Jalapa Mazatec
Encyclopedia
Jalapa Mazatec is a Mazatecan language
, spoken by ca. 15,000 people, one-third of whom are monolingual, in 13 villages in the vicinity of the town of San Felipe Jalapa de Díaz
in the Tuxtepec District of the Mexican state of Oaxaca
. It is most closely related to Ixcatlán Mazatec, and somewhat more distantly related to the prestige variety
of Mazatec, Huautla. Literacy in Jalapa is taught alongside Spanish in local schools.
(Silverman 1994).
CG
V
. However, vowels distinguish several phonation
s, and like all Mazatec languages, Jalapa has tone
.
The simple tones are contrasted in /ʃá/ (/ʃa˥/) "work", /ʃā/ (/ʃa˧/) "puma", /ʃà/ (/ʃa˩/) "mould".
In much of the literature, these are written with the numerals 1 (low), 2 (mid), and 3 (high).
Jalapa utilizes whistled speech, where each simple or contour tone is given a whistle pulse.
, breathy voice
, and creaky voice
; all phonations may also occur with the five nasal vowel
s:
Breathy vowels may have strong breathy voicing throughout their length. However, typically they are voiceless for the first 40% and then have modal voice, so that for example /mæ̤˧˩/ may be pronounced [mæ̤̃˧˩] or [mæ̥̃æ̃˧˩]. Similarly, creaky vowels tend to confine their creakiness to the first part of the vowel, often with glottal closure before modal voice: /sḭ˥/ as [sḭi˥] or [sḭʔi˥].
Jalapa is unique among the Mazatec languages in distinguishing breathy vowels. These arose through the contraction of Proto-Mazatecan disyllables of the form CVhV, where C was voiced and the two vowels were the same. When the two syllables carried different tones, these contracted into a contour. For example, proto-Mazatec *ntʲa˩hu˩ "stone" became /ndʲo̤˩/ (through a presumed intermediate *ndʲo˩ho˩); *ntʃe˨he˦ "thief" became /ndʒæ̤˩˧/; and *ntu˩hwi˩˧ "your soap" became /ndɨ̤ː˩˧/. Similar contractions occurred with CVʔV disyllables to produce creaky vowels, but creaky vowels already existed in the proto-language.
Jalapa also has a phonemic distinction of unclear nature that has been suggested to be "ballisticity
". However, it lacks the characteristics of ballistic syllables in other Otomanguean languages. The only consistent distinction Silverman et al. (1994) were able to measure was one of vowel length
, with vowels of the alleged ballistic syllables being shorter than (two-thirds the length of) the vowels of the productive open class
of nouns, with a slight increase in pitch. They may reflect the original short vowels of proto-Mazatec, as opposed to the vowels of morphologically complex monosyllabic nouns of modern Jalapa Mazatec. If so, Jalapa would have a three-way length distinction, as doubly long vowels are also found in morphologically complex situations. Note that this distinction is not marked in this article apart from this one table:
, and aspirated plosives, as well as voiceless, voiced, and glottalized
sonorant
s.
There is also a flap
, /ɾ/, which only occurs in one morpheme, the clitic
=/ɾa/ "probably". In addition, the consonants /p/, /pʰ/, /l/ are found in Spanish loan words.
The labial velars /w̥ w w̰ kʷ/ become bilabial [ɸ β β̰ kᶲ] before front vowel
s: [ɸǣ] "it is finished" vs. [w̥ā] "John", etc.
Phonetically aspirated fricatives do not occur before creaky vowels, while aspirated stops do. Therefore Silverman et al. (1994) treats them as fricative-/h/ clusters.
Silverman (1994:126) remarks that voiced stops are prenasalized in intervocalic position, but later on the same page states that they are prenasalized in initial position. With voiced plosives, the nasalization is two-thirds the duration of the consonant. It is not clear if they ever appear without prenasalization.
Voiceless nasals are voiced for the last quarter of their duration.
Glottalized sonorants are variable in their production. The may occur as a glottal stop followed by a modally voiced sonorant, [ʔm], [ʔj], etc.; an initially creaky voiced sonorant switching to modal voice by the end; a fully creaky consonant; or the creak may extend into the following vowel.
Consonant clusters include NC, where N is a nasal and C is a voiceless plosive or affricate, and SC, where S is a sibilant and C is a tenuis plosive or affricate.
Mazatecan languages
The Mazatecan languages are a group of closely related indigenous languages spoken by some 200,000 people in the area known as La Sierra Mazateca, which located in the Northern part of the state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico, as well as in adjacent areas of the states of Puebla and Veracruz...
, spoken by ca. 15,000 people, one-third of whom are monolingual, in 13 villages in the vicinity of the town of San Felipe Jalapa de Díaz
San Felipe Jalapa de Díaz
San Felipe Jalapa de Díaz is a town, and the surrounding municipality of the same name, in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is some 50 km west of Tuxtepec, and is part of the Tuxtepec District of the Papaloapan Region....
in the Tuxtepec District of the Mexican state of Oaxaca
Oaxaca
Oaxaca , , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 571 municipalities; of which 418 are governed by the system of customs and traditions...
