Indiana in the War of 1812
Encyclopedia
During the War of 1812
, Indiana Territory
was home to several conflicts between the United States
territorial government and partisan
Native American
forces backed by the British in Canada
. The Battle of Tippecanoe
, which had occurred just months before the war began, was one of the catalysts that caused the war. The war in the territory is often considered a continuation of Tecumseh's War
, and the final struggle of the Sixty Years' War
.
The native tribes who were part of the battle joined forces with the British in Canada at the onset of the war. Led by future U.S. President
William Henry Harrison
, American forces from Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky were able to turn the tide of war on land that initially begun badly for the United States. After driving tribal forces into Canada, the American forces proceeded to invade Canada, rout the British army, and secure victory of American forces in the Northwest.
Beginning with the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, tensions between the settlers in the Indiana Territory and the Indians began to increase dramatically. The events led to the Battle of Tippecanoe
on November 6, 1811 during what is known as Tecumseh's War
. In the battle William Henry Harrison
led the territorial militia and army regulars against the forces of Tecumseh's Confederacy at Prophetstown
. The confederacy's defeat was a major blow to their plans for a larger uprising, but left the tribes looking to outward sources of support. The British accepted an alliance with the tribes and the conflict merged with the War of 1812 in the following year. Henry Clay
and his supporters in Congress attacked and denounced the British who had supplied firearms to the western tribes and the Battle of Tippecanoe further raised tensions between the United States and Great Britain. Although Tecumseh publicly claimed to be at peace with the United States, he was privately encouraging his followers to prepare for war. He sent messengers to the British to attempt to stir them, reporting that the Americans were amassing troops for an invasion of Canada.
Just before the start of the war in June, Territorial Governor
William Henry Harrison
had left the territory for army reinforcements, leaving Secretary John Gibson
to govern in his absence. As it became apparent that hostilities would soon break out, Gibson ordered the militia to organize and sent emergency riders to inform Harrison of the situation and to return him to the territory as soon as possible.
July and August gave Harrison several impediments to defending Indiana. First, Chief Little Turtle died on July 14, which meant that the United States lost one of the Indian leaders they could rely on to maintain peace. This was followed three days later by British forces gaining control of Lake Michigan
by the capture of the American fort at Mackinac Island
. The Potawatomi
allies of the British captured Fort Dearborn
at what is now Chicago
on August 15, massacring the defenders of the fort, including William Wells
, the adopted son of Little Turtle. The British and their allies captured Fort Detroit
on August 16, putting British forces on the northern border of Indiana. On August 18 the Indians led by Tecumseh
refused to listen to Harrison's request for a peace council.
With the impending onset of hostilities, Harrison sought military assistance from neighboring Kentucky
. After being appointed brigadier general of the Kentucky militia
on August 22, Harrison went to attain the force in order to defend the Indiana territorial government at Vincennes
. Harrison had resigned his military commission in December 1811, but with the help of Kentucky governor Charles Scott
, he was able to recruit Kentucky citizens to help defend Indiana; citizens in Ohio and Indiana had heard of the lack of camp provisions and chose not to be burdened by such hardships. It is believed Harrison sought military command due to losing popularity in the territory, particularly for supporting slavery in the territory
.
During September the Territorial Legislature met and Dennis Pennington
introduced a bill to move the capitol from Vincennes because of its proximity to the Indians. The bill was passed and plans were put in place to begin selecting a new capitol and to evacuate the territorial records. The resolution stated: "Resolved: That the capitol be removed from Vincennes, because it is dangerous to continue longer here on account of threatened depredations of the Indians, who may destroy our valuable records."
September saw additional attacks across the territory. On September 3 in northern Clark County
, Shawnees slaughtered the villagers of Pigeon Roost
. Early September saw two separate attacks on Fort Harrison and Fort Wayne, but this time the defenders were able to repel the attack. The Siege of Fort Harrison, where the defenders were commanded by Zachary Taylor
, resulted in the first land victory for American forces during the war; it was the heaviest assault the Indians threw at American defenders. Harrison himself relieved the Siege of Fort Wayne
. On September 17, Harrison was given command of all American troops in the Northwest Territories as a brevet major general, replacing General James Winchester
, and ordered to retake Detroit. Throughout the second half of the month Miamis continued sending emissaries to persuade the Delaware tribe to attack Americans.
