Inca Civil War
Encyclopedia
The Inca Civil War, the Inca Dynastic War, the Inca War of Succession, or, sometimes, the War of the Two Brothers was fought between two brothers, Huáscar
and Atahualpa
, sons of Huayna Capac
, over the succession
to the Inca throne. The war followed Huayna Capac's death in 1527, although it did not begin until 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war because he saw himself as the rightful heir to the kingdom of all the Incas. Regardless of legitimacy, Atahualpa proved himself to be tactically superior to his brother in warcraft and to the mighty armies of Cuzco, which their father had stationed in the North during the military campaign.
In 1524-1526, the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro
explored South America
. There were sixty-two horsemen and 106 foot soldiers. Smallpox
was taken to the continent, causing disaster for the Incas. However, the Sapa Inca Huayna Capac
went to the north to investigate about the unfamiliar men. He never met any Spaniards, but he contracted smallpox and died in 1527. In addition, his eldest son and heir, Ninan Cuyochi
, died shortly after him. With both the leading Inca and the successor to the throne dead, it was uncertain as to who would become the next Inca king. No clear rules stated how one was to gain succession to the throne. The choice stood between two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar, and Atahualpa, born of different mothers. Huáscar was of pure royal blood, but Atahualpa was considered illegitimate. Huáscar saw it as an insult that Atahualpa, despite his alleged cunning and early wisdom, was even considered for Sapa Inca. Huáscar eventually did become the ruler of the Incas. However, he felt that Atahualpa should not have any more land and that he should pay homage to him. Huáscar’s power hungry ways created hatred towards his half brother and began a war that lasted until 1532.
" had inherited the throne of Huayna Capac
. The Inca nobles considered Atahualpa illegitimate because his mother, Paccha, was not born inside the Inca Royal Family and was merely the daughter of Cacha Shyri Duchicela, the former leader against the Incas conquest in the north (she was, however, born into the Shyri Royal Family). Soon after Huascar took his position as partial ruler of the empire, he expected Atahualpa and everyone else under the Incan authority to swear him allegiance, making him superior. Atahualpa had agreed to pledge allegiance to the new Inca, and sent his most trusted captains to Cuzco to announce his loyalty, as well as sending generous presents of gold and silver (as was customary.) Atahualpa was very liked in the North, as he was good tempered and carried himself with royal dignity. His brother Huascar was the contrary; he was ill tempered, disrespectful of the laws and ancient customs, suspicious of everybody, and refused to accept Atahualpa's offering of allegiance. Huascar then accused his brother of starting a rebellion against him, and ordered some of Atahualpa's messengers killed and had his captains sent back to him dressed as women. This was an insult to Atahualpa, who took it personally and declared war against his brother. Right before the Spaniards arrived in Cajamarca, Atahuallpa had order his troops to go to Cusco to capture Huascar, and later on his way to the North to have him killed. Francisco Pizarro used this crime as one of excuses to execute Atahualpa after Pizarro collected the ransom of gold and silver promised to him for his freedom. This became probable cause for the war because Huáscar was in fact the eldest "pure" Inca blood. His mother, Chincha Ocllo, and his father, Huayna Capac, were brother and sister, which gave him full royal ancestry.
Control of Cuzco, the capital of the Incan Empire, was passed down to Huáscar with his father's death. As animosity grew between the brothers, Huáscar gathered armies there under the command of Atoc
in preparation for attacking his brother. However, the head generals loyal to his father, Chalkuchimac, Quizquiz
, and Rumiñahui
, transferred their devotion to Atahualpa who was assembling the former imperial army of Huayna Capac in Quito
, the Northern region left for his control.