. It is most closely related to Ixcatlán Mazatec, and somewhat more distantly related to the prestige variety
Prestige dialect
In sociolinguistics, prestige describes the level of respect accorded to a language or dialect as compared to that of other languages or dialects in a speech community. The concept of prestige in sociolinguistics is closely related to that of prestige or class within a society...
of Mazatec, Huautla. Literacy in Jalapa is taught alongside Spanish in local schools.
Grammar
Jalapa Mazatec root words are primarily monosyllabic, and the intricate inflectional system is largely subsyllablic, possibly moraicMora (linguistics)
Mora is a unit in phonology that determines syllable weight, which in some languages determines stress or timing. As with many technical linguistic terms, the definition of a mora varies. Perhaps the most succinct working definition was provided by the American linguist James D...
(Silverman 1994).
Phonology
Jalapa Mazatec syllables are maximally CConsonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
CG
Semivowel
In phonetics and phonology, a semivowel is a sound, such as English or , that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.-Classification:...
V
Vowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
. However, vowels distinguish several phonation
Phonation
Phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology...
s, and like all Mazatec languages, Jalapa has tone
Tone (linguistics)
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is, to distinguish or inflect words. All verbal languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information, and to convey emphasis, contrast, and other such features in what is called...
.
Tone
Jalapa roots distinguish three tones, low ˩, mid ˧, and high ˥. In morphologically complex situations, combinations of these may form short (or perhaps mid-length) vowels with contour tones: ˩˧, ˧˥, ˥˧, ˧˩, ˥˩, ˩˥˩ have been recorded.The simple tones are contrasted in /ʃá/ (/ʃa˥/) "work", /ʃā/ (/ʃa˧/) "puma", /ʃà/ (/ʃa˩/) "mould".
In much of the literature, these are written with the numerals 1 (low), 2 (mid), and 3 (high).
Jalapa utilizes whistled speech, where each simple or contour tone is given a whistle pulse.
Vowels
Jalapa Mazatec distinguishes five vowel qualities, discounting phonation: /i/, /æ/, /a/, /o/, /u/. Phonations are modal voiceModal voice
Modal voice is the vocal register used most frequently in speech and singing in most languages. It is also the term used in linguistics for the most common phonation of vowels...
, breathy voice
Breathy voice
Breathy voice is a phonation in which the vocal cords vibrate, as they do in normal voicing, but are held further apart, so that a larger volume of air escapes between them. This produces an audible noise...
, and creaky voice
Creaky voice
In linguistics, creaky voice , is a special kind of phonation in which the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together; as a result, the vocal folds are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact...
; all phonations may also occur with the five nasal vowel
Nasal vowel
A nasal vowel is a vowel that is produced with a lowering of the velum so that air escapes both through nose as well as the mouth. By contrast, oral vowels are ordinary vowels without this nasalisation...
s:
| Modal voice | i | æ | a | o | u |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Breathy voice | i̤ | æ̤ | a̤ | o̤ | ṳ |
| Creaky voice | ḭ | æ̰ | a̰ | o̰ | ṵ |
| Modal nasal | ĩ | æ̃ | ã | õ | ũ |
| Breathy nasal | ĩ̤ | æ̤̃ | ã̤ | õ̤ | ṳ̃ |
| Creaky nasal | ḭ̃ | æ̰̃ | ã̰ | õ̰ | ṵ̃ |
Breathy vowels may have strong breathy voicing throughout their length. However, typically they are voiceless for the first 40% and then have modal voice, so that for example /mæ̤˧˩/ may be pronounced [mæ̤̃˧˩] or [mæ̥̃æ̃˧˩]. Similarly, creaky vowels tend to confine their creakiness to the first part of the vowel, often with glottal closure before modal voice: /sḭ˥/ as [sḭi˥] or [sḭʔi˥].
Jalapa is unique among the Mazatec languages in distinguishing breathy vowels. These arose through the contraction of Proto-Mazatecan disyllables of the form CVhV, where C was voiced and the two vowels were the same. When the two syllables carried different tones, these contracted into a contour. For example, proto-Mazatec *ntʲa˩hu˩ "stone" became /ndʲo̤˩/ (through a presumed intermediate *ndʲo˩ho˩); *ntʃe˨he˦ "thief" became /ndʒæ̤˩˧/; and *ntu˩hwi˩˧ "your soap" became /ndɨ̤ː˩˧/. Similar contractions occurred with CVʔV disyllables to produce creaky vowels, but creaky vowels already existed in the proto-language.
