James Reavis
Encyclopedia
James Addison Reavis later using the name James Addison Peralta-Reavis, the so-called Baron of Arizona, was an American
forger and fraudster. He is best known in association with the Peralta land grant, also known as the Barony of Arizona, a pair of fraudulent land claims that if certified would have granted him ownership to over 18600 square miles (48,173.8 km²) of land in central Arizona Territory
and western New Mexico Territory
. During the course of the fraud, Reavis collected an estimated US$5.3 million in cash and promissory notes through the sale of quitclaims
and proposed investment plans.
Under the terms of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
and Gadsden Purchase
, the United States was required to recognize and honor existing land grant
s made by either the Spanish
or Mexican
governments. Reavis utilized this provision by manufacturing a fictional claim and then generated a collection of documents demonstrating how the claim came into his possession. The documents were then covertly inserted into various records archives. In his first claim, Reavis gained title to the grant via a series of conveyances
. When serious challenges to this claim developed, Reavis developed a second claim by marrying the purported last surviving lineal descendant
of the original claim recipient.
During the course of his deception, Reavis managed to convince a number of prominent persons to support his efforts. He obtained legal and political support from Roscoe Conkling
, Robert G. Ingersoll
, and James Broadhead
. Business leaders such as Charles Crocker
and John W. Mackay in turn provided financial support. Initial exposure of the fraud occurred when an unfavorable Surveyor General report caused the claim to be summarily dismissed. In response to this action, Reavis sued
the U.S. government for US$11 million in damages. The suit in turn prompted the U.S. government to perform a detailed investigation that fully exposed the forgeries Reavis had planted in a variety of locations.
near the town of Clinton
. His father was a Welshman
who had immigrated to the United States in the early 1820s. His mother was of Scottish
and Spanish
descent and proud of her Spanish heritage. The family lived on a small farm and owned a small tannery
. Reavis received little formal education, but his mother read Spanish Romantic literature
to him and he developed a grandiose and eloquent writing pattern. In 1857, the family sold their farm and moved to Montevallo, Missouri, where they opened a store.
Following the outbreak of the American Civil War
, Reavis enlisted in Hunter's Regiment of the Confederate Army
, 8th Division of the Missouri State Guard. Several months later he went to Springfield
and reenlisted in Captain Lowe's company. Initially holding dreams of glory, the 18-year old Reavis soon discovered the realities of military life did not match his romanticized ideals. About this time he accidentally discovered he could accurately reproduce his commanding officer's signature. Using this new-found skill, Reavis began producing passes
to avoid the drudgery of army life and instead spent time visiting his mother. When his fellow soldiers noticed the frequency and manner by which he was obtained his passes, Reavis began selling forged passes to them.
When some of his superiors became suspicious of Reavis, he obtained leave
to get married. He used the leave to surrender to Union
forces instead of getting married. Following his surrender, Reavis joined the Union Army
and briefly served in an artillery regiment. Following the war he traveled to Brazil
and gained functional fluency in Portuguese.
Reavis returned to St. Louis, Missouri
near the end of 1866. There he worked a series of jobs including streetcar conductor, traveling salesman, and clerk at a variety of retail stores. Eventually Reavis found success as a real estate agent. After several small real estate deals, he saved enough money to open his own office. There Reavis discovered that the skills he learned forging army passes allowed him to adjust real estate paperwork and correct imperfect property titles
. An example of this was shown by his aide to a man seeking to purchase a tract of land near St. Louis. Three generations of documents accumulated by the selling family were unable to establish clear title for the land. Reavis was able to produce a yellowed and fading 18th century document that all previous searches had failed to notice. Accepted as valid by all parties to the transaction, this document allowed his client to complete the transaction.
. He came to the real estate agent upon the recommendation of Colonel Byser, a previous customer of Reavis, seeking assistance with a real estate purchase. According to Willing, he had purchased the rights to a large Spanish land grant
from Miguel Peralta for US$20,000 in gold dust, prospecting equipment, and saddle mules. The transaction had occurred at a simple mining site in Black Canyon, southeast of Prescott, Arizona Territory
without the usual documentation. As Willing explained, "When the trade was made, I had no paper on which to write the deed, so I scoured the camp and found a sheet of greasy, pencil-marked camp paper upon which I wrote ... and as there were no justices or notaries present I had it acknowledged before witnesses." The deed of transfer was dated October 20, 1864.
It was 1867 when Willing reached Prescott to record the transaction. He was short of funds at the time of his arrival and offered to sell a half interest in the claim to the local stable owner. Willing suggested that the two of them could reap a sizable profit by selling nearby mines back to their owners. The stable owner was incensed by the offer and the local townsfolk were soon unfriendly to Willing. Fearing for his safety, Willing quickly settled his bills and left the next morning with a government surveying team destined for Santa Fe
.
Reavis suggested Willing leave the documents to allow him time to inspect them. Willing declined the offer and instead returned the next day with an expert in Spanish land titles, William W. Gitt. Recently returned to St. Louis, Gitt was known as the "Old Spanish Land Title Lawyer" following a series of dubious land deals in Illinois and Missouri. The previous two decades he had lived in Guadalajara, Mexico after an 1847 land claim lawsuit
had resulted in a bench warrant being issued in the lawyer's name.
The three men began meeting for several hours each week to examine the grant paperwork. In addition to the deed between Willing and Peralta there was an , a copy of the legal papers relating to the Peralta grant. Accompanying the copies was a letter dated 1853 and bearing the signature of Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna
claiming a diligent search had been performed to locate all related documents and that the established secure title of the grant. Reavis used this time and association with Gitt to learn about Mexican and Spanish land documents. He also developed a friendship with Willing's wife, Mary Ann, whom the young real estate agent regarded as a second mother.
After a couple of years, Reavis and Willing formed a partnership aimed at promoting the claim. The two men planned to travel separately, allowing Willing to retain Reavis as a real estate expert upon his arrival. Willing left with the paperwork in January 1874, taking the overland route to Arizona Territory. Reavis traveled by sea to California
via Panama
. In California, Reavis visited Florin Massol, a Sacramento
merchant with whom Willing had left papers assigning mining rights within the Peralta grant as collateral
against a loan.
Reavis married Ada Pope of Montevallo on May 5, 1874. The couple had known each other since the days when Reavis' family operated their store. Following a brief honeymoon, he departed for the west and the couple did not see each other again for over six years. Dissatisfied with the state of their marriage, she received a divorce on grounds of desertion in 1883.
in March 1874 and filed his claim in the Yavapai County
Courthouse. The next morning he was found dead. No official investigation as to the cause of Willing's death was ever performed. Suggested causes include poison, "exposure and privation", or simply "strange and unwitnessed circumstances". Reavis learned of his partner's death upon his arrival in San Francisco. He had expected a bundle of correspondence awaiting his arrival, but instead found only two letters. The first, from Willing, announcing the doctor's safe arrival in Prescott. The second, informing Reavis of Willing's death, was from the Yavapai County sheriff who sent a letter to the only address in the doctor's papers.
Reavis needed Willing's papers to continue the scheme. He did not however immediately proceed to Arizona Territory. In poor health from the journey and low on funds, Reavis worked as a schoolteacher in Downey, California
during 1875 and 1876. He then worked as a journalist in Northern California
, serving as a correspondent for The San Francisco Examiner
and San Francisco Call
with occasional work for a New York City
paper. As a result of his journalism jobs, Reavis became acquainted with railroad tycoons Collis Huntington and Charles Crocker
. He was also able to observe the operation of the Public Land Commission
. At the time the commission had approved over 500 of the 800 claims presented to it, even frivolous claims were considered as long as examination expenses were paid by the filer, and bribery was a commonly accepted practice. Assuming practices in Arizona Territory were similar to those in California gave Reavis great hope for confirmation of the Peralta grant.
Reavis' first visit to Arizona Territory came with a May 1880 trip to Phoenix
. Posing as a subscription agent for the San Francisco Examiner, he toured the area and even made a trip out to the confluence of Salt
and Gila
rivers. From Phoenix, Reavis took a stagecoach to Prescott
. Upon his arrival in the territorial capital, he inquired into Dr. Willing's death. After locating the probate judge who had overseen the case, Reavis presented a letter from Willing's widow authorizing him to take custody of any papers that had been in Willing's possession. A search by the probate judge located Willing's possessions and gave Reavis control of the Peralta grant paperwork. After completing this business, Reavis returned to California.
Under Willing, the grant had been a "floater", a grant for a certain amount of territory but lacking a fixed location. Such grants, while common, were useful as legal nuisances capable of scaring an unsophisticated land owner but of little real value. Reavis decided to change this and fixed the location of the grant. To deal with ambiguities regarding various historical measurements, he choose the definitions most advantageous to his goals. As a result, the grant for a 10 league
by 30 league area turned into a territory running 49.5 miles (79.7 km) miles north to south and 149.5 miles (240.6 km) miles east to west. The size later grew to 78.8307 by 236.4921 mi (126.9 by 380.6 km) With the center of its western boundary set near the confluence of the Salt and Gila rivers, the grant contained the towns of Phoenix, Globe
, Casa Grande
, Florence
, and Tempe
and stretched to the outskirts of Silver City, New Mexico
. Other points of interest within the grant boundaries were the Silver King Mine
and a section of the Southern Pacific Railroad
.
To achieve his vision, Reavis had to first clear some outstanding business issues and obtain additional documentation. His first step was a July 1881 visit to the family of Florin Massol where he obtained a release of the mining rights that Willing had signed over, in exchange for a contract to pay US$3000 plus interest to Massol on the condition that the Peralta grant be confirmed. Additionally Massol, utilizing a power of attorney, signed over Willing's interest in the grant over to Reavis. Reavis then traveled to the East Coast
. The record book for Mission San Xavier del Bac
, which had been sent to Philadelphia for the Centennial Exposition
, was at the time in Washington, D.C.
pending its return to Bishop Salpointe. While in Washington, Reavis obtained permission to examine the book in detail.