The American forces struck back in November. Prophetstown was again destroyed
on November 22 by General Samuel Hopkins
, backed by attacking the deserted Tippecanoe River
villages of the Kickapoo and Winnebago
. The Battle of the Mississinewa
saw forces under Colonel John B. Campbell
further attack the Indians, but with his troops devastated by frostbite
, Campbell took his men to Greenville.
The Indians were not aided by the British in their assaults in Indiana, as the dry summer hindered efforts to send 600 British troops to Fort Wayne down the Maumee River
.
On December 28 Harrison resigned from his office as territorial governor; the position was not filled until Thomas Posey
was given the office in April 1813.
were organized. Each company was 100 men strong. The un-uniformed troops carried their own provisions, and carried a knife and long knives to fight. These forces sought out Indian villages to avenge previous Indian attacks. There were several skirmishes between Native Americans and Rangers, such as the Battle of Tipton's Island
, but they were smaller than the major clashes of 1812. In July 1813, a large punative expedition left Fort Vallonia and destroyed the well-developed Miami city at the confluence of the Wabash and Mississinewa Rivers. The town was deserted in advance of the army, however, and no Americans Indians were encountered during the entire expedition.
On May 1, 1813, the territorial legislature relocated the capitol to Corydon, Indiana
, a town near Kentucky that was central within the populated portion of the territory, yet farther from the Indians than the other candidate towns.
On September 29, 1813, Harrison was able to drive British forces from Detroit, forcing the British to retreat into Canada. After defeating the British again at the Battle of Thames, Harrison chose to retire to Ohio, never again to live in Indiana.
, British agents operating from Canada had worked to instigate Native American tribes against the United States. In the Treaty of Ghent
, Great Britain agreed not to arm nor trade with American Indians in the United States.
The first decade of the 19th century was a time of relative peace between the white settlers in southern Indiana territory and the Native American nations in the rest of the territory. Although the United States hoped to acquire more of this land for settlement, it had an official policy of coexistence with the native tribes. Following the massacres and destruction of villages from 1811–13, however, the United States adopted a removal policy
.
The punitive actions of the War of 1812 gave the United States firm control over Indiana Territory. This led to rapid settlement and development of the territory when peace was declared, and Indiana was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816.
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...
, Indiana Territory
Indiana Territory
The Territory of Indiana was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4, 1800, until November 7, 1816, when the southern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the state of Indiana....
was home to several conflicts between the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
territorial government and partisan
Partisan (military)
A partisan is a member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation by some kind of insurgent activity...
Native American
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
forces backed by the British in Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. The Battle of Tippecanoe
Battle of Tippecanoe
The Battle of Tippecanoe was fought on November 7, 1811, between United States forces led by Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory and Native American warriors associated with the Shawnee leader Tecumseh. Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa were leaders of a confederacy of...
, which had occurred just months before the war began, was one of the catalysts that caused the war. The war in the territory is often considered a continuation of Tecumseh's War
Tecumseh's War
Tecumseh's War or Tecumseh's Rebellion are terms sometimes used to describe a conflict in the Old Northwest between the United States and an American Indian confederacy led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh...
, and the final struggle of the Sixty Years' War
Sixty Years' War
The Sixty Years' War was a military struggle for control of the Great Lakes region in North America, encompassing a number of wars over several generations. The term Sixty Years' War is not widely known, and is used primarily by academic historians who specialize in various aspects of the conflict...
.
The native tribes who were part of the battle joined forces with the British in Canada at the onset of the war. Led by future U.S. President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison was the ninth President of the United States , an American military officer and politician, and the first president to die in office. He was 68 years, 23 days old when elected, the oldest president elected until Ronald Reagan in 1980, and last President to be born before the...
, American forces from Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky were able to turn the tide of war on land that initially begun badly for the United States. After driving tribal forces into Canada, the American forces proceeded to invade Canada, rout the British army, and secure victory of American forces in the Northwest.
Background
Battle of Tippecanoe
The Battle of Tippecanoe was fought on November 7, 1811, between United States forces led by Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory and Native American warriors associated with the Shawnee leader Tecumseh. Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa were leaders of a confederacy of...
on November 6, 1811 during what is known as Tecumseh's War
Tecumseh's War
Tecumseh's War or Tecumseh's Rebellion are terms sometimes used to describe a conflict in the Old Northwest between the United States and an American Indian confederacy led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh...
