid directly to the Empire but in return set conditions:
- The constitution of a Reichsregiment, an imperial government intended as a replacement of the clumsy and slow Imperial Diet, which had never managed to gain much influence. Consisting of twenty spiritual and temporal princePrincePrince is a general term for a ruler, monarch or member of a monarch's or former monarch's family, and is a hereditary title in the nobility of some European states. The feminine equivalent is a princess...
s and representatives of the Imperial CitiesFree Imperial CityIn the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city was a city formally ruled by the emperor only — as opposed to the majority of cities in the Empire, which were governed by one of the many princes of the Empire, such as dukes or prince-bishops...
it was meant to control the finance and foreign policy of the Emperor. Maximilian refused to this restriction of his authority from the beginning and did not consent until the Diet of AugsburgAugsburgAugsburg is a city in the south-west of Bavaria, Germany. It is a university town and home of the Regierungsbezirk Schwaben and the Bezirk Schwaben. Augsburg is an urban district and home to the institutions of the Landkreis Augsburg. It is, as of 2008, the third-largest city in Bavaria with a...
, 1500, after the states had conceded their own LandsknechtLandsknechtLandsknechte were European, predominantly German mercenary pikemen and supporting foot soldiers from the late 15th to the late 16th century, and achieved the reputation for being the universal mercenary of Early modern Europe.-Etymology:The term is from German, Land "land, country" + Knecht...
troops to him, only to abolish the Regiment two years later. - The Perpetual Public Peace established the Empire as a single body of law that excluded feudFeudA feud , referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, or private war, is a long-running argument or fight between parties—often groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one party perceives itself to have been attacked, insulted or wronged by another...
s as means of politics between the vassals. - The related installation of the Imperial Chamber CourtReichskammergerichtThe Reichskammergericht or Imperial Chamber Court was one of two highest judicial institutions in the Holy Roman Empire, the other one being the Aulic Council in Vienna. It was founded in 1495 by the Imperial Diet in Worms...
, a supreme court for all of the Empire's territory, possibly was the reform's most far-reaching impact as it separated the jurisdiction from the person of the Emperor as the head of the imperial executive. Maximilian reacted with the establishment of the concurrent Aulic CouncilAulic CouncilThe Aulic Council was originally an executive-judicial council for the Holy Roman Empire....
in 1497. The Imperial Chamber Court originally had its seat at Frankfurt am Main, it moved to SpeyerSpeyerSpeyer is a city of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany with approximately 50,000 inhabitants. Located beside the river Rhine, Speyer is 25 km south of Ludwigshafen and Mannheim. Founded by the Romans, it is one of Germany's oldest cities...
in 1523 and finally to WetzlarWetzlarWetzlar is a city in the state of Hesse, Germany. Located at 8° 30′ E, 50° 34′ N, Wetzlar straddles the river Lahn and is on the German Timber-Framework Road which passes mile upon mile of half-timbered houses. Historically, the city has acted as the hub of the Lahn-Dill-Kreis on the north edge of...
in 1693. - The establishment of six (from 1512 on: ten) Imperial CircleImperial CircleAn Imperial Circle comprised a regional grouping of territories of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily for the purpose of organizing a common defensive structure and of collecting the imperial taxes, but also as a means of organization within the Imperial Diet and the Imperial Chamber Court.Each...
s with own Circle Diets, carried out in 1500. The Circles, originally meant as constituencies of the Reichsregiment, enabled a more uniform administration of the Empire to better execute the Perpetual Public Peace, taxing and the formation of troops.
The Swiss Confederacy
Old Swiss Confederacy
The Old Swiss Confederacy was the precursor of modern-day Switzerland....
did not accept the resolutions of the Imperial Diet and explicitly refused to pay the Common Penny, one of the circumstances leading to the Swabian War
Swabian War
The Swabian War of 1499 was the last major armed conflict between the Old Swiss Confederacy and the House of Habsburg...
of 1499 and the Confederacy's exemption from imperial legislation. Due to the obstinate resistance of several States the collection of the tax was finally suspended in 1505.
Whether the Reform can be considered successful depends on how its goals are defined; today, many scholars believe that the Reform was not really aimed at producing a modern state (in which it would be considered a failure), but rather attempted to consolidate and distribute power between the Empire and the States by consensus, an aim in which it did succeed.
The reform was more or less concluded with the Imperial Execution Order of 1555, part of the Peace of Augsburg
Peace of Augsburg
The Peace of Augsburg, also called the Augsburg Settlement, was a treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of Augsburg, now in present-day Bavaria, Germany.It officially ended the religious...
, which regulated more details of the tasks of the Imperial Circle
Imperial Circle
An Imperial Circle comprised a regional grouping of territories of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily for the purpose of organizing a common defensive structure and of collecting the imperial taxes, but also as a means of organization within the Imperial Diet and the Imperial Chamber Court.Each...
Estates.