Ithomiini
Encyclopedia
Ithomiini is a butterfly
tribe
in the nymphalid
subfamily Danainae. Some authors consider the group to be a subfamily (Ithomiinae). These butterflies are exclusively Neotropical, found in humid forests from sea-level to 3000 m, from the southwestern United States to Argentina. There are around 370 species in some 40-45 genera.
) and wilted borages (Boraginaceae
). The slow-flying adults are Müllerian mimics
of each ther as well as of many other Lepidoptera. Identification of adult ithomiines relies on hindwing venation and male androconia
l scales (sex brushes located on the hindwing costa).
The group has repeatedly been proposed as biological indicators of ecological conditions or biological diversity within neotropical forests, but individual sites harbor between 10 and 50 species, for the most part, and beta diversity is often great, even over relatively short distances.
Ithomiine larvae feed mostly on Solanaceae
host plants. Exceptions are the more basal genera Tithorea, Aeria, and Elzunia that, like Tellervo and some Danainae, feed on Echiteae vines (Apocynaceae
, Apocynoideae
), as well as Megoleria and Hyposcada that feed on Gesneriaceae
.
The local abundance of ithomiine butterflies in the Amazon forest, the lack of observations of predation, and their “peculiar smell” led Henry Walter Bates
in 1867 to suggest that these organisms should be chemically defended. This was first experimentally demonstrated in 1889 when Thomas Belt
fed ithomiines (that he called “Heliconii”) to birds, the spider Nephila, and the white faced monkey Cebus capucinus. The butterflies were consistently rejected, but other insects were eaten. Lincoln P. Brower in 1964 also showed that adults of Ithomia drymo pellucida were rejected by the bluejay Cyanocitta cristata bromia, and Haber showed that nine species of birds also rejected several ithomiine species. Besides, Vasconcellos-Neto and Lewinsohn demonstrated that the neotropical orb-weaving spider Nephila clavipes
released unharmed 14 species of field-caught ithomiine butterflies.
The source of the protecting chemicals in the bodies of adult ithomiines proved not to be their larval host plants, as was first suggested, but rather in plants visited by the butterflies. Adults of ithomiine, mainly males, visit flowers of some Boraginaceae, (Tournefortia
, Heliotropium
), Asteraceae
(mostly in the tribe Eupatorieae, and rarely on Senecio species), Apocynaceae
(Prestonia, belonging to the tribe Echiteae) and Orchidaceae
(Epidendrum paniculatum). Dead or withered plants are also visited and, when feeding on these plants, the butterflies scratch the tissues with their legs and suck the oozing sap. These plants are known to contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids, indicating their role as chemical sources for sequestration. Other butterfly and moth species that sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Danainae, Ctenuchidae, and Arctiidae
) also visit similar sources. The first demonstration that pyrrolizidine alkaloids were involved in the chemical defense of insects was given by Thomas Eisner
, who showed that the spiders Nephila and Argiope
rejected adults of the arctiid moth Utetheisa ornatrix that contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids from their larval host plant, Crotalaria
(Fabaceae: Crotalarieae). Eisner's best-selling popular science book For love of insects tells the story of this exciting discovery.
The sister group to the tribe Ithomiini is either the small tribe Tellervini
(containing the single Australasian genus Tellervo) or the larger tribe Danaini
. The relationships of the three tribes in the subfamily Danainae are still unclear.
Tribe Ithomiini Godman & Salvin, 1879
binomial names. Three page. This page is Mechanitis.
Butterfly
A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera, which includes the butterflies and moths. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly's life cycle consists of four parts: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured...
tribe
Tribe (biology)
In biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank between family and genus. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes.Some examples include the tribes: Canini, Acalypheae, Hominini, Bombini, and Antidesmeae.-See also:* Biological classification* Rank...
in the nymphalid
Nymphalidae
The Nymphalidae is a family of about 5,000 species of butterflies which are distributed throughout most of the world. These are usually medium sized to large butterflies. Most species have a reduced pair of forelegs and many hold their colourful wings flat when resting. They are also called...
subfamily Danainae. Some authors consider the group to be a subfamily (Ithomiinae). These butterflies are exclusively Neotropical, found in humid forests from sea-level to 3000 m, from the southwestern United States to Argentina. There are around 370 species in some 40-45 genera.
Ithomiini biology
Ithomiines are unpalatable because their adults seek out and sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids from plants that they visit, especially composit flowers (AsteraceaeAsteraceae
The Asteraceae or Compositae , is an exceedingly large and widespread family of vascular plants. The group has more than 22,750 currently accepted species, spread across 1620 genera and 12 subfamilies...