The Incas referred to the city of Tumebamba
as "the second Cuzco". Located in the surrounding area of Quito, Tumebamba seemed ideal. People loyal to Atahualpa arranged the creation of a new capital of the Inca Empire in Tumebamba so they could follow their preferred ruler, gain leeway within the government, and not have to fall under the rule of Huáscar. Atahualpa agreed to take on the leadership role of Sapa Inca in this new capital. Huáscar, who had assembled his army, moved north at this news in an attempt to get rid of his brother and gain complete control over the empire. His men initiated the offensive with a surprise attack at Tumebamba. Taken off guard, Atahualpa was captured. The army imprisoned him while they celebrated their victory. As their banquet progressed, the men got drunk and guards allowed a woman in to see Atahualpa. This woman snuck in a tool that he used later in the evening to drill a hole from which he made his escape. As soon as he gained his freedom, Atahualpa gathered his large, experienced army from Quito and readied them for a counterattack.
From 1531 through 1532, the two armies participated in numerous battles. The first of these confrontations occurred when Atahualpa moved his men south shortly after his escape to the city of Ambato. At Ambato, on the plains of Mochacaxa, they found Huáscar's men. Soldiers attacked, defeated Huáscar's army, and managed to capture and kill the head general, Atoc
, along with many other soldiers. However, before Atoc was killed, his enemy tortured him with darts and arrows. After his death, Atahualpa demanded his "skull to be fashioned into a gilded drinking cup, which the Spaniards would note that Atahualpa was still using four years later.” Following this victory, he strengthened his army and continued southward into lands belonging to his brother. As he made his way to Cajamarca
, he added to his numbers. He first tried peaceful measures to gain loyalty from Huáscar’s men; in cases where that did not work, he became extremely violent, murdering large numbers. This in turn scared the survivors into surrendering to him. One report described how Atahualpa showed no mercy and massacred the Cañari tribesmen because they pledged their allegiance to Huáscar. When he finally arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa sent the majority of his army ahead, led by his head generals, to continue military advances while he stayed in the safety of the city and explored rumors that the Spaniards were coming into the land.
The military campaign continued southward through Huáscar’s territory. Battles took place at Bonbon and Jauja, both victories for Atahualpa’s army. The next battle started on the hillside of Vilcas and looked to be in favor of Huáscar. He had his troops set up at the top of the hill, behind a stone fortress. As initial attacks began, his men lost their position and retreated. Fighting occurred at Pincos and Andaguayias as soldiers went deeper into the enemy’s land; they remained successful. Atahualpa’s forces drew nearer to their opponent’s capital, northwest of Cuzco, at the battle between Curaguaci and Auancay, which again ended in victory. They continued their push to Limatambo, about twenty miles from Cuzco, where Huáscar’s men fell back to Ichubamba. There, they were defeated once again and fled from the battlefield.
After a few years of fighting this civil war, an end looked in sight. Atahualpa and his army had defeated Huáscar in every encounter after the first battle. In 1532, as Cuzco seemed to be in danger of takeover, “Huáscar sent another army to meet Atahualpa’s, but after precarious battles, his forces were routed and Huáscar himself was taken prisoner.” Atahualpa’s army had won the war. The news traveled back to Atahualpa in Cajamara, where the army then learned about the Spanish
incursion.
chased Huáscar’s army to the south. With a disastrous northern campaign, Huáscar had lost not only his best generals and many of his soldiers, but he also took command for the first time over his shocked and demoralized army. Huascar and Atahualpa’s armies met and each tried to gain advantage over the other. Huáscar, after finding himself in a dominant position, refused to make use of it, preferring instead to opt for a safe retreat, crossing the Cotabambas River on the way to Cuzco.
Chalkuchimac had a plan of his own and predicted the action of Topa Atao
, and divided his army in two, sending one contingent around Topa Atao’s back, enveloping and destroying the defenders. In January 1532, only miles from Cuzco, Huáscar’s retreat was cut off at Quipaipan
, and his army was annihilated and disbanded. Huáscar was captured and the capitol Cuzco was seized by Quizquiz, who had Huáscar’s supporters killed. This marked the reunification of the Inca Empire and so the end of the Northern Inca Empire as Atahualpa with arms had taken control of it all.
The war was over with Huáscar in captivity and the capitol was held by generals Quizquiz and Chalicuchima securing peace within the empire. Atahualpa’s army had risen to a strength of 250,000 men, and camped beside him at Cajamarca. However, before he had the chance to rule over the empire, Atahualpa met up with conquistador Francisco Pizarro, who had reached Cajamarca on 16 November, and was captured by the Spaniards as part of the Spanish Conquest of Peru
.