After examining the San Xavier record book, Reavis traveled to Mexico
where between September to November 1881 he searched the archives in Guadalajara
and Mexico City
for information related to the Peralta grant. In Mexico, he resumed the role of a newspaper correspondent looking for items of interest to Los Angeles and San Francisco readers. He also cultivated friendships with the archivists in both cities, relationships that enabled him to gain easy access to the materials he was interested in inspecting. By the time he left Mexico, Reavis had a collection of photographs and certified copies of papers related to Peralta grant. Reavis then traveled to see Mary Ann Willing who was then living in Kentucky
. During his visit, on May 1, 1882, the widow signed over her interest in the grant for US$30,000 paid over time.
s. He was appointed , a royal inspector, in 1742 and sent on a secret mission to Guadalajara in New Spain
. Papers confirming Don Miguel's appointment named him as Baron of Arizonaca, Knight of the Golden Fleece, and member of the Order of Montesa
.
The exact nature of the royal emissary's mission was never revealed but may have involved leaked claims of silver being found in northern Sonora. Apparently pleased with the results, Philip V
issued a royal (decree) stating the royal intention to make a land grant to Don Miguel in November 1744. Philip's was not acted upon until December 20, 1748 when Ferdinand VI
promoted Don Miguel to captain of dragoons, bestowed upon him the title Baron of the Colorados, and issued another instructing the Viceroy of New Spain to locate a suitable tract containing 300 square leagues
of land.
It was not until January 3, 1758 that a suitable tract of land was located north of Mission San Xavier del Bac
and a decree issue by the Viceroy, Agustín de Ahumada, granting Don Miguel the land. The ceremony to physically locate and mark the claim occurred in May 1758. Don Miguel traveled to the claim's location accompanied by a priest from San Xavier and two officers from the Viceroy's garrison. The priest served as adjudicator
while the officers acted as witnesses and surveyors. During the ceremony a large rock located on top of a hill, which they name the "Inicial Monument", was spotted and chosen to mark the center of the property's western boundary.
Following the expulsion of the Jesuits from New Spain in 1768, Don Miguel sent a request to Charles III
for reconfirmation of his grant. The request was granted in 1776, an unusually long delay even accounting for bureaucratic processing and travel times of the day, in the form of a letter reading "I, the King of Spain, gratefully acknowledge your many valuable services in the army of the crown, and approve the grant to you which you have above described."
Don Miguel made one attempt to settle on his land, using the ruins at Casa Grande
as his base of operation. The attempt was unsuccessful due to persistent raids from Apache
. After the failed attempt, Don Miguel returned to Mexico where in November 1770 he married Sofia Ave Maria Sanchez Bonilla de Amaya y Garcia de Orosco at Etzatlán
. The marriage produced one son, Jesus Miguel Silva de Peralta de la Córdoba y Sanchez de Bonilla, in 1781.
In addition to a will
, Don Miguel created several additional documents to ensure his son would inherit his complete estate. In 1788 Don Miguel placed a codicil
in Guadalajara indicating his wishes. Additionally Don Miguel went to the trouble in August 1787 of creating a before a notary in Gudalajara documenting the Peralta grant, title, coat of arms, and the ancestry of his son. Don Miguel fell ill and died at the age of 116. He was buried in Guadalajara on February 2, 1824.
Reavis' first official action came in October 1882, when he filed papers with the Safford, Arizona Territory
probate court showing he had been assigned Willing's deeds. The reason for this filing is unclear as the probate court did not have authority to determine the validity of the claim. It is possible that the small county seat may have allowed Reavis to better solidify his claim with a minimum of other people taking notice at the time.
The official filing of the claim came on March 27, 1883 in the Tucson
office of Surveyor General J.W. Robbins. In addition to Willing's deed of purchase, Reavis filed copies of the , wills, codicils, and proclamations he had secured documenting the first baron's life. The collection of documents filled two trunks. Following an initial examination of the documents, which lasted into the night, Robins promised to register the claim and begin his investigation as the first stage of the certification.
After filing his claim, Reavis established his base of operations at Arizola. This was a location near Casa Grande
containing a small set of ruins that had supposedly been used by the first Baron as La Hacienda de Peralta. Reavis brought in craftsmen to build a mansion of redwood and red brick on the site, complete with servant quarters, stables, storage sheds, and a protective stone wall surrounding the site.
While the construction was beginning, Reavis began hiring rent collectors and agents. He also opened negotiations with James M. Barney, owner of the Silver King Mining Company
. After several weeks Barney agreed to pay US$25,000 for a quitclaim
. While a considerable sum for the day, this price was small compared to the profits generated by the mine. Reavis then printed and posted notices throughout the claim instructing residents to contact his lawyer "for registering tenancy and signing agreements, or regard themselves liable to litigation for trespassing and expulsion when the Peralta Grant is, as it must be, validated by the U.S. Government." Arrangements for newspapers and hired publicists announcing the land grant were made, proclaiming the title was ironclad and included both water and mineral rights.
Soon after, Reavis and his agents began selling quitclaims to gullible and frightened settlers located within the claim boundaries. The prices charged for the quitclaims varied greatly and showed little relation to the value of a property or the current occupants ability to pay. Some residents received demands for as much as US$1,000 while others obtained a release for free or in exchange for a meal or a couple of drinks.
Initial reaction to the notices by local residents was stunned disbelief. The claim had the potential to nullify all existing land titles within the grant and most residents were concerned by the threat of possible litigation. When word spread that both the Southern Pacific Railroad and Silver King Mine had agreed to terms with Reavis, concern turned to panic. Many residents reasoned that if the mine and railroad, with their associated financial and legal resources, found Reavis' claim too strong to fight then they stood no chance against it. This belief was augmented by Reavis' willingness to allow any interested party access to inspect his documents. Faced with this challenge, some area pioneers abandoned their homes and land instead of trying to deal with Reavis.
. Beginning in July 1883, the papers called upon area residents to not purchase quitclaims from Reavis. The effectiveness of this call was tainted in November 1883 when it was revealed that Herald owner Homer H. McNeil had purchased a quitclaim for his property. In response to the public backlash, the embarrassed McNeil was forced to publicly cancel the purchase.
About the time McNeil was returning his quitclaim, the Surveyor General's office dispatched Spanish language expert Rufus C. Hopkins to Mexico. Reavis and one of his lawyers followed Hopkins. Upon their arrival in Guadalajara, Reavis made his best effort to become indispensable to the 70-year old Hopkins. After introducing the Spanish expert to the local archivists, Reavis proceeded to guide him through the archives and point out the location of various documents. In addition to pointing out various bundles that he wished for Hopkins to inspect, Reavis took time to search new sections of the archive. During this effort he discovered a copy of the December 1748 recommending the initial grant.
While Reavis and Hopkins were in Mexico, Surveyor General J.W. Robbins died from tuberculosis
and was replaced by his chief clerk, Royal A. Johnson. Hopkin's report on his findings were favorable and indicated the claim was well founded. Johnson was unhappy with the report, noting that while it indicated the seals and signatures all appeared genuine, other parts of the original documents had been received on cursory inspection. Additionally no copy of Charles III's
signature had been located for comparison purposes. In a supplementary report Hopkins indicated that he had found no mention of Peralta or the grant during a brief search of the records in Mexico City.
With the release of Hopkin's initial report, Reavis proclaimed that confirmation of his claim was just a matter of time. He even began rumors that the U.S. government was planning to offer US$100 million to buy rights to his claim. Johnson in turn only reported that the investigation was ongoing and refused to provide additional details to the public. As a result, the Surveyor General was labeled as an accomplice to Reavis and vilified by the local newspapers.
While this was ongoing, Reavis sought to expand his sale of quitclaims from Phoenix
, where his efforts were initially focused, to the town of Florence
. The initial target of the expansion was Tom Weedin, editor of the Florence Enterprise, whom Reavis approached in January 1884. The newspaper editor refused Reavis's offer and instead published an editorial calling for creation of a committee to raise funds to hire a lawyer to fight the Peralta grant in court. Shortly thereafter, Anti-Reavis committees were established in Florence, Globe
, Phoenix, and Tempe
.
Over the next year-and-a-half Reavis faced two lawsuits. The first came from George Willing Sr., father of Reavis' former business partner. The elder Willing claimed that Mary Ann Willing only possessed a life estate
on her husband's property and could not have legally provided a warranty deed
to Reavis. An attempt to raise funds for this suit was made by appealing to residents living within the grant and offering land for 20% less than the price set by Congress. The attempt was unsuccessful. As a result, Willing ran out of funds after a short time and was not heard from again.
The second suit was filed by Territorial Attorney General Clark Churchill to settle title
issues with his personal land holdings. To deal with Churchill's suit, Reavis employed a strategy of delay and obfuscation. During a February 1884 deposition Reavis was forced to explain how he had come into possession of the Peralta grant and the nature of his relationship with Mary Ann Willing. Questions into his finances however were answered vaguely with Reavis claiming he would need to consult his "agents" to determine most details. Additional questions regarding the exact boundaries of the grant were answered with similarly vague responses. When the suit came to trial in May 1885, Reavis argued the court did not have jurisdiction to determine the validity of a Spanish grant. The court overruled this and granted Churchill clear title to his property.
Following the ruling in the Churchill suit, Land Office
Commissioner W. A. Sparks communicated with Royal Johnson instructing the Surveyor General to halt work on verifying the Peralta grant. Johnson willingly honored the request. Territorial residents were elated by news of this event as it effectively halted Reavis' efforts. The Tucson Citizen
reported "The tempest was all in a teapot after all" while another territorial newspaper ran the headline "Reavis Nailed Up". Public meetings were quickly organized throughout the territory calling for a final determination on the grant. Sensing the situation turning against him, Reavis hastily left for California. Two weeks later he was largely forgotten as Geronimo
led 144 Chiricahua Apache off the reservation and brought the Apache Wars
back to Arizona Territory.
on which he based his claim to the Peralta grant represented a serious weakness to his plans. To overcome this weakness Reavis had begun the work to establish an heiress to the grant while he was still preparing his first claim.