) and wilted borages (Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae, the Borage or Forget-me-not family, include a variety of shrubs, trees, and herbs, totaling about 2,000 species in 146 genera found worldwide.A number of familiar plants belong to this family....
). The slow-flying adults are Müllerian mimics
Müllerian mimicry
Müllerian mimicry is a natural phenomenon when two or more harmful species, that may or may not be closely related and share one or more common predators, have come to mimic each other's warning signals...
of each ther as well as of many other Lepidoptera. Identification of adult ithomiines relies on hindwing venation and male androconia
Glossary of Lepidopteran terms
This glossary describes the terms used in the formal descriptions of insect species, jargon used mostly by professionals or entomologist....
l scales (sex brushes located on the hindwing costa).
The group has repeatedly been proposed as biological indicators of ecological conditions or biological diversity within neotropical forests, but individual sites harbor between 10 and 50 species, for the most part, and beta diversity is often great, even over relatively short distances.
Ithomiine larvae feed mostly on Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae are a family of flowering plants that include a number of important agricultural crops as well as many toxic plants. The name of the family comes from the Latin Solanum "the nightshade plant", but the further etymology of that word is unclear...
host plants. Exceptions are the more basal genera Tithorea, Aeria, and Elzunia that, like Tellervo and some Danainae, feed on Echiteae vines (Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
The Apocynaceae or dogbane family is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, and lianas.Many species are tall trees found in tropical rainforests, and most are from the tropics and subtropics, but some grow in tropical dry, xeric environments. There are also perennial herbs...
, Apocynoideae
Apocynoideae
Apocynoideae is a subfamily of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae . It contains about 78 genera with roughly 860 species. The diverse species have pharmacological interests. Important genera include Nerium.-Genera:...
), as well as Megoleria and Hyposcada that feed on Gesneriaceae
Gesneriaceae
Gesneriaceae is a family of flowering plants consisting of ca. 150 genera and ca. 3,200 species in the Old World and New World tropics and subtropics, with a very small number extending to temperate areas. Many species have colorful and showy flowers and are cultivated as ornamental plants.Most...
.
The local abundance of ithomiine butterflies in the Amazon forest, the lack of observations of predation, and their “peculiar smell” led Henry Walter Bates
Henry Walter Bates
Henry Walter Bates FRS FLS FGS was an English naturalist and explorer who gave the first scientific account of mimicry in animals. He was most famous for his expedition to the Amazon with Alfred Russel Wallace in 1848. Wallace returned in 1852, but lost his collection in a shipwreck...
in 1867 to suggest that these organisms should be chemically defended. This was first experimentally demonstrated in 1889 when Thomas Belt
Thomas Belt
Thomas Belt , an English geologist and naturalist, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1832, and educated in that city. He is remembered for his work on the geology of gold bearing minerals, glacial geology, and for his description of the mutualistic relationship between certain bullthorn Acacia...
fed ithomiines (that he called “Heliconii”) to birds, the spider Nephila, and the white faced monkey Cebus capucinus. The butterflies were consistently rejected, but other insects were eaten. Lincoln P. Brower in 1964 also showed that adults of Ithomia drymo pellucida were rejected by the bluejay Cyanocitta cristata bromia, and Haber showed that nine species of birds also rejected several ithomiine species. Besides, Vasconcellos-Neto and Lewinsohn demonstrated that the neotropical orb-weaving spider Nephila clavipes
Nephila clavipes
Nephila clavipes is a species of golden orb-web spider. It lives in the warmer regions of the Americas. The large size and bright colours of the species make it distinctive...
released unharmed 14 species of field-caught ithomiine butterflies.
The source of the protecting chemicals in the bodies of adult ithomiines proved not to be their larval host plants, as was first suggested, but rather in plants visited by the butterflies. Adults of ithomiine, mainly males, visit flowers of some Boraginaceae, (Tournefortia
Tournefortia
Tournefortia, commonly known as Soldierbush, is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae.It was first published under the name Pittonia by Charles Plumier in 1703, in honour of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort...
, Heliotropium
Heliotropium
Heliotropium is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae. There are 250 to 300 species in this genus, which are commonly known as heliotropes ....
), Asteraceae
Asteraceae
The Asteraceae or Compositae , is an exceedingly large and widespread family of vascular plants. The group has more than 22,750 currently accepted species, spread across 1620 genera and 12 subfamilies...
(mostly in the tribe Eupatorieae, and rarely on Senecio species), Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
The Apocynaceae or dogbane family is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, and lianas.Many species are tall trees found in tropical rainforests, and most are from the tropics and subtropics, but some grow in tropical dry, xeric environments. There are also perennial herbs...