There is no clear evidence of just how many Inca were killed during the Civil War. The estimated population of indigenous people at contact is anywhere from 60,000 to 1,100,000. Still others believe that the indigenous population in the Americas was upwards of 112,500,000 before the Europeans made their first contact.
Ratios of 20:1 or 25:1 have been published which are the depopulation ratios between the pre-conquest population totals and the lowest indigenous population estimate. This ratio means that out of every 20 or 25 people, one person died.
Of the major battles fought, at Cajamarca the Spanish ambushed the Andean warriors and killed 1,500 of them without suffering any losses. There are no other hard numbers of Inca or Spanish death tolls at any of the other battles. There were other causes of deaths other than the battles between the two brothers and their armies. Spanish and European disease also played a huge part in indigenous deaths across Latin America
. Small Pox with the first recorded epidemic in December 1518 and it is thought that on Columbus
’ second voyage an outbreak of influenza
occurred where a large number of people died. Disease not only affected the indigenous people but also the Spanish as well. "Of the 1500 men who sailed from Cadiz
on September 25, 1493, scarcely 200 were alive a decade later."
Huáscar
Huáscar Inca was Sapa Inca of the Inca empire from 1527 to 1532 AD, succeeding his father Huayna Capac and brother Ninan Cuyochi, both of whom died of smallpox while campaigning near Quito.After the conquest, the Spanish put forth the idea that Huayna Capac may have...
and Atahualpa
Atahualpa
Atahualpa, Atahuallpa, Atabalipa, or Atawallpa , was the last Sapa Inca or sovereign emperor of the Tahuantinsuyu, or the Inca Empire, prior to the Spanish conquest of Peru...
, sons of Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac was the eleventh Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire and sixth of the Hanan dynasty. He was the successor to Tupac Inca Yupanqui.-Name:In Quechua, his name is spelled Wayna Qhapaq, and in Southern Quechua, it is Vaina Ghapakh...
, over the succession
Order of succession
An order of succession is a formula or algorithm that determines who inherits an office upon the death, resignation, or removal of its current occupant.-Monarchies and nobility:...
to the Inca throne. The war followed Huayna Capac's death in 1527, although it did not begin until 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war because he saw himself as the rightful heir to the kingdom of all the Incas. Regardless of legitimacy, Atahualpa proved himself to be tactically superior to his brother in warcraft and to the mighty armies of Cuzco, which their father had stationed in the North during the military campaign.
Background and causes of the division of the empire
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro González, Marquess was a Spanish conquistador, conqueror of the Incan Empire, and founder of Lima, the modern-day capital of the Republic of Peru.-Early life:...
explored South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
. There were sixty-two horsemen and 106 foot soldiers. Smallpox
Smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
was taken to the continent, causing disaster for the Incas. However, the Sapa Inca Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac was the eleventh Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire and sixth of the Hanan dynasty. He was the successor to Tupac Inca Yupanqui.-Name:In Quechua, his name is spelled Wayna Qhapaq, and in Southern Quechua, it is Vaina Ghapakh...
went to the north to investigate about the unfamiliar men. He never met any Spaniards, but he contracted smallpox and died in 1527. In addition, his eldest son and heir, Ninan Cuyochi
Ninan Cuyochi
Ninan Cuyochi, born 1490?, died 1527, the oldest son of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac and first in line to inherit the Inca Empire, but he however died of smallpox shortly before his father, bringing about a civil war....
, died shortly after him. With both the leading Inca and the successor to the throne dead, it was uncertain as to who would become the next Inca king. No clear rules stated how one was to gain succession to the throne. The choice stood between two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar, and Atahualpa, born of different mothers. Huáscar was of pure royal blood, but Atahualpa was considered illegitimate. Huáscar saw it as an insult that Atahualpa, despite his alleged cunning and early wisdom, was even considered for Sapa Inca. Huáscar eventually did become the ruler of the Incas. However, he felt that Atahualpa should not have any more land and that he should pay homage to him. Huáscar’s power hungry ways created hatred towards his half brother and began a war that lasted until 1532.