Reavis claimed to have heard rumors of a Peralta descendant as early as his 1875 arrival in California. It was not until 1877 however that he met the heiress. While traveling on a train, he spotted a young lady who bore a striking resemblance to the second baroness. After inquiring about her identity and background, and learning she knew of the name Maso, Reavis told her that she was most likely the heiress to a large fortune. As the young lady had no papers establishing her identity, it was left to Reavis to find them. The pair exchanged letters with each other until the end of 1882. At that time Reavis visited her in Knights Landing, California
, were she worked as a house servant, and proposed marriage. The couple were married in a civil ceremony
dated December 31, 1882. Following their marriage, Reavis enrolled his new bride in a convent school to train her in the skills expected of a well-born lady.
After his first claim collapsed, Reavis returned to California to collect letters of introduction to influential New York
ers from his friends and business contacts. To these he added a number of Spanish contacts from his association with Spanish reporter Carlos Satana and a friendship with the Spanish consul
stationed in San Francisco. Reavis then traveled with his wife, who was presented as his ward
, to New York. There he met with persons such as U.S. Senator Roscoe Conkling
, former U.S. Congressman Dwight Townsend
, Henry Porter of the American Bank Note Company
, and Hector de Castro
. John W. Mackay was so impressed by Reavis' papers that he agreed to finance a search of the Spanish archives for additional documents. To this end, Mackay provided him with a US$500/month stipend, an amount sufficient for the Reavis party to travel in a manner consistent with an influential family.
In December 1885, the Reavis party sailed for Europe. Upon reaching Spain, Reavis began searching archives in Madrid
and Seville
for information related to the second Baron and his descendants. It took several months of searching before Don Jesus Miguel's will leaving his estate to Sophia was located. In addition to the various documents he located in the archives, Reavis also acquired several portrait painting
s and daguerreotype
photographs of individuals he claimed to have been his wife's ancestors. Spanish members of the Peralta and Ibarras, believing Sophia was a long-lost relative, entertained Reavis' wife while he was performing his search. After he located the desired papers, Reavis and his wife publicly announced their marriage and recorded their marriage contract with the United States legation
's chargé d'affaires
. The announcement was met with a new round of celebrations before the couple left Spain to make a tour of Mediterranean ports. The couple did not return to the United States till November 1886.
Upon his return, Reavis visited New York to renew his acquaintances with various political and business leaders. Showing his recently acquired documents to these luminaries netted Reavis several useful endorsements. James Broadhead
, who in 1884 believed the claim would be denied, following his examination by proclaiming, "The Peralta claim has been submitted to Mr. Conkling, Mr. Ingersoll and Mr. Hurd who have pronounced it good. I have associated with them in the case and my opinion coincides with theirs. Mr. J. Addison Reavis is the gentleman who is pushing the claim and his is a man of remarkable energy and persistence." Roscoe Conkling
in turn stated "I can say, however, that having been consulted ... and having made a somewhat careful examination of the ancient papers and other papers produces, of which there are many, and on the facts and history of the case, I find they all go to show Mrs. Reavis to be the person she believes herself to be, namely the lineal descendant of the original grantee." In addition to the endorsement, Conkling introduced Reavis to Robert G. Ingersoll
. Ingersoll was so impressed by Peralta papers that he agreed to represent Reavis in his efforts to have the new claim confirmed.
From New York the Reavis party went to California. There Reavis obtained an affidavit from Alfred Sherwood certifying he had known Sophia and her parents since her birth, she had been born in San Diego County, California
, and that she had been left in the custody of Don Jose R. C. Maso following the death of her mother and twin brother when her father had need to travel to Spain.
By the time Reavis returned to Arizona Territory in August 1887 he was using the name "James Addison Peralta-Reavis". He went to Tucson to file a new claim on behalf of his wife, Doña Sophia Micaela Maso Reavis y Peralta de la Córdoba, third Baroness of Arizona. Before making the formal filing, Reavis hired a carriage and took a trip to the mountains south of Phoenix. During this trip he and his wife happened across the "Inicial Monument" that marked her great-grandfather's land.
Formal filing of the second claim occurred on September 2, 1887. Included with the official copies and photographs of original wills and codicils was a photograph of the third Baroness standing before the "Inicial Monument". With the discovery of this marker, the claim was shifted 8 miles (12.9 km) south. To address possible inconsistencies with his original claim, Reavis claimed he suspected some of Willing's papers to be forgeries, but upon advice of his lawyers had filed his initial claim to initially establish the grant before U.S. authorities and to buy time while searching for proof of his wife's identity. Reavis also posted a US$10,000 deposit to assure an official survey of the grant. Surveyor General John Hise refused to allow the survey as it would imply government approval of the claim.
The second Baron of Arizona, Don Jesus Miguel, never took an interest in his Arizona property due to the threatening Apache presence. He married Doña Juana Laura Ibarra, a member of a prominent Guadalajara family, in 1822. Something of a spendthrift, Don Jesus Miguel frittered away most of his inheritance. After selling most of his properties, the second Baron settled into his Sonora
estate. After ten years of marriage the couple had their only child, Sophia Laura Micaela de Peralta de la Córdoba y Ibarra.
Doña Sophia married José Ramon Carmen Maso in 1860. With his remote location providing a limited selection of suitable suitors, the Baron was initially pleased to have found a husband for his 28-year old daughter. It was only after the wedding he discovered his new son-in-law had a reputation as a "gentleman sport" (professional gambler) and ne'er-do-well in California.
In 1862, Maso was called to Spain to collect some funds owed to him and the Baron. Maso left for San Francisco with the Baron, his mother, Doña Carmelita Maso, and his then pregnant wife. No explanation as to why the party did not embark from the more convenient port at Guaymas
was ever given. While in Agua Mansa, California
, Doña Sophia unexpectedly went into labor and gave birth to twins, one boy and one girl. The twins were quickly baptized
at the nearby Mission San Salvador. Complications from the birth occurred and the boy and mother both died. A wet nurse
was located and arrangements made for care of the newborn girl by a friend of Maso, John A. Treadway. Maso then continued his journey while Don Jesus Miguel remained in San Francisco to be near his granddaughter. Several months later, Don Jesus Miguel was summoned to Spain by Maso. They both died in Spain, but not before the Baron had filed a codicil to his San Francisco will naming his granddaughter as his sole heir.
In California, Treadway made arrangements with Alfred Sherwood to look after the infant Sophia and Doña Carmelita Maso while he took a business trip. During this trip, Treadway died near Sacramento, California
. Doña Carmelita Maso died when Sophia was five. When she was eight years old, Sophia was taken into the house of John Snowball. He remembered the young girl speaking of an inheritance that was to come to her.
During his trip to Spain and visits to New York, Reavis had gained an understanding of government and big business finance. He put this new knowledge to work and began offering investment opportunities involving development of Arizona Territory. With the accomplished business leaders he had met in New York advocating the legitimacy of his claim, Reavis began to gain millions of dollars in new funds.
Reavis formed three corporations in rapid succession in 1887, each bearing the name Casa Grande Improvement Company. Each had Reavis as director and well known business leaders selected to serve as president and vice-presidents. The third, the Casa Grande Improvement Company of Arizona, was incorporated in November and absorbed the prior two entities. The company planned to develop the land of the grant by building roads, railways, dams, irrigation canals, telegraph lines, and other improvements while simultaneously engaging in leasing water rights, selling livestock, and performing other activities. Robert G. Ingersoll
was the company's first president while other initial investors included Hector de Castro
, Dwight Townsend
and Henry Porter of the American Bank Note Company
Among the development plans Reavis announced was construction of a large scale irrigation system. At the core of the system was a proposed 450 feet (137.2 m) masonry dam on the Salt River
near its junction with Tonto Creek
(near where Theodore Roosevelt Dam
was later built) and a 250 feet (76.2 m) dam on the Gila River
west of Florence. Proposed cost of these dams were US$2.5 million and US$1 million respectively.
By the time of the second filing, Reavis was dressing in the finest linen and broadcloth while his wife wore the products of New York and San Francisco's best dressmakers. Finding conditions in Arizona too hostile to his ambitions, Reavis rarely spent time at his mansion in Arizola. He and his wife instead maintained residences in San Francisco, St. Louis, and near New York City were they entertained the social and financial elite. During one stay in New York, Mrs. Reavis, possibly feeling lonely while her husband was busy with his business dealings, found a two-month old orphan boy. She adopted the boy and named him Fenton after her husband's father. Reavis also purchased a hacienda
in Chihuahua. In Mexico, Reavis became a patron
of various charities, opening a home for the blind and a hospital. Additionally he built a monument dedicated to Don Miguel de Peralta in Monterrey
and donated new altar linens for a cathedral in Guadalajara, Jalisco
.
resulted in the return of a Republican
to the White House
. Following the inauguration of Benjamin Harrison
, Royal Johnson was reappointed Surveyor General for Arizona Territory in July 1889. Despite having been out of office, Johnson had continued to investigate the validity of the Reavis claim. About this time, the acting Commissioner of the Land Office had received inquiries as to the status of the Peralta grant. In September 1889, he sent Johnson a letter directing the Surveyor General to "please report to me the exact condition of said grant as shown by papers and records in your office, and all the information you can obtain in regard to it." Johnson responded to this request on October 12, 1889 with the release of Adverse report of the Surveyor General of Arizona, Royal A. Johnson, upon the alleged Peralta Grant : a complete expose of its fraudulent character.
Among the issues found in the report with the Peralta grant were:
Johnson's report was met with celebration by Arizona residents and the once demonized Surveyor General became the toast of the town. The Gazette praised the Surveyor General's intelligence and fairness while extending the thanks of the Salt River valley. The Herald in turn printed "No one has criticized Johnson more than we and these criticisms were founded largely on his own statements, but no one will do Mr. Johnson complete justice for his actions on behalf of the settlers sooner or more heartily give him credit for standing by them in their time of need than the Herald." Governor Murphy
even invited Johnson to Phoenix where a public reception was held in his honor.