Jalapa also has a phonemic distinction of unclear nature that has been suggested to be "ballisticity
Ballistic syllable
"Ballistic" syllables are a phonemic distinction in the Otomanguean languages Chinantec and Amuzgo. They have been described as characterized either with either increased sub-glottal pressure or with laryngeal abduction...
". However, it lacks the characteristics of ballistic syllables in other Otomanguean languages. The only consistent distinction Silverman et al. (1994) were able to measure was one of vowel length
Vowel length
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
, with vowels of the alleged ballistic syllables being shorter than (two-thirds the length of) the vowels of the productive open class
Open class
Open class may refer to:*Open Class , an event classification*Open class , a word class readily accepting new items*Open class , a standardbred racing event open to all comers...
of nouns, with a slight increase in pitch. They may reflect the original short vowels of proto-Mazatec, as opposed to the vowels of morphologically complex monosyllabic nouns of modern Jalapa Mazatec. If so, Jalapa would have a three-way length distinction, as doubly long vowels are also found in morphologically complex situations. Note that this distinction is not marked in this article apart from this one table:
| "ballistic" (short?) |
trans. | "controlled" (half long?) |
trans. |
|---|---|---|---|
| sū | "warm" | sūˑ | "blue" |
| nīˑntū | "slippery" | nīˑntūˑ | "needle" |
| tsǣ | "guava Guava Guavas are plants in the myrtle family genus Psidium , which contains about 100 species of tropical shrubs and small trees. They are native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America... " |
tsǣˑ | "full" |
| hų̄ | "y'all" | hų̄ˑ | "six" |
Consonants
Jalapa consonants distinguish (prenasalized) voiced, tenuisTenuis consonant
In linguistics, a tenuis consonant is a stop or affricate which is unvoiced, unaspirated, and unglottalized. That is, it has a "plain" phonation like , with a voice onset time close to zero, as in Spanish p, t, ch, k, or as in English p, t, k after s .In transcription, tenuis consonants are not...
, and aspirated plosives, as well as voiceless, voiced, and glottalized
Glottalization
Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice...
sonorant
Sonorant
In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
s.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatalized alveolar |
Velar | Labialized velar |
Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | aspirated | t̪ʰ | t̪ʲʰ | kʰ | kʷʰ | ||
| tenuis | t̪ | t̪ʲ | k | kʷ | ʔ | ||
| voiced | ᵐb | ⁿd̪ | ⁿd̪ʲ | ᵑɡ | ᵑɡʷ | ||
| Affricate | aspirated | t̪sʰ | tʃʰ | ||||
| tenuis | t̪s | tʃ | |||||
| voiced | ⁿd̪z | ᶮdʒ | |||||
| Fricative | s | ʃ | h | ||||
| Nasal | voiceless | m̥ | n̪̥ | ɲ̊ | ŋ̊ | ŋ̊ʷ | |
| voiced | m | n̪ | ɲ | ŋ | ŋʷ | ||
| glottalized | m̰ | n̪̰ | ɲ̃ | ŋ̃ | ŋ̃ʷ | ||
| Approximant | voiceless | ȷ̊ | w̥ | ||||
| voiced | j | w | |||||
| glottalized | ȷ̃ | w̰ | |||||
There is also a flap
Flap consonant
In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator is thrown against another.-Contrast with stops and trills:...
, /ɾ/, which only occurs in one morpheme, the clitic
Clitic
In morphology and syntax, a clitic is a morpheme that is grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent on another word or phrase. It is pronounced like an affix, but works at the phrase level...
=/ɾa/ "probably". In addition, the consonants /p/, /pʰ/, /l/ are found in Spanish loan words.
The labial velars /w̥ w w̰ kʷ/ become bilabial [ɸ β β̰ kᶲ] before front vowel
Front vowel
A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also...
s: [ɸǣ] "it is finished" vs. [w̥ā] "John", etc.
Phonetically aspirated fricatives do not occur before creaky vowels, while aspirated stops do. Therefore Silverman et al. (1994) treats them as fricative-/h/ clusters.
Silverman (1994:126) remarks that voiced stops are prenasalized in intervocalic position, but later on the same page states that they are prenasalized in initial position. With voiced plosives, the nasalization is two-thirds the duration of the consonant. It is not clear if they ever appear without prenasalization.
Voiceless nasals are voiced for the last quarter of their duration.
Glottalized sonorants are variable in their production. The may occur as a glottal stop followed by a modally voiced sonorant, [ʔm], [ʔj], etc.; an initially creaky voiced sonorant switching to modal voice by the end; a fully creaky consonant; or the creak may extend into the following vowel.
Phonotactics
Aspirated consonants do not occur before breathy vowels, and glottalized consonants only occur before modally voiced vowels. Nasal consonants only occur before nasal vowels. Voiced plosives are prenasalized in intervocalic position.Consonant clusters include NC, where N is a nasal and C is a voiceless plosive or affricate, and SC, where S is a sibilant and C is a tenuis plosive or affricate.