Movements During the War
Huáscar, who was appointed by his father Huayna Capac to be the sole Sapa Inca of the Empire, and was supported by the nobility in Cuzco as well as the religious and political authorities and other main figures, saw it as a great insult that a "bastardLegitimacy (law)
At common law, legitimacy is the status of a child who is born to parents who are legally married to one another; and of a child who is born shortly after the parents' divorce. In canon and in civil law, the offspring of putative marriages have been considered legitimate children...
" had inherited the throne of Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac was the eleventh Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire and sixth of the Hanan dynasty. He was the successor to Tupac Inca Yupanqui.-Name:In Quechua, his name is spelled Wayna Qhapaq, and in Southern Quechua, it is Vaina Ghapakh...
. The Inca nobles considered Atahualpa illegitimate because his mother, Paccha, was not born inside the Inca Royal Family and was merely the daughter of Cacha Shyri Duchicela, the former leader against the Incas conquest in the north (she was, however, born into the Shyri Royal Family). Soon after Huascar took his position as partial ruler of the empire, he expected Atahualpa and everyone else under the Incan authority to swear him allegiance, making him superior. Atahualpa had agreed to pledge allegiance to the new Inca, and sent his most trusted captains to Cuzco to announce his loyalty, as well as sending generous presents of gold and silver (as was customary.) Atahualpa was very liked in the North, as he was good tempered and carried himself with royal dignity. His brother Huascar was the contrary; he was ill tempered, disrespectful of the laws and ancient customs, suspicious of everybody, and refused to accept Atahualpa's offering of allegiance. Huascar then accused his brother of starting a rebellion against him, and ordered some of Atahualpa's messengers killed and had his captains sent back to him dressed as women. This was an insult to Atahualpa, who took it personally and declared war against his brother. Right before the Spaniards arrived in Cajamarca, Atahuallpa had order his troops to go to Cusco to capture Huascar, and later on his way to the North to have him killed. Francisco Pizarro used this crime as one of excuses to execute Atahualpa after Pizarro collected the ransom of gold and silver promised to him for his freedom. This became probable cause for the war because Huáscar was in fact the eldest "pure" Inca blood. His mother, Chincha Ocllo, and his father, Huayna Capac, were brother and sister, which gave him full royal ancestry.
Control of Cuzco, the capital of the Incan Empire, was passed down to Huáscar with his father's death. As animosity grew between the brothers, Huáscar gathered armies there under the command of Atoc
Atoc
Atoc was a general and brother of the Inca emperor Huáscar. After the death of Huáscar's father, Huayna Capac, Atoc was sent north to quell the separatists under Huáscars half-brother Atahualpa. Atahualpa was defeated in the battle of Chillopampa Plains and captured, but managed to escape and set...
in preparation for attacking his brother. However, the head generals loyal to his father, Chalkuchimac, Quizquiz
Quizquiz
Quizquiz or Quisquis was, along with Chalkuchimac and Rumiñahui, one of Atahualpa's leading generals. In April 1532, along with his companions, Quizquiz led the armies of Atahualpa to victory in the battles of Mullihambato, Chimborazo and Quipaipan, where he, along with Chalkuchimac defeated and...
, and Rumiñahui
Rumiñahui
Rumiñahui may refer to:*Rumiñahui *Rumiñahui *Rumiñahui...
, transferred their devotion to Atahualpa who was assembling the former imperial army of Huayna Capac in Quito
Quito
San Francisco de Quito, most often called Quito , is the capital city of Ecuador in northwestern South America. It is located in north-central Ecuador in the Guayllabamba river basin, on the eastern slopes of Pichincha, an active stratovolcano in the Andes mountains...
, the Northern region left for his control.