Response in Washington to Johnson's report was more subdued. Reavis had enlisted the aid of Secretary of the Interior
John Willock Noble
and U.S. Senator Francis Cockrell
in his lobbying efforts. As a result it took until February 20, 1890 for the Commissioner of the Land Office, Lewis Groff, to respond to Johnson's report. Groff's letter to Johnson was generally critical of the Surveyor General but could not disregard the report's findings. The letter ended with instructions for Johnson "to strike the case from your docket and notify Mr. Reavis of the action, allowing the usual time for an appeal to the Hon. Secretary of the Interior."
against the United States in the Court of Claims
. The lawsuit claimed the government had taken land belonging to Reavis and his wife and sold it to settlers, the government had reserved 1500000 acres (6,070.3 km²) for its own use, had appropriated excessive water rights from the Gila River, and had denied the plaintiffs of their constitutional right
to due process
. Reavis sought US$11 million in damages
already incurred with provisions in the suit for "further relief and costs" against future damages. Southern Pacific Railroad
attorney Harvey S. Brown served as Reavis' lead council while Robert G. Ingersoll
and James Broadhead
assisted in preparing the case.
At the time of filing, Reavis and his wife said they were aware that the Surveyor General had released a report but claimed to have been unable to obtain a copy. Following the initial filing a continuance
was filed to allow time for the collection of additional evidence. During the course of this delay, in March 1891, the United States Court of Private Land Claims
was created with jurisdiction to adjudicate claims involving old French, Mexican, and Spanish land claims.
After filing suit, Reavis went to California to locate witnesses who were familiar with the details of Sophia's youth. During October and November 1890 a series of depositions
were held in San Francisco and Los Angeles
to take testimony from the witnesses he had located. Key witness located during this process were Miguel Noe Sr., his son Miguel Jr., Andrés Sandoval, Alfred Sherwood, and John Snowball. Noe testified to having been a friend of José Ramon Carmen Maso and to having met the second Baron during his time in California before his trip to Spain. The testimony included a wide variety of details related to the second Baron's stay and included Noe accompanying the Baron to Sherwood Valley to confirm that his granddaughter was well cared for. The senior Noe's testimony was supported by Miguel Jr. relaying his childhood memories of the second Baron. Sandoval testified to having run a boardinghouse and restaurant where the second Baron and his son-in-law had stayed while they were in San Francisco. Sherwood provided details of Sophia's life from when she had been brought home by John Treadway at four months of age in July 1862, how she had been attended by her wet nurse and grandmother, and how her grandmother had told the young girl of a large inheritance she would someday receive. Snowball in turn testified as to how he had taken the orphaned girl into his house when she was eight and raised her till 1876, when she left to work with a dressmaker. Other witnesses filled in additional details of Sophia's life between 1879 and 1882.
In addition to details about his wife's early childhood, Reavis discovered other witnesses able to relate details about her family. In this manner additional details were revealed about the second Baron and his activities during the 1850s. Another revelation was the existence of a previously unknown third cousin to the third Baroness, Miguel Lauro Peralta y Vasquez. Information discovered about this cousin showed that he had traveled through Arizona during the time period in which Willing had purchased the rights to the Peralta grant and could potentially have posed as the second Baron during the transaction.
A trip to San Bernardino in early 1892 resulted in Reavis discovering baptismal records for the Maso twins along with a record of burial of mother and new born son. Following this stop, Reavis returned to Guadalajara to search for additional records. A local historian informed him that some records had been stored in the archives of the Ayuntamiento (Common Council). An extended search of these records resulted in a copy of the first baron's probate proceedings being found. The apparent reason for why they had never been found in previous searches was that they had been misfiled with a group of 1824 papers, possibly as a consequence of the first Baron's probate proceedings. Included in these records was a Peralta family genealogy and Escutcheon, and showing the first barons promotion to captain of dragoons (1748), declaring the royal intention to make a land grant (1748), and approving the grant (1778).
During the second half of 1892 Reavis had hoped to perform another search for witnesses in the company of James Broadhead. Broadhead's duties as a Congressman however forced a delay of this plan until at least mid-1893. This delay worked for Reavis as on March 8, 1893 his wife gave birth to twin boys, named Carlos Jesús and Miguel in honor of the first and second Barons. Reavis viewed this birth as further proof of Sophia being a twin.
By 1893, Reavis began to develop financial problems. Travel, research, and legal expenses, combined with the maintenance expenses of his various households, had consumed most of his cash. Questions about the status of the Peralta claim in turn had dried up most new investments. To maintain solvency and defray his expenses, Reavis made arrangements with a group of Washington and San Francisco businessmen to extend him US$30,000 at the rate of US$2500/month.
With the volume of evidence and witness testimony accumulated, James Broadhead decided that the Peralta case was proven.
Reavis went to Santa Fe, New Mexico Territory
to file his final complaint in February 1893. Land Office draftsman William Strover recalled "an express wagon drove up and unloaded an array of boxes and packages, all addressed to the court and marked 'Peralta Grant.' When all was unpacked three large tables, placed end to end, filled with documents, ancient books,pictures, including a large oil painting of the Marquis de Peralta, in his robes as grandee of Spain. There were documents with large leaden seals attached and signed by the king of Spain. There was a complete history of the marquis [and] letters to him and from him."
After submitting his amended filing, Reavis and his family moved back to his mansion in Arizola.
, was assigned to represent the government in Reavis' suit. Sevaro Mallet-Prevost, a Mexican born New York lawyer familiar with Spanish and Mexican law, and William M. Tipton, an expert on document analysis
, were assigned to assist. Mallet-Prevost and Tipton were dispatched to Tucson in January 1894 to make an examination of Reavis' original claim. From there, Mallet-Prevost continued on to the archives in Mexico.
As the archives in Guadalajara were in the process of being moved, Mallet-Prevost began his search in Mexico City. A search of the National Archives found no record of the Peralta grant but did produce copies of signatures and 18th century documents for use in later comparisons. From Mexico City he went to Guadalajara, arriving just after the move of the archive was completed. Upon his return to Santa Fe in April 1894, Mallet-Prevost stated he was "entirely convinced of the spurious character of every paper there filed".
Mallet-Prevost was then sent to Spain, arriving in Madrid on June 12, 1894. The first place the Mexican-born lawyer checked was the in Seville. There he found that Reavis had arrived as a tourist and after several days had applied for and was granted permission to search the archives. Reavis searched bundles for several days without success, the archivist assigned to assist him believing the documents he was searching for did not exist. Reavis then requested access to case 77, drawer 3, (file) 31. The assisting archivist was surprised to see a document he had previously never seen in the bundle. This incident was reported to the Chief Archivist who ordered that Reavis be carefully watched and that all records be carefully numbered before he was allowed to examine them in the future.
When Reavis later returned to the archive, the prescribed measures had been put into place. At the end of one day Reavis discovered a document in a bundle he was searching and requested a certified copy of it. The document was in an envelope and the paper folded. No other documents in the bundle were folded and the document Reavis had found was not numbered as other pages in the bundle had been. Based upon this evidence and testimony from other clerks in the archive that the questioned document had not originally been part of the bundle, an arrest warrant was issued for Reavis. Reavis however left Seville before an arrest could be made and influential friends in Madrid had suppressed any further investigation.
While Mallet-Prevost was at the archives in Spain, Reynolds went to California to perform background investigations on the witnesses Reavis had located. During this process, Reynolds was approached by San Francisco lawyer William W. Allen. Allen informed the investigator that "I have an original contract made by and between Reavis and his wife, and a witness, in which the witness is to receive a contingency fee of fifty thousand dollars if he testifies to a certain statement prepared by Reavis." Allen later told how Reavis had given Miguel Noe information about Don José Maso, his supposed close friend, for Noe to commit to memory. As part of the agreement, Noe was expected to locate other persons willing to memorize and testify to other events.
On September 6, 1894, the government requested a judge be commissioned to take testimony. Despite protests from Reavis' attorney, Judge Thomas C. Fuller was appointed. Testimony was taken in Guadalajara between October 16 and October 26, 1894. Despite being informed of the proceedings, no one representing Reavis attended the proceedings. The most likely explanation for this is that Reavis could no longer pay his attorneys. The testimony centered on the December 20, 1748 recommending the Viceroy make the Peralta grant. When asked about this document, archivist Emitiro Robles Giles testified "I have searched all those archives in which such a should be found and I do not find it; I have found, however, a record to that effect; I have found in the protocol of the Notory Diego de la Sierra y Dueñas certain documents in relation to the matter which are notoriously not genuine."
On January 5, 1895 Judge Wilbur F. Stone left New York to take evidence in Spain. Due to delays in obtaining cooperation from the Spanish government this process was not completed till March 3, 1895. Following his return, a trial date was set for May 30, 1895. As details of the government's evidence became known, the lawyers representing Reavis began withdrawing from the case. Attorney Phil B. Thompson notified the Court of Private Land Claims of his withdrawal in a letter. James Broadhead was unable to continue to represent Reavis due to his appointment as Minister to Switzerland
. In the mean time, Reavis' money had run out and he was destitute by the time the trial began.
. These real Peralta family members had heard about the case and hoped for a portion of any settlement. In his statement to the court, the lawyer informed the court that:
Presentation of the government case began in earnest on Tuesday morning, Reavis and his counsel still not present. First on the stand was Mallet-Prevost who testified about language and grammar problems present in some of the Peralta documents. As an example of the problem he identified one document containing the word , a word not in the Spanish language
. Another example was the word , an incorrect past tense of the verb , being used instead of the correct .