(Prestonia, belonging to the tribe Echiteae) and Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
The Orchidaceae, commonly referred to as the orchid family, is a morphologically diverse and widespread family of monocots in the order Asparagales. Along with the Asteraceae, it is one of the two largest families of flowering plants, with between 21,950 and 26,049 currently accepted species,...
(Epidendrum paniculatum). Dead or withered plants are also visited and, when feeding on these plants, the butterflies scratch the tissues with their legs and suck the oozing sap. These plants are known to contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids, indicating their role as chemical sources for sequestration. Other butterfly and moth species that sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Danainae, Ctenuchidae, and Arctiidae
Arctiidae
Arctiidae is a large and diverse family of moths with around 11,000 species found all over the world, including 6,000 neotropical species. This family includes the groups commonly known as tiger moths , which usually have bright colours, footmen , lichen moths and wasp moths...
) also visit similar sources. The first demonstration that pyrrolizidine alkaloids were involved in the chemical defense of insects was given by Thomas Eisner
Thomas Eisner
Thomas Eisner was a German-American entomologist and ecologist, known as the "father of chemical ecology."He was a Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Chemical Ecology at Cornell University, and Director of the Cornell Institute for Research in Chemical Ecology...
, who showed that the spiders Nephila and Argiope
Argiope
-Greek Mythological Persons:* Argiope, a Naiad, a daughter of the River God Nile. She was wife of Agenor and mother of his children. More commonly known as Telephassa...
rejected adults of the arctiid moth Utetheisa ornatrix that contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids from their larval host plant, Crotalaria
Crotalaria
Crotalaria is a genus of herbaceous plants and woody shrubs in the Family Fabaceae commonly known as rattlepods. Some 600 or more species of Crotalaria are described worldwide, mostly from the tropics; at least 500 species are known from Africa. Some species of Crotalaria are grown as ornamentals...
(Fabaceae: Crotalarieae). Eisner's best-selling popular science book For love of insects tells the story of this exciting discovery.
Ithomiini classification
The subtribes in the Ithomiini help to organize the 43 recognized genera, but this group is the subject of ongoing molecular, phylogenetic, and morphological research, and the classification presented below will no doubt be refined in the near future.The sister group to the tribe Ithomiini is either the small tribe Tellervini
Tellervini
Tellervini is a tribe of danaid butterflies with only the one genus Tellervo, with six widely distributed species found in Australia and the Oriental region. The taxon is apparently monophyletic, but its relationship with the other two danaid tribes is yet uncertain...
(containing the single Australasian genus Tellervo) or the larger tribe Danaini
Danaini
Danaini is a tribe of nymphalid butterflies.-Classification:* Subtribus Danaina Boisduval, [1833]** Amauris** Danaus** Ideopsis** Parantica** Tiradelphe** Tirumala* Subtribus Euploeina Moore, [1880]** Anetia...
. The relationships of the three tribes in the subfamily Danainae are still unclear.
- Source: The higher classification of Nymphalidae, at Nymphalidae.net
- Note: A species list with proposed new tribes for subfamily Ithomiinae is available from Keith Willmott at http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/butterflies/neotropica/ith_list.html.
- Note: Names preceded by an equal sign ( = ) are synonyms, homonyms, rejected names or invalid names.
Tribe Ithomiini Godman & Salvin, 1879
- (Subtribe Tithoreina Fox, 1940)
- Elzunia Bryk 1937
- Tithorea Doubleday 1847 ( = Hirsutis HaenschRichard HaenschRichard Haensch was a German entomologist and insect dealer in Berlin.Haensch collected in Bahia , Minas Gerais and Ecuador . Minas Gerais...
1909) - Aeria Hübner 1816
- (Subtribe Melinaeina Clark, 1947)
- AthesisAthesisAthesis is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Doubleday in 1847. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically.*Athesis acrisione Hewitson, 1869...
Doubleday 1847 ( = Roswellia Fox 1948 - Eutresis Doubleday 1847
- Athyrtis Felder & Felder 1862
- Paititia Lamas 1979
- Olyras Doubleday 1847
- Patricia Fox 1940
- Melinaea Hübner 1816 ( = homonym Melinaea Bates 1862; = Czakia Kremky 1925)
- Athesis
- (Subtribe Mechanitina Bar, 1878)
- Methona Doubleday 1847 ( = Gelotophye d’Almeida 1940)
- Thyridia Hübner 1816 ( = Xanthocleis Boisduval 1870; = Aprotopus Kirby 1871; = Aprotopos Kirby 1871)
- ScadaSCADASCADA generally refers to industrial control systems : computer systems that monitor and control industrial, infrastructure, or facility-based processes, as described below:...