The Incas referred to the city of Tumebamba
Tumebamba
Tumebamba or Tomebamba, was a former city-state in the Inca federation, held by the ethnic Cañaris people; roughly translating to "entrance of the puma"...
as "the second Cuzco". Located in the surrounding area of Quito, Tumebamba seemed ideal. People loyal to Atahualpa arranged the creation of a new capital of the Inca Empire in Tumebamba so they could follow their preferred ruler, gain leeway within the government, and not have to fall under the rule of Huáscar. Atahualpa agreed to take on the leadership role of Sapa Inca in this new capital. Huáscar, who had assembled his army, moved north at this news in an attempt to get rid of his brother and gain complete control over the empire. His men initiated the offensive with a surprise attack at Tumebamba. Taken off guard, Atahualpa was captured. The army imprisoned him while they celebrated their victory. As their banquet progressed, the men got drunk and guards allowed a woman in to see Atahualpa. This woman snuck in a tool that he used later in the evening to drill a hole from which he made his escape. As soon as he gained his freedom, Atahualpa gathered his large, experienced army from Quito and readied them for a counterattack.
From 1531 through 1532, the two armies participated in numerous battles. The first of these confrontations occurred when Atahualpa moved his men south shortly after his escape to the city of Ambato. At Ambato, on the plains of Mochacaxa, they found Huáscar's men. Soldiers attacked, defeated Huáscar's army, and managed to capture and kill the head general, Atoc
Atoc
Atoc was a general and brother of the Inca emperor Huáscar. After the death of Huáscar's father, Huayna Capac, Atoc was sent north to quell the separatists under Huáscars half-brother Atahualpa. Atahualpa was defeated in the battle of Chillopampa Plains and captured, but managed to escape and set...
, along with many other soldiers. However, before Atoc was killed, his enemy tortured him with darts and arrows. After his death, Atahualpa demanded his "skull to be fashioned into a gilded drinking cup, which the Spaniards would note that Atahualpa was still using four years later.” Following this victory, he strengthened his army and continued southward into lands belonging to his brother. As he made his way to Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca may refer to:Colombia*Cajamarca, Tolima a town and municipality in Tolima DepartmentPeru* Cajamarca, city in Peru.* Cajamarca District, district in the Cajamarca province.* Cajamarca Province, province in the Cajamarca region....
, he added to his numbers. He first tried peaceful measures to gain loyalty from Huáscar’s men; in cases where that did not work, he became extremely violent, murdering large numbers. This in turn scared the survivors into surrendering to him. One report described how Atahualpa showed no mercy and massacred the Cañari tribesmen because they pledged their allegiance to Huáscar. When he finally arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa sent the majority of his army ahead, led by his head generals, to continue military advances while he stayed in the safety of the city and explored rumors that the Spaniards were coming into the land.
The military campaign continued southward through Huáscar’s territory. Battles took place at Bonbon and Jauja, both victories for Atahualpa’s army. The next battle started on the hillside of Vilcas and looked to be in favor of Huáscar. He had his troops set up at the top of the hill, behind a stone fortress. As initial attacks began, his men lost their position and retreated. Fighting occurred at Pincos and Andaguayias as soldiers went deeper into the enemy’s land; they remained successful. Atahualpa’s forces drew nearer to their opponent’s capital, northwest of Cuzco, at the battle between Curaguaci and Auancay, which again ended in victory. They continued their push to Limatambo, about twenty miles from Cuzco, where Huáscar’s men fell back to Ichubamba. There, they were defeated once again and fled from the battlefield.
After a few years of fighting this civil war, an end looked in sight. Atahualpa and his army had defeated Huáscar in every encounter after the first battle. In 1532, as Cuzco seemed to be in danger of takeover, “Huáscar sent another army to meet Atahualpa’s, but after precarious battles, his forces were routed and Huáscar himself was taken prisoner.” Atahualpa’s army had won the war. The news traveled back to Atahualpa in Cajamara, where the army then learned about the Spanish
Spanish people
The Spanish are citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. Within Spain, there are also a number of vigorous nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the country's complex history....
incursion.