. In the battle William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison was the ninth President of the United States , an American military officer and politician, and the first president to die in office. He was 68 years, 23 days old when elected, the oldest president elected until Ronald Reagan in 1980, and last President to be born before the...
led the territorial militia and army regulars against the forces of Tecumseh's Confederacy at Prophetstown
Prophetstown
Prophetstown may refer toIn Illinois, USA:* Prophetstown, Illinois* Prophetstown Township, Whiteside County, Illinois* Prophetstown State Recreation AreaIn Indiana, USA:...
. The confederacy's defeat was a major blow to their plans for a larger uprising, but left the tribes looking to outward sources of support. The British accepted an alliance with the tribes and the conflict merged with the War of 1812 in the following year. Henry Clay
Henry Clay
Henry Clay, Sr. , was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives...
and his supporters in Congress attacked and denounced the British who had supplied firearms to the western tribes and the Battle of Tippecanoe further raised tensions between the United States and Great Britain. Although Tecumseh publicly claimed to be at peace with the United States, he was privately encouraging his followers to prepare for war. He sent messengers to the British to attempt to stir them, reporting that the Americans were amassing troops for an invasion of Canada.
1812
Governor of Indiana
The Governor of Indiana is the chief executive of the state of Indiana. The governor is elected to a four-year term, and responsible for overseeing the day-to-day management of the functions of many agencies of the Indiana state government. The governor also shares power with other statewide...
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison was the ninth President of the United States , an American military officer and politician, and the first president to die in office. He was 68 years, 23 days old when elected, the oldest president elected until Ronald Reagan in 1980, and last President to be born before the...
had left the territory for army reinforcements, leaving Secretary John Gibson
John Gibson (Indiana)
John Gibson was a veteran of the French and Indian War, Lord Dunmore's War, the American Revolutionary War, Tecumseh's War, and the War of 1812. A delegate to the first Pennsylvania constitutional convention in 1790, and a merchant, he earned a reputation as a frontier leader and had good...
to govern in his absence. As it became apparent that hostilities would soon break out, Gibson ordered the militia to organize and sent emergency riders to inform Harrison of the situation and to return him to the territory as soon as possible.
July and August gave Harrison several impediments to defending Indiana. First, Chief Little Turtle died on July 14, which meant that the United States lost one of the Indian leaders they could rely on to maintain peace. This was followed three days later by British forces gaining control of Lake Michigan
Lake Michigan
Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America and the only one located entirely within the United States. It is the second largest of the Great Lakes by volume and the third largest by surface area, after Lake Superior and Lake Huron...
by the capture of the American fort at Mackinac Island
Mackinac Island
Mackinac Island is an island and resort area covering in land area, part of the U.S. state of Michigan. It is located in Lake Huron, at the eastern end of the Straits of Mackinac, between the state's Upper and Lower Peninsulas. The island was home to a Native American settlement before European...
. The Potawatomi
Potawatomi
The Potawatomi are a Native American people of the upper Mississippi River region. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a member of the Algonquian family. In the Potawatomi language, they generally call themselves Bodéwadmi, a name that means "keepers of the fire" and that was applied...
allies of the British captured Fort Dearborn
Fort Dearborn
Fort Dearborn was a United States fort built in 1803 beside the Chicago River in what is now Chicago, Illinois. It was constructed by troops under Captain John Whistler and named in honor of Henry Dearborn, then United States Secretary of War. The original fort was destroyed following the Battle of...
at what is now Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
on August 15, massacring the defenders of the fort, including William Wells
William Wells (soldier)
William Wells , also known as Apekonit , was the son-in-law of Chief Little Turtle of the Miami. He fought for the Miami in the Northwest Indian War...
, the adopted son of Little Turtle. The British and their allies captured Fort Detroit
Fort Detroit
Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit or Fort Détroit was a fort established by the French officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac in 1701. The location of the former fort is now in the city of Detroit in the U.S...
on August 16, putting British forces on the northern border of Indiana. On August 18 the Indians led by Tecumseh
Tecumseh
Tecumseh was a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy which opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812...
refused to listen to Harrison's request for a peace council.
With the impending onset of hostilities, Harrison sought military assistance from neighboring Kentucky
Kentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state, more specifically in the East South Central region. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth...
. After being appointed brigadier general of the Kentucky militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
on August 22, Harrison went to attain the force in order to defend the Indiana territorial government at Vincennes
Vincennes, Indiana
Vincennes is a city in and the county seat of Knox County, Indiana, United States. It is located on the Wabash River in the southwestern part of the state. The population was 18,701 at the 2000 census...