Tipton, the government's document analysis expert, next took the stand to discuss the 1748 . His examination had found that while the coversheet appeared to be authentic, the only mention of Don Miguel de Peralta was located on a piece of yellowed tissue paper pasted to the paper. The five sheets of paper contained inside the cover he declared forgeries due to their style of writing not being consistent with the handwriting in use at the time and the seals being glued to the paper instead of impressed by a metal seal as was the custom at the time of the document.
Following this, Tipton went on to problems with other original papers that had been located during the search of the Guadalajara archives. One group of papers was located in a set of papers related to work done by the notary
Diego de la Sierra between 1697 and 1698. The Peralta papers had been inserted between two pages of a bound volume numbered 178 and 179 respectively, printed on paper that was shorter and narrower than the other pages of the book, showed evidence of being folded unlike the book's other pages, and were glued in place instead of being bound as was the rest of the volume.
Wednesday began with Mallet-Prevost testifying on his findings during his trip to Spain. He began with the will of Miguel de Peralta where the only mentions of the name occurred over erasures. Additionally the will indicated it had been recorded in the Registry of Mortgages, volume 23, page 2, leaf 216, in section 122. An examination of that part of the Registry found an unrelated document. Tipton and Maller-Provest continued to examine other documents and depositions until later that afternoon. At that time a telegraph arrived from Reavis asking for a continuance till June 10, 1895. The request was granted.
Reavis first appeared in court on Monday June 10, 1895. His first act was to ask for a continuance so that he could locate new legal representation. When this motion met resistance, Reavis made a motion to dismiss
. Reavis was finally granted a one day continuance so he could prepare to represent himself.
Tuesday's court session began with Reavis taking the stand. Beginning with an account of his early career, he described his meeting Dr. Willing and his trip to Prescott to obtain the Peralta documents. During the testimony, Reavis listed the names of the many influential legal and business figures with whom he had associated. When cross-examined
by Reynolds, Reavis employed a tactic of providing excessive and irrelevant details within his answers. Later in the day Reavis was questioned about his discovery of documents within the San Xavier record books, his 1883 trip to the archives in Mexico, and his trip to Spain.
Wednesday morning's session began with Reavis being questioned about his marriage contract to his wife, moved to details on his discovery of the "Inicial Monument", and was followed by questions about his financial transactions with the Southern Pacific Railroad and Silver King mine. When questioned about the boundaries of the grant, Reavis testified that he had found a copy of a map in the Mexico City archives but the archivist had refused to make him a copy as the map was surrounded by papers the archivist considered to be of a questionable nature. To explain the lack of documents from Mexico City, Reavis stated that the archives of the Inquisition had been sealed and no one was allowed access.
In the afternoon, questioning turned to Reavis' discovery of the baptismal and burial records in San Bernardino. The subject then turned to Alfred Sherwood's 1887 affidavit regarding Sophia's noble birth. During this line of questioning an apparent contradiction appeared where Reavis had known of Miguel Noe and others with knowledge of Sophia's early life as early as 1885 yet he did not look for any of these people till 1892. On the morning of June 13, Reavis was forced to admit he had doubted some of the documents in his 1883 filing were genuine, but he had still filed them on advice of counsel while believing his wife was the true heir. At the same time he admitted that he had at that time not told his lawyers of his marriage.
Thursday afternoon, Father P.J. Stockman, rector
of the church of San Bernardino, testified the records of the baptismal of Mrs. Reavis and her twin brother and deaths of the boy and his mother were forged. During a trip away from the parish, Stockman had left a young and inexperienced priest, Father Joseph O'Reilly, in charge of the church. The young priest had been convinced to loan the birth and death registers to Reavis, but had failed to inform Reavis that the church kept a separate index that was organized by last name and updated annually. During Father Stockman's testimony he pointed out differences in the inks between the pages related to Mrs. Reavis and the rest of the ledger. The index made no mention of Doña Sophia Laura or her son and there was no evidence of either of their graves in the parish graveyard. This testimony was followed by Father O'Reilly, who identified Reavis as the person he had given possession of the record books for a period of between two weeks and a month. Following the priest's testimony the trial returned to an examination of the documentary evidence. Reavis was granted a request to be excused from the court during this phase of the trial.
Testimony on Friday began with Tipton examining the genealogical document for the Peralta family from the first Baron's will. His testimony showed the first and last leaves of the document to be genuine documents from the indicated period but that the pages in between were all forgeries.
This was followed by an examination of the 1742 appointment of Don Miguel Peralta as royal inspector. It was pointed out the bottom of the document contained the line "". Within this line it was possible for an untrained person to see the words and had been written in a darker ink and by a different hand than the rest of the line. Further investigation of the document by Tipton had revealed the document had originally announced the appointment of Pedro Cebrián, 5th Count of Fuenclara as Viceroy of New Spain. Other evidence showed that the name Peralta had never appeared on lists of members of the Military Order of Montesa or the Knights of the Golden Fleece. The rest of the day was taken by Royal Johnson who testified to the steps he had taken during his investigation of the Peralta claim and how he came to his conclusions. Rufus C. Hopkins testified on Saturday morning about his part in the Peralta claim investigation. During the examination he admitted to having a limited knowledge of Spanish and having to make educated guesses as to a document's true meaning during his translations into English.
After adjourning for the weekend, the trial resumed on Monday June 17. Local newspapers had reported that Mrs. Reavis had arrived from Denver on Friday afternoon and the courtroom was packed with spectators looking to see the third Baroness. Upon taking the stand, she told of her childhood memories and then confirmed her husband's claim that an archivist in Seville had demanded a bribe before allowing documents related to the Peralta Grant to be copied. She was however unable to provide any details about the claim papers. Throughout the proceedings, Mrs. Reavis maintained she was the granddaughter of the second Baron despite intense questioning about his existence. Monday's testimony ended with Bishop Salpointe stating he was familiar with the San Xavier
record book from his historical studies and the documents related to Miguel de Peralta in the record book had not been present before the book had been sent to Philadelphia for the Centennial Exposition
.
The final day of testimony came on June 18. In an attempt to bolster his case, Reavis attempted to show that a portrait of Don Miguel Nemecio de Peralta de la Córdoba bore a strong resemblance to his twins. Other portraits, photographs, and documents were introduced in an attempt to prove the existence of Don Miguel and his family. Closing arguments were presented the next day. The government waived the right to a closing statement, feeling the presented evidence was strong enough to prove their case. Reavis used the opportunity to introduce a bill of 52 objections.
The Court of Private Land Claims presented its findings on June 28, 1895. The decision rejected the claim, finding "that the claim is wholly fictitious and fraudulent" and that the various Peralta documents had been forged and "surreptitiously introduced" into the various archives and record books where they were discovered.
Reavis plea
ded not guilty and requested release on bail
. The court set bail and allowed him to send telegrams to his previous business associates requesting assistance. No one was found willing to post the US$500 bail. Reavis spent roughly a year in jail awaiting trial. During this time his appeal of the civil ruling was denied and his wife moved to Denver. During this time, Reynolds went to California to investigate the witnesses that had testified for Reavis. While there he discovered the date on John Treadway's tombstone showed November 21, 1861, six months before Mrs. Reavis' birth.
The criminal trial began on June 27, 1896. The trial was mostly a recapitulation of evidence presented during the civil trial. Confronted with the government's evidence, José Ramon Valencia and Andrés Sandoval confessed to perjury and testified against Reavis. During his testimony, Valencia stated that he had been given a set of facts by Miguel Noe and was to testify to these facts in exchange for US$20,000 once the claim was confirmed. Noe had left for Mexico following the Court of Land Claims ruling and was not expected to return. Reavis was found guilty on June 30, 1896. On July 17, 1896, he was sentenced to two years and a fine of US$5,000.
Upon hearing the verdict, Reavis told his lawyer that he was sure the verdict would be reversed by the Supreme Court
with the couple's children and working as a milliner. Following his release, Reavis visited San Francisco, New York City, and Washington D.C. in an effort to find new investors to finance his development plans for Arizona Instead of the reaction he had previously received, people listened politely but no longer took him seriously. Unsuccessful in finding any investors, Reavis moved to Denver for a time to live with his wife and sons. He also wandered from place to place advocating his vision for a large scale irrigation system within Arizona. The "group of capitalists" he hoped would finance this dream never materialized.
In 1900, Reavis began the magazine Peralta Reavis Real Life Illustrated where he promised to provide the complete inside story of the Peralta fraud. The magazine folded after a single issue. The same year he wrote a memoir that was published in several installments by the San Francisco Call under the title "The Confessions of the Baron of Arizona".
In June 1902, Reavis's wife filed for divorce on grounds of nonsupport. Following the divorce little was heard from Reavis. By 1913 he was living in a poor house in Los Angeles. Reavis died in Denver, Colorado
on November 20, 1914 and was buried in a pauper's grave. Sophia died on April 5, 1934. Her obituary in the Rocky Mountain News made no mention of the Peralta Grant.
After falling out of the public eye, Reavis became the subject of multiple magazine articles. He was even featured in an official tour book. Among the tales manufactured about the Baron of Arizona by these sources was that Reavis had used paper bearing the watermark
of a Wisconsin
paper mill
that did not exist until the 1870 or 1880s. Such tales discount the skill used by Reavis in the manufacture of his forgeries and the level of inspection they received before faults were eventually discovered.
Beyond the magazines, Reavis' exploits have also been utilized in several motion pictures. A fraudulent land claim similar to the one created by Reavis was used as a plot device in the 1939 film The Night Riders
. Reavis' life later served as the basis for The Baron of Arizona
in 1950.
The mansion Reavis built in Arizola was rediscovered by the National Park Service
in 1953 following years of use as a barn by a local farmer. An evaluation in April 1963 by the Park Service determined restoration of the building was financially infeasible.