Atahualpa, Pizarro and the end of the Spanish Conquest of Peru
Atahualpa was saluted as a hero; when recapturing Cajamarca, making his camp outside the city with 7,000 troops (See Atahualpa) while Chalkuchimac and QuizquizQuizquiz
Quizquiz or Quisquis was, along with Chalkuchimac and Rumiñahui, one of Atahualpa's leading generals. In April 1532, along with his companions, Quizquiz led the armies of Atahualpa to victory in the battles of Mullihambato, Chimborazo and Quipaipan, where he, along with Chalkuchimac defeated and...
chased Huáscar’s army to the south. With a disastrous northern campaign, Huáscar had lost not only his best generals and many of his soldiers, but he also took command for the first time over his shocked and demoralized army. Huascar and Atahualpa’s armies met and each tried to gain advantage over the other. Huáscar, after finding himself in a dominant position, refused to make use of it, preferring instead to opt for a safe retreat, crossing the Cotabambas River on the way to Cuzco.
Chalkuchimac had a plan of his own and predicted the action of Topa Atao
Topa Atao
Topa Atao was a brother and commander of Huascar's forces in the Inca Civil War. After defeat at Chimborazo and the initial success at halting Atahualpa's forces at Huanucopampa, he was ordered by the retreating Huascar to lead a force of recognition into a ravine upon the emerging armies of...
, and divided his army in two, sending one contingent around Topa Atao’s back, enveloping and destroying the defenders. In January 1532, only miles from Cuzco, Huáscar’s retreat was cut off at Quipaipan
Quipaipan
Quipaipan is the name of the plains west of Cusco in Peru, famous for the Battle of Quipaipan in 1532 which decided the fate of the Inca Empire....
, and his army was annihilated and disbanded. Huáscar was captured and the capitol Cuzco was seized by Quizquiz, who had Huáscar’s supporters killed. This marked the reunification of the Inca Empire and so the end of the Northern Inca Empire as Atahualpa with arms had taken control of it all.
The war was over with Huáscar in captivity and the capitol was held by generals Quizquiz and Chalicuchima securing peace within the empire. Atahualpa’s army had risen to a strength of 250,000 men, and camped beside him at Cajamarca. However, before he had the chance to rule over the empire, Atahualpa met up with conquistador Francisco Pizarro, who had reached Cajamarca on 16 November, and was captured by the Spaniards as part of the Spanish Conquest of Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
.
Casualties
While in the custody of Pizarro, Atahualpa was told by Pizarro that he was going to bring Huáscar to Cajamarca and Pizarro was going to judge which brother would be the better Sapa Inca. Atahualpa was scared that Pizarro would choose Huáscar over him so Atahualpa ordered Huáscar to be killed allegedly by drowning. Only a few months later on August 29, 1533, Atahualpa was himself garroted at the plaza of Cajamarca by Pizarro’s men.There is no clear evidence of just how many Inca were killed during the Civil War. The estimated population of indigenous people at contact is anywhere from 60,000 to 1,100,000. Still others believe that the indigenous population in the Americas was upwards of 112,500,000 before the Europeans made their first contact.
Ratios of 20:1 or 25:1 have been published which are the depopulation ratios between the pre-conquest population totals and the lowest indigenous population estimate. This ratio means that out of every 20 or 25 people, one person died.
Of the major battles fought, at Cajamarca the Spanish ambushed the Andean warriors and killed 1,500 of them without suffering any losses. There are no other hard numbers of Inca or Spanish death tolls at any of the other battles. There were other causes of deaths other than the battles between the two brothers and their armies. Spanish and European disease also played a huge part in indigenous deaths across Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
. Small Pox with the first recorded epidemic in December 1518 and it is thought that on Columbus
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus was an explorer, colonizer, and navigator, born in the Republic of Genoa, in northwestern Italy. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that led to general European awareness of the American continents in the...
’ second voyage an outbreak of influenza
Influenza
Influenza, commonly referred to as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae , that affects birds and mammals...
occurred where a large number of people died. Disease not only affected the indigenous people but also the Spanish as well. "Of the 1500 men who sailed from Cadiz
Cádiz
Cadiz is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the homonymous province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia....
on September 25, 1493, scarcely 200 were alive a decade later."