. Harrison had resigned his military commission in December 1811, but with the help of Kentucky governor Charles Scott
Charles Scott
Charles Scott may refer to:* Charles Scott , American Revolutionary War soldier and fourth governor of Kentucky* Charles Frederick Scott , U.S. Representative from Kansas...
, he was able to recruit Kentucky citizens to help defend Indiana; citizens in Ohio and Indiana had heard of the lack of camp provisions and chose not to be burdened by such hardships. It is believed Harrison sought military command due to losing popularity in the territory, particularly for supporting slavery in the territory
History of slavery in Indiana
Slavery in Indiana occurred between the time of French rule during late seventeenth century and 1826, with a few traces of slavery afterward. When the United States first took control of the region, slavery was tolerated as a necessity to keep peace with the Indians and the French...
.
During September the Territorial Legislature met and Dennis Pennington
Dennis Pennington
Dennis Pennington was an early legislator in Indiana and the Indiana Territory, speaker of the first Indiana State Senate, speaker of the territorial legislature, a member of the Whig Party serving over 37 years in public office, and one of the founders of Indiana. He was also a stonemason and...
introduced a bill to move the capitol from Vincennes because of its proximity to the Indians. The bill was passed and plans were put in place to begin selecting a new capitol and to evacuate the territorial records. The resolution stated: "Resolved: That the capitol be removed from Vincennes, because it is dangerous to continue longer here on account of threatened depredations of the Indians, who may destroy our valuable records."
September saw additional attacks across the territory. On September 3 in northern Clark County
Clark County, Indiana
Clark County is a county located in the U.S. state of Indiana, located directly across the Ohio River from Louisville, Kentucky. At the 2010 Census, the population was 110,232. The county seat is Jeffersonville. Clarksville is also a major city in the county...
, Shawnees slaughtered the villagers of Pigeon Roost
Pigeon Roost State Historic Site
Pigeon Roost State Historic Site is located between Scottsburg and Henryville, Indiana, near Underwood, Indiana. A one-lane road off U.S. Route 31 takes the visitor to the site of a village where Indians massacred 24 settlers shortly after the War of 1812 began.-Pigeon Roost Village:Pigeon Roost...
. Early September saw two separate attacks on Fort Harrison and Fort Wayne, but this time the defenders were able to repel the attack. The Siege of Fort Harrison, where the defenders were commanded by Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States and an American military leader. Initially uninterested in politics, Taylor nonetheless ran as a Whig in the 1848 presidential election, defeating Lewis Cass...
, resulted in the first land victory for American forces during the war; it was the heaviest assault the Indians threw at American defenders. Harrison himself relieved the Siege of Fort Wayne
Siege of Fort Wayne
The Siege of Fort Wayne took place during the War of 1812, between United States and American Indian forces in the wake of the successful British campaigns of 1812.-Background:...
. On September 17, Harrison was given command of all American troops in the Northwest Territories as a brevet major general, replacing General James Winchester
James Winchester
James Winchester was an officer in the American Revolutionary War and a brigadier general during the War of 1812. He commanded the American forces at the Battle of Frenchtown, which led to the Massacre of the River Raisin....
, and ordered to retake Detroit. Throughout the second half of the month Miamis continued sending emissaries to persuade the Delaware tribe to attack Americans.
Spur's Defeat
The Battle of Wild Cat Creek, was the result of a November 1812 punitive expedition against Native American villages during the War of 1812. It has been nicknamed, Spur's Defeat, which is thought to refer to the spurs used by the soldiers to drive their horses away from the battle as quickly as...
on November 22 by General Samuel Hopkins
Samuel Hopkins
Samuel Hopkins may refer to:*Samuel Hopkins , American inventor who was awarded the first US patent for a process to refine potash...
, backed by attacking the deserted Tippecanoe River
Tippecanoe River
The Tippecanoe River is a gentle, river in northern Indiana that flows from Big Lake in Noble County to the Wabash River near Battle Ground, about northeast of Lafayette. The name "Tippecanoe" comes from a Miami-Illinois word for buffalo fish, reconstructed as */kiteepihkwana/.The Tippecanoe...
villages of the Kickapoo and Winnebago
Ho-Chunk
The Ho-Chunk, also known as Winnebago, are a tribe of Native Americans, native to what is now Wisconsin and Illinois. There are two federally recognized Ho-Chunk tribes, the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska....