Kirby 1871 ( = homonym Salacia Hübner 1823; = Heteroscada Schatz 1886) - Sais Hübner 1816
- Forbestra Fox 1967
- MechanitisMechanitisMechanitis is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Fabricius in 1807. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically.*Mechanitis lysimnia...
Fabricius 1807 ( = homonym Nereis Hübner 1806; = unavailable name Hymenitis Illiger 1807; = Epimetes Billberg 1820)
- (Subtribe Napeogenina)
- Aremfoxia Réal 1971
- Epityches d'Almeida 1938 ( = homonym Tritonia Geyer 1832)
- Hyalyris Boisduval 1870 ( = Oreogenes Stichel 1899)
- Napeogenes Bates 1862 ( = homonym Ceratonia Boisduval 1870; = Choridis Boisduval 1870)
- HypothyrisHypothyrisHypothyris is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Hübner in 1821. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically within species groups.*Unknown species group...
Hübner 1821 ( = Mansueta d'Almeida 1922; = Pseudomechanitis Röber 1930; = Garsauritis d'Almeida 1938; = Rhodussa d'Almeida 1939)
- (Subtribe Ithomiina Godman & Salvin, 1879)
- Placidina d'Almeida 1928 ( = Placidula d'Almeida 1922)
- Pagyris Boisduval 1870 ( = Miraleria Haensch 1903)
- IthomiaIthomiaIthomia is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Hübner in 1816. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically.*Ithomia agnosia Hewitson, [1855]...
Hübner 1816 ( = Dynothea Reakirt, 1866)
- (Subtribe Oleriina)
- Megoleria Constantino 1999
- Hyposcada Godman & Salvin 1879
- OleriaOleriaOleria is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Hübner in 1816. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically within species groups.*Oleria aegle...
Hübner 1816 ( = Leucothyris Boisduval 1870; = Ollantaya Brown & Freitas 1994)
- (Subtribe Dircennina d'Almeida, 1941)
- Ceratinia Hübner 1816 ( = Calloleria Godman & Salvin 1879; = Epileria Rebel 1902; = Teracinia Röber 1910)
- CallithomiaCallithomiaCallithomia is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Bates in 1862. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically.*Callithomia alexirrhoe Bates, 1862...
Bates 1862 ( = Cleodis Boisduval 1870; = Epithomia Godman & Salvin 1879; = Corbulis Boisduval 1870; = Leithomia Masters 1973) - Dircenna Doubleday 1847
- Hyalenna Forbes 1942
- EpiscadaEpiscadaEpiscada is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Godman and Salvin in 1879. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically.* Episcada apuleia...
Godman & Salvin 1879 ( = Ceratiscada Brown & d’Almeida 1970; = Prittwitzia Brown, Mielke & Ebert 1970) - Haenschia Lamas 2004
- Pteronymia Butler & Druce 1872 ( = Ernicornis Capronnier 1874; = Parapteronymia Kremky 1925; = Talamancana Haber, Brown & Freitas 1994)
- (Subtribe Godyridina)
- Velamysta Haensch 1909
- Godyris Boisduval 1870 ( = Dismenitis Haensch 1903; = Dygoris Fox 1945)
- Veladyris Fox 1945
- HypoleriaHypoleriaHypoleria is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Godman and Salvin in 1879. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae.-Species:Arranged alphabetically.*Hypoleria adasa...
Godman & Salvin 1879 ( = homonym Pigritia d’Almeida 1922; = homonym Pigritina Hedicke 1923; = homonym Heringia d’Almeida 1924) - Brevioleria Lamas 2004
- Mcclungia Fox 1940
- GretaGreta (genus)Greta is a genus of clearwing butterflies, named by Arthur Francis Hemming in 1934. They are in the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae, and are found mostly in Central America, South America, and the Caribbean.-Species:...
Hemming 1934 ( = homonym Hymenitis Hübner 1819; = Hypomenitis Fox 1945) - Heterosais Godman & Salvin 1880 ( = Rhadinoptera d'Almeida 1922)
- Pseudoscada Godman & Salvin 1879 ( = Languida d’Almeida 1922)
External links
- Illustrated Checklist Florida Museum
- TOL
- General information on ithomiine butterflies
- Pteron In Japanese but
binomial names. Three page. This page is Mechanitis.
- Learn about butterflies Excellent photos of mimicry in Methona confusa