(Part I) (Part II)
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
forger and fraudster. He is best known in association with the Peralta land grant, also known as the Barony of Arizona, a pair of fraudulent land claims that if certified would have granted him ownership to over 18600 square miles (48,173.8 km²) of land in central Arizona Territory
Arizona Territory
The Territory of Arizona was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from February 24, 1863 until February 14, 1912, when it was admitted to the Union as the 48th state....
and western New Mexico Territory
New Mexico Territory
thumb|right|240px|Proposed boundaries for State of New Mexico, 1850The Territory of New Mexico was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from September 9, 1850, until January 6, 1912, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of...
. During the course of the fraud, Reavis collected an estimated US$5.3 million in cash and promissory notes through the sale of quitclaims
Quitclaim deed
A quitclaim deed is a legal instrument by which the owner of a piece of real property, called the grantor, transfers his interest to a recipient, called the grantee. The owner/grantor terminates his right and claim to the property, thereby allowing claim to transfer to the...
and proposed investment plans.
Under the terms of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is the peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to the interim government of a militarily occupied Mexico City, that ended the Mexican-American War on February 2, 1848...
and Gadsden Purchase
Gadsden Purchase
The Gadsden Purchase is a region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that was purchased by the United States in a treaty signed by James Gadsden, the American ambassador to Mexico at the time, on December 30, 1853. It was then ratified, with changes, by the U.S...
, the United States was required to recognize and honor existing land grant
Land grant
A land grant is a gift of real estate – land or its privileges – made by a government or other authority as a reward for services to an individual, especially in return for military service...
s made by either the Spanish
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
or Mexican
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
governments. Reavis utilized this provision by manufacturing a fictional claim and then generated a collection of documents demonstrating how the claim came into his possession. The documents were then covertly inserted into various records archives. In his first claim, Reavis gained title to the grant via a series of conveyances
Conveyancing
In law, conveyancing is the transfer of legal title of property from one person to another, or the granting of an encumbrance such as a mortgage or a lien....
. When serious challenges to this claim developed, Reavis developed a second claim by marrying the purported last surviving lineal descendant
Lineal descendant
A lineal descendant, in legal usage, refers to a blood relative in the direct line of descent. The children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, etc...
of the original claim recipient.
During the course of his deception, Reavis managed to convince a number of prominent persons to support his efforts. He obtained legal and political support from Roscoe Conkling
Roscoe Conkling
Roscoe Conkling was a politician from New York who served both as a member of the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. He was the leader of the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party and the last person to refuse a U.S. Supreme Court appointment after he had...
, Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert Green "Bob" Ingersoll was a Civil War veteran, American political leader, and orator during the Golden Age of Freethought, noted for his broad range of culture and his defense of agnosticism. He was nicknamed "The Great Agnostic."-Life and career:Robert Ingersoll was born in Dresden, New York...
, and James Broadhead
James Broadhead
James Overton Broadhead was an American lawyer and political figure. He was a member of the House of Representatives and of the Missouri senate, he was also the first president of the American Bar Association....
. Business leaders such as Charles Crocker
Charles Crocker
Charles Crocker was an American railroad executive.-Early years:Crocker was born in Troy, New York, to a modest family and moved to an Indiana farm at age 14. He soon became independent, working on several farms, a sawmill, and at an iron forge. In 1845 he founded a small, independent iron...
and John W. Mackay in turn provided financial support. Initial exposure of the fraud occurred when an unfavorable Surveyor General report caused the claim to be summarily dismissed. In response to this action, Reavis sued
Lawsuit
A lawsuit or "suit in law" is a civil action brought in a court of law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendant's actions, demands a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiff's complaint...
the U.S. government for US$11 million in damages. The suit in turn prompted the U.S. government to perform a detailed investigation that fully exposed the forgeries Reavis had planted in a variety of locations.
Early life
Reavis was born the second of five children to Mary (Dixon) and Fenton George Reavis on May 10, 1843 in Henry County, MissouriHenry County, Missouri
Henry County is a county located in the U.S. state of Missouri. As of 2000, the population was 21,997. Its county seat is Clinton. The county was organized in 1835 as Rives County, and renamed in 1841 after the American patriot Patrick Henry, of Virginia. The county was originally named after...
near the town of Clinton
Clinton, Missouri
Clinton is a city in Henry County, Missouri, United States. The city was named for New York Governor DeWitt Clinton. The population was 9,311 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Henry County.-Geography:Clinton is located at...
. His father was a Welshman
Welsh people
The Welsh people are an ethnic group and nation associated with Wales and the Welsh language.John Davies argues that the origin of the "Welsh nation" can be traced to the late 4th and early 5th centuries, following the Roman departure from Britain, although Brythonic Celtic languages seem to have...
who had immigrated to the United States in the early 1820s. His mother was of Scottish
Scottish people
The Scottish people , or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, incorporating neighbouring Britons to the south as well as invading Germanic peoples such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse.In modern use,...
and Spanish
Spanish people
The Spanish are citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. Within Spain, there are also a number of vigorous nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the country's complex history....
descent and proud of her Spanish heritage. The family lived on a small farm and owned a small tannery
Tanning
Tanning is the making of leather from the skins of animals which does not easily decompose. Traditionally, tanning used tannin, an acidic chemical compound from which the tanning process draws its name . Coloring may occur during tanning...
. Reavis received little formal education, but his mother read Spanish Romantic literature
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
to him and he developed a grandiose and eloquent writing pattern. In 1857, the family sold their farm and moved to Montevallo, Missouri, where they opened a store.
Following the outbreak of the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
, Reavis enlisted in Hunter's Regiment of the Confederate Army
Confederate States Army
The Confederate States Army was the army of the Confederate States of America while the Confederacy existed during the American Civil War. On February 8, 1861, delegates from the seven Deep South states which had already declared their secession from the United States of America adopted the...
, 8th Division of the Missouri State Guard. Several months later he went to Springfield
Springfield, Missouri
Springfield is the third largest city in the U.S. state of Missouri and the county seat of Greene County. According to the 2010 census data, the population was 159,498, an increase of 5.2% since the 2000 census. The Springfield Metropolitan Area, population 436,712, includes the counties of...
and reenlisted in Captain Lowe's company. Initially holding dreams of glory, the 18-year old Reavis soon discovered the realities of military life did not match his romanticized ideals. About this time he accidentally discovered he could accurately reproduce his commanding officer's signature. Using this new-found skill, Reavis began producing passes
Pass (United States military)
A pass is permission to be away from one's military unit for a limited period of time. Time away on a pass is not counted against leave, the annual allotment of days off from duty.-Types of passes:...
to avoid the drudgery of army life and instead spent time visiting his mother. When his fellow soldiers noticed the frequency and manner by which he was obtained his passes, Reavis began selling forged passes to them.
When some of his superiors became suspicious of Reavis, he obtained leave
Leave (U.S. military)
In the United States Military, leave is permission to be away from one's unit for a specific period of time.- Entitlement :Under normal circumstance, all personnel are granted 30 days of leave per year. This time is usually used for vacations and other extended time periods away from the service...
to get married. He used the leave to surrender to Union
Union (American Civil War)
During the American Civil War, the Union was a name used to refer to the federal government of the United States, which was supported by the twenty free states and five border slave states. It was opposed by 11 southern slave states that had declared a secession to join together to form the...
forces instead of getting married. Following his surrender, Reavis joined the Union Army
Union Army
The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the Federal Army, the U.S. Army, the Northern Army and the National Army...
and briefly served in an artillery regiment. Following the war he traveled to Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
and gained functional fluency in Portuguese.
Reavis returned to St. Louis, Missouri
St. Louis, Missouri
St. Louis is an independent city on the eastern border of Missouri, United States. With a population of 319,294, it was the 58th-largest U.S. city at the 2010 U.S. Census. The Greater St...
near the end of 1866. There he worked a series of jobs including streetcar conductor, traveling salesman, and clerk at a variety of retail stores. Eventually Reavis found success as a real estate agent. After several small real estate deals, he saved enough money to open his own office. There Reavis discovered that the skills he learned forging army passes allowed him to adjust real estate paperwork and correct imperfect property titles
Title (property)
Title is a legal term for a bundle of rights in a piece of property in which a party may own either a legal interest or an equitable interest. The rights in the bundle may be separated and held by different parties. It may also refer to a formal document that serves as evidence of ownership...
. An example of this was shown by his aide to a man seeking to purchase a tract of land near St. Louis. Three generations of documents accumulated by the selling family were unable to establish clear title for the land. Reavis was able to produce a yellowed and fading 18th century document that all previous searches had failed to notice. Accepted as valid by all parties to the transaction, this document allowed his client to complete the transaction.
George Willing
Reavis met George M. Willing Jr. in 1871. Willing was a physician turned prospector who supplemented his income selling patent medicinePatent medicine
Patent medicine refers to medical compounds of questionable effectiveness sold under a variety of names and labels. The term "patent medicine" is somewhat of a misnomer because, in most cases, although many of the products were trademarked, they were never patented...
. He came to the real estate agent upon the recommendation of Colonel Byser, a previous customer of Reavis, seeking assistance with a real estate purchase. According to Willing, he had purchased the rights to a large Spanish land grant
Land grant
A land grant is a gift of real estate – land or its privileges – made by a government or other authority as a reward for services to an individual, especially in return for military service...
from Miguel Peralta for US$20,000 in gold dust, prospecting equipment, and saddle mules. The transaction had occurred at a simple mining site in Black Canyon, southeast of Prescott, Arizona Territory
Prescott, Arizona
Prescott is a city in Yavapai County, Arizona, USA. It was designated "Arizona's Christmas City" by Arizona Governor Rose Mofford in the late 1980s....
without the usual documentation. As Willing explained, "When the trade was made, I had no paper on which to write the deed, so I scoured the camp and found a sheet of greasy, pencil-marked camp paper upon which I wrote ... and as there were no justices or notaries present I had it acknowledged before witnesses." The deed of transfer was dated October 20, 1864.
It was 1867 when Willing reached Prescott to record the transaction. He was short of funds at the time of his arrival and offered to sell a half interest in the claim to the local stable owner. Willing suggested that the two of them could reap a sizable profit by selling nearby mines back to their owners. The stable owner was incensed by the offer and the local townsfolk were soon unfriendly to Willing. Fearing for his safety, Willing quickly settled his bills and left the next morning with a government surveying team destined for Santa Fe
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Santa Fe is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of . Santa Fe had a population of 67,947 in the 2010 census...
.
Reavis suggested Willing leave the documents to allow him time to inspect them. Willing declined the offer and instead returned the next day with an expert in Spanish land titles, William W. Gitt. Recently returned to St. Louis, Gitt was known as the "Old Spanish Land Title Lawyer" following a series of dubious land deals in Illinois and Missouri. The previous two decades he had lived in Guadalajara, Mexico after an 1847 land claim lawsuit
Lawsuit
A lawsuit or "suit in law" is a civil action brought in a court of law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendant's actions, demands a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiff's complaint...
had resulted in a bench warrant being issued in the lawyer's name.
The three men began meeting for several hours each week to examine the grant paperwork. In addition to the deed between Willing and Peralta there was an , a copy of the legal papers relating to the Peralta grant. Accompanying the copies was a letter dated 1853 and bearing the signature of Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, known as "the Napoleon of the West," was a Mexican political leader, general, and president who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government...
claiming a diligent search had been performed to locate all related documents and that the established secure title of the grant. Reavis used this time and association with Gitt to learn about Mexican and Spanish land documents. He also developed a friendship with Willing's wife, Mary Ann, whom the young real estate agent regarded as a second mother.
After a couple of years, Reavis and Willing formed a partnership aimed at promoting the claim. The two men planned to travel separately, allowing Willing to retain Reavis as a real estate expert upon his arrival. Willing left with the paperwork in January 1874, taking the overland route to Arizona Territory. Reavis traveled by sea to California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
via Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
. In California, Reavis visited Florin Massol, a Sacramento
Sacramento, California
Sacramento is the capital city of the U.S. state of California and the county seat of Sacramento County. It is located at the confluence of the Sacramento River and the American River in the northern portion of California's expansive Central Valley. With a population of 466,488 at the 2010 census,...
merchant with whom Willing had left papers assigning mining rights within the Peralta grant as collateral
Collateral (finance)
In lending agreements, collateral is a borrower's pledge of specific property to a lender, to secure repayment of a loan.The collateral serves as protection for a lender against a borrower's default - that is, any borrower failing to pay the principal and interest under the terms of a loan obligation...
against a loan.
Reavis married Ada Pope of Montevallo on May 5, 1874. The couple had known each other since the days when Reavis' family operated their store. Following a brief honeymoon, he departed for the west and the couple did not see each other again for over six years. Dissatisfied with the state of their marriage, she received a divorce on grounds of desertion in 1883.
Establishing the grant
Willing arrived in PrescottPrescott, Arizona
Prescott is a city in Yavapai County, Arizona, USA. It was designated "Arizona's Christmas City" by Arizona Governor Rose Mofford in the late 1980s....
in March 1874 and filed his claim in the Yavapai County
Yavapai County, Arizona
-2010:Whereas according to the 2010 U.S. Census Bureau:*89.3% White*0.6% Black*1.7% Native American*0.8% Asian*0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander*2.5% Two or more races*5.0% Other races*13.6% Hispanic or Latino -2000:...
Courthouse. The next morning he was found dead. No official investigation as to the cause of Willing's death was ever performed. Suggested causes include poison, "exposure and privation", or simply "strange and unwitnessed circumstances". Reavis learned of his partner's death upon his arrival in San Francisco. He had expected a bundle of correspondence awaiting his arrival, but instead found only two letters. The first, from Willing, announcing the doctor's safe arrival in Prescott. The second, informing Reavis of Willing's death, was from the Yavapai County sheriff who sent a letter to the only address in the doctor's papers.
Reavis needed Willing's papers to continue the scheme. He did not however immediately proceed to Arizona Territory. In poor health from the journey and low on funds, Reavis worked as a schoolteacher in Downey, California
Downey, California
Downey is a city located in southeast Los Angeles County, California, United States, southeast of downtown Los Angeles. The city is best known as the birthplace of the Apollo space program, and is the city where folk singer Karen Carpenter lived and died...
during 1875 and 1876. He then worked as a journalist in Northern California
Northern California
Northern California is the northern portion of the U.S. state of California. The San Francisco Bay Area , and Sacramento as well as its metropolitan area are the main population centers...
, serving as a correspondent for The San Francisco Examiner
The San Francisco Examiner
The San Francisco Examiner is a U.S. daily newspaper. It has been published continuously in San Francisco, California, since the late 19th century.-19th century:...
and San Francisco Call
San Francisco Call
The San Francisco Call was a newspaper that served San Francisco, California. Because of a succession of mergers with other newspapers, the paper variously came to be called The San Francisco Call & Post, the San Francisco Call-Bulletin, San Francisco News-Call Bulletin, and the News-Call Bulletin...
with occasional work for a New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
paper. As a result of his journalism jobs, Reavis became acquainted with railroad tycoons Collis Huntington and Charles Crocker
Charles Crocker
Charles Crocker was an American railroad executive.-Early years:Crocker was born in Troy, New York, to a modest family and moved to an Indiana farm at age 14. He soon became independent, working on several farms, a sawmill, and at an iron forge. In 1845 he founded a small, independent iron...
. He was also able to observe the operation of the Public Land Commission
Public Land Commission
The Public Land Commission, a former agency of the United States government, was created following the admission of California as a state in 1850 . The Commission's purpose was to determine the validity of prior Spanish and Mexican land grants in California.California Senator William M...
. At the time the commission had approved over 500 of the 800 claims presented to it, even frivolous claims were considered as long as examination expenses were paid by the filer, and bribery was a commonly accepted practice. Assuming practices in Arizona Territory were similar to those in California gave Reavis great hope for confirmation of the Peralta grant.
Reavis' first visit to Arizona Territory came with a May 1880 trip to Phoenix
Phoenix, Arizona
Phoenix is the capital, and largest city, of the U.S. state of Arizona, as well as the sixth most populated city in the United States. Phoenix is home to 1,445,632 people according to the official 2010 U.S. Census Bureau data...
. Posing as a subscription agent for the San Francisco Examiner, he toured the area and even made a trip out to the confluence of Salt
Salt River (Arizona)
The Salt River is a stream in the U.S. state of Arizona. It is the largest tributary of the Gila River. The river is about long. Its drainage basin is about large. The longest of the Salt River's many tributaries is the Verde River...
and Gila
Gila River
The Gila River is a tributary of the Colorado River, 650 miles long, in the southwestern states of New Mexico and Arizona.-Description:...
rivers. From Phoenix, Reavis took a stagecoach to Prescott
Prescott, Arizona
Prescott is a city in Yavapai County, Arizona, USA. It was designated "Arizona's Christmas City" by Arizona Governor Rose Mofford in the late 1980s....
. Upon his arrival in the territorial capital, he inquired into Dr. Willing's death. After locating the probate judge who had overseen the case, Reavis presented a letter from Willing's widow authorizing him to take custody of any papers that had been in Willing's possession. A search by the probate judge located Willing's possessions and gave Reavis control of the Peralta grant paperwork. After completing this business, Reavis returned to California.
Under Willing, the grant had been a "floater", a grant for a certain amount of territory but lacking a fixed location. Such grants, while common, were useful as legal nuisances capable of scaring an unsophisticated land owner but of little real value. Reavis decided to change this and fixed the location of the grant. To deal with ambiguities regarding various historical measurements, he choose the definitions most advantageous to his goals. As a result, the grant for a 10 league
League (unit)
A league is a unit of length . It was long common in Europe and Latin America, but it is no longer an official unit in any nation. The league originally referred to the distance a person or a horse could walk in an hour...
by 30 league area turned into a territory running 49.5 miles (79.7 km) miles north to south and 149.5 miles (240.6 km) miles east to west. The size later grew to 78.8307 by 236.4921 mi (126.9 by 380.6 km) With the center of its western boundary set near the confluence of the Salt and Gila rivers, the grant contained the towns of Phoenix, Globe
Globe, Arizona
Globe has an arid climate, characterized by hot summers and moderate to warm winters. Globe's arid climate is somewhat tempered by its elevation, however, leading to slightly cooler temperatures and slightly more precipitation than Phoenix or Yuma....
, Casa Grande
Casa Grande, Arizona
Casa Grande is a city in Pinal County, approximately halfway between Phoenix and Tucson in the U.S. state of Arizona. According to 2010 Census, the population of the city is 48,571...
, Florence
Florence, Arizona
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 17,054 people, 2,226 households, and 1,540 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,056.2 people per square mile . There were 3,216 housing units at an average density of 387.7 per square mile...
, and Tempe
Tempe, Arizona
Tempe is a city in Maricopa County, Arizona, USA, with the Census Bureau reporting a 2010 population of 161,719. The city is named after the Vale of Tempe in Greece. Tempe is located in the East Valley section of metropolitan Phoenix; it is bordered by Phoenix and Guadalupe on the west, Scottsdale...
and stretched to the outskirts of Silver City, New Mexico
Silver City, New Mexico
Silver City is a town in Grant County, New Mexico, in the United States. As of the 2000 census, the town population was 10,545. It is the county seat of Grant County. The city is the home of Western New Mexico University.-History:...
. Other points of interest within the grant boundaries were the Silver King Mine
Silver King Mine
The Silver King Mine is an inactive silver mine located near Superior, Arizona in the United States. The richest silver mine in Arizona, it produced an estimated US$42 million worth of silver ore between 1875 and 1900....
and a section of the Southern Pacific Railroad
Southern Pacific Railroad
The Southern Pacific Transportation Company , earlier Southern Pacific Railroad and Southern Pacific Company, and usually simply called the Southern Pacific or Espee, was an American railroad....
.
To achieve his vision, Reavis had to first clear some outstanding business issues and obtain additional documentation. His first step was a July 1881 visit to the family of Florin Massol where he obtained a release of the mining rights that Willing had signed over, in exchange for a contract to pay US$3000 plus interest to Massol on the condition that the Peralta grant be confirmed. Additionally Massol, utilizing a power of attorney, signed over Willing's interest in the grant over to Reavis. Reavis then traveled to the East Coast
East Coast of the United States
The East Coast of the United States, also known as the Eastern Seaboard, refers to the easternmost coastal states in the United States, which touch the Atlantic Ocean and stretch up to Canada. The term includes the U.S...
. The record book for Mission San Xavier del Bac
Mission San Xavier del Bac
Mission San Xavier del Bac is a historic Spanish Catholic mission located about 10 miles south of downtown Tucson, Arizona, on the Tohono O'odham San Xavier Indian Reservation...
, which had been sent to Philadelphia for the Centennial Exposition
Centennial Exposition
The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, the first official World's Fair in the United States, was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. It was officially...
, was at the time in Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
pending its return to Bishop Salpointe. While in Washington, Reavis obtained permission to examine the book in detail.
After examining the San Xavier record book, Reavis traveled to Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
where between September to November 1881 he searched the archives in Guadalajara
Guadalajara
Guadalajara may refer to:In Mexico:*Guadalajara, Jalisco, the capital of the state of Jalisco and second largest city in Mexico**Guadalajara Metropolitan Area*University of Guadalajara, a public university in Guadalajara, Jalisco...
and Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
for information related to the Peralta grant. In Mexico, he resumed the role of a newspaper correspondent looking for items of interest to Los Angeles and San Francisco readers. He also cultivated friendships with the archivists in both cities, relationships that enabled him to gain easy access to the materials he was interested in inspecting. By the time he left Mexico, Reavis had a collection of photographs and certified copies of papers related to Peralta grant. Reavis then traveled to see Mary Ann Willing who was then living in Kentucky
Kentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state, more specifically in the East South Central region. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth...
. During his visit, on May 1, 1882, the widow signed over her interest in the grant for US$30,000 paid over time.
First Baron of Arizona
Contained within the collection of papers Reavis had collected was the story of the Peralta grant's creation and the life history of the fictional first and second Barons of Arizona. The tale began with the birth of Don Miguel Nemecio Silva de Peralta de la Córdoba in 1708 to Don José Gaston Silva y Carrillo de Peralta de las Falces de Mendoza and Doña Francisca Maria de Garcia de la Córdoba y Muñiz de Perez. Don Miguel entered the King of Spain's service in 1727 as a lieutenant of dragoonDragoon
The word dragoon originally meant mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, dragoons evolved into conventional light cavalry units and personnel...
s. He was appointed , a royal inspector, in 1742 and sent on a secret mission to Guadalajara in New Spain
New Spain
New Spain, formally called the Viceroyalty of New Spain , was a viceroyalty of the Spanish colonial empire, comprising primarily territories in what was known then as 'América Septentrional' or North America. Its capital was Mexico City, formerly Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire...
. Papers confirming Don Miguel's appointment named him as Baron of Arizonaca, Knight of the Golden Fleece, and member of the Order of Montesa
Order of Montesa
The Order of Montesa is a Christian military order, territorially limited to the Kingdom of Aragon.-Templar background:The Templars had been received with enthusiasm in Aragon from their foundation in 1128...
.
The exact nature of the royal emissary's mission was never revealed but may have involved leaked claims of silver being found in northern Sonora. Apparently pleased with the results, Philip V
Philip V of Spain
Philip V was King of Spain from 15 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favor of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his death.Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a...
issued a royal (decree) stating the royal intention to make a land grant to Don Miguel in November 1744. Philip's was not acted upon until December 20, 1748 when Ferdinand VI
Ferdinand VI of Spain
Ferdinand VI , called the Learnt, was King of Spain from 9 July 1746 until his death. He was the fourth son of the previous monarch Philip V and his first wife Maria Luisa of Savoy...
promoted Don Miguel to captain of dragoons, bestowed upon him the title Baron of the Colorados, and issued another instructing the Viceroy of New Spain to locate a suitable tract containing 300 square leagues
League (unit)
A league is a unit of length . It was long common in Europe and Latin America, but it is no longer an official unit in any nation. The league originally referred to the distance a person or a horse could walk in an hour...
of land.
It was not until January 3, 1758 that a suitable tract of land was located north of Mission San Xavier del Bac
Mission San Xavier del Bac
Mission San Xavier del Bac is a historic Spanish Catholic mission located about 10 miles south of downtown Tucson, Arizona, on the Tohono O'odham San Xavier Indian Reservation...
and a decree issue by the Viceroy, Agustín de Ahumada, granting Don Miguel the land. The ceremony to physically locate and mark the claim occurred in May 1758. Don Miguel traveled to the claim's location accompanied by a priest from San Xavier and two officers from the Viceroy's garrison. The priest served as adjudicator
Adjudicator
An adjudicator is someone who presides, judges and arbitrates during a formal dispute. The term adjudicator essentially means a judge, without invoking the legal term. An ombudsman is a type of adjudicator in local government in the United Kingdom....
while the officers acted as witnesses and surveyors. During the ceremony a large rock located on top of a hill, which they name the "Inicial Monument", was spotted and chosen to mark the center of the property's western boundary.
Following the expulsion of the Jesuits from New Spain in 1768, Don Miguel sent a request to Charles III
Charles III of Spain
Charles III was the King of Spain and the Spanish Indies from 1759 to 1788. He was the eldest son of Philip V of Spain and his second wife, the Princess Elisabeth Farnese...
for reconfirmation of his grant. The request was granted in 1776, an unusually long delay even accounting for bureaucratic processing and travel times of the day, in the form of a letter reading "I, the King of Spain, gratefully acknowledge your many valuable services in the army of the crown, and approve the grant to you which you have above described."
Don Miguel made one attempt to settle on his land, using the ruins at Casa Grande
Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, in Coolidge, Arizona, just northeast of the city of Casa Grande, preserves a group of Ancient Pueblo Peoples Hohokam structures of the Pueblo III and Pueblo IV Eras.-Ancient pueblos:...
as his base of operation. The attempt was unsuccessful due to persistent raids from Apache
Apache
Apache is the collective term for several culturally related groups of Native Americans in the United States originally from the Southwest United States. These indigenous peoples of North America speak a Southern Athabaskan language, which is related linguistically to the languages of Athabaskan...
. After the failed attempt, Don Miguel returned to Mexico where in November 1770 he married Sofia Ave Maria Sanchez Bonilla de Amaya y Garcia de Orosco at Etzatlán
Etzatlán
Etzatlán is a town and municipality, in Jalisco in central-western Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 306.27 km².As of 2005, the municipality had a total population of 17,564....
. The marriage produced one son, Jesus Miguel Silva de Peralta de la Córdoba y Sanchez de Bonilla, in 1781.
In addition to a will
Will (law)
A will or testament is a legal declaration by which a person, the testator, names one or more persons to manage his/her estate and provides for the transfer of his/her property at death...
, Don Miguel created several additional documents to ensure his son would inherit his complete estate. In 1788 Don Miguel placed a codicil
Codicil (will)
A codicil is a document that amends, rather than replaces, a previously executed will. Amendments made by a codicil may add or revoke small provisions , or may completely change the majority, or all, of the gifts under the will...
in Guadalajara indicating his wishes. Additionally Don Miguel went to the trouble in August 1787 of creating a before a notary in Gudalajara documenting the Peralta grant, title, coat of arms, and the ancestry of his son. Don Miguel fell ill and died at the age of 116. He was buried in Guadalajara on February 2, 1824.
First claim
After completing his work in Mexico, Reavis returned to San Francisco. There he showed his documents to influential persons and wrote several anonymous news articles for the Examiner claiming there was "irrefutable evidence" supporting his claim on the Peralta grant. During this time he also was in negotiations with executives from the Southern Pacific Railroad. The executives were interested in securing a 200 feet (61 m) wide right-of-way for their railroad where their tracks crossed the grant while simultaneously blocking the Texas Pacific Railroad from doing the same. As a result of these talks, Charles Crocker signed an agreement providing Reavis with US$5000 upfront money and US$50,000 total to secure an easement across the Peralta grant.Reavis' first official action came in October 1882, when he filed papers with the Safford, Arizona Territory
Safford, Arizona
- History :Safford was founded by Joshua Eaton Bailey, Hiram Kennedy and Edward Tuttle, who came from Gila Bend, in southwestern Arizona. They left Gila Bend in the winter of 1873-74; their work on canals and dams having been destroyed by high water the previous summer...
probate court showing he had been assigned Willing's deeds. The reason for this filing is unclear as the probate court did not have authority to determine the validity of the claim. It is possible that the small county seat may have allowed Reavis to better solidify his claim with a minimum of other people taking notice at the time.
The official filing of the claim came on March 27, 1883 in the Tucson
Tucson, Arizona
Tucson is a city in and the county seat of Pima County, Arizona, United States. The city is located 118 miles southeast of Phoenix and 60 miles north of the U.S.-Mexico border. The 2010 United States Census puts the city's population at 520,116 with a metropolitan area population at 1,020,200...
office of Surveyor General J.W. Robbins. In addition to Willing's deed of purchase, Reavis filed copies of the , wills, codicils, and proclamations he had secured documenting the first baron's life. The collection of documents filled two trunks. Following an initial examination of the documents, which lasted into the night, Robins promised to register the claim and begin his investigation as the first stage of the certification.
After filing his claim, Reavis established his base of operations at Arizola. This was a location near Casa Grande
Casa Grande, Arizona
Casa Grande is a city in Pinal County, approximately halfway between Phoenix and Tucson in the U.S. state of Arizona. According to 2010 Census, the population of the city is 48,571...
containing a small set of ruins that had supposedly been used by the first Baron as La Hacienda de Peralta. Reavis brought in craftsmen to build a mansion of redwood and red brick on the site, complete with servant quarters, stables