. The Battle of the Mississinewa
Battle of the Mississinewa
The Battle of the Mississinewa, also known as Mississineway, was an expedition ordered by William Henry Harrison against Miami Indian villages in response to the attacks on Fort Wayne and Fort Harrison in the Indiana Territory. The battle is significant as the first American victory in the War of...
saw forces under Colonel John B. Campbell
John B. Campbell
John B. Campbell was a soldier during the War of 1812, most famous for his expedition to destroy the Miami Indian villages along the Mississinewa River and perhaps most infamous for destroying private houses and other property along with the stocks of grain and mills, which led to a Court of...
further attack the Indians, but with his troops devastated by frostbite
Frostbite
Frostbite is the medical condition where localized damage is caused to skin and other tissues due to extreme cold. Frostbite is most likely to happen in body parts farthest from the heart and those with large exposed areas...
, Campbell took his men to Greenville.
The Indians were not aided by the British in their assaults in Indiana, as the dry summer hindered efforts to send 600 British troops to Fort Wayne down the Maumee River
Maumee River
The Maumee River is a river in northwestern Ohio and northeastern Indiana in the United States. It is formed at Fort Wayne, Indiana by the confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Marys rivers, and meanders northeastwardly for through an agricultural region of glacial moraines before flowing into the...
.
On December 28 Harrison resigned from his office as territorial governor; the position was not filled until Thomas Posey
Thomas Posey
Thomas Posey was an officer in the American Revolution, a general during peacetime, the third Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, Governor of the Indiana Territory, and a Louisiana Senator.-Family and background:...
was given the office in April 1813.
1813
To combat the threat of Native American attacks, several companies of mounted Indiana RangersIndiana Rangers
The Indiana Rangers were a mounted militia formed in 1807 and operated in the early part of the 19th century to defend settlers in Indiana Territory from attacks by Native Americans. The rangers were present at the Battle of Tippecanoe, and served as auxiliaries to the army during the War of 1812...
were organized. Each company was 100 men strong. The un-uniformed troops carried their own provisions, and carried a knife and long knives to fight. These forces sought out Indian villages to avenge previous Indian attacks. There were several skirmishes between Native Americans and Rangers, such as the Battle of Tipton's Island
Battle of Tipton's Island
The Battle of Tipton's Island was an engagement between a Kickapoo war party and Indiana Rangers under command of John Tipton in April 1813, near White River, in Indiana....
, but they were smaller than the major clashes of 1812. In July 1813, a large punative expedition left Fort Vallonia and destroyed the well-developed Miami city at the confluence of the Wabash and Mississinewa Rivers. The town was deserted in advance of the army, however, and no Americans Indians were encountered during the entire expedition.
On May 1, 1813, the territorial legislature relocated the capitol to Corydon, Indiana
Corydon, Indiana
Corydon is a town in Harrison Township, Harrison County, Indiana, United States, founded in 1808, and is known as Indiana's First State Capital. After Vincennes, Corydon was the second capital of the Indiana Territory from May 1, 1813, until December 11, 1816. After statehood, the town was the...
, a town near Kentucky that was central within the populated portion of the territory, yet farther from the Indians than the other candidate towns.
On September 29, 1813, Harrison was able to drive British forces from Detroit, forcing the British to retreat into Canada. After defeating the British again at the Battle of Thames, Harrison chose to retire to Ohio, never again to live in Indiana.
Effects
From the days of the American Revolutionary WarAmerican Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
, British agents operating from Canada had worked to instigate Native American tribes against the United States. In the Treaty of Ghent
Treaty of Ghent
The Treaty of Ghent , signed on 24 December 1814, in Ghent , was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland...
, Great Britain agreed not to arm nor trade with American Indians in the United States.
The first decade of the 19th century was a time of relative peace between the white settlers in southern Indiana territory and the Native American nations in the rest of the territory. Although the United States hoped to acquire more of this land for settlement, it had an official policy of coexistence with the native tribes. Following the massacres and destruction of villages from 1811–13, however, the United States adopted a removal policy
Indian removals in Indiana
Indian removals in Indiana began in the early 1830s and was mostly completed by 1846. The removals were preceded by several treaties, beginning in 1795, that gradually purchased most of the state from various tribes...
.
The punitive actions of the War of 1812 gave the United States firm control over Indiana Territory. This led to rapid settlement and development of the territory when peace was declared, and Indiana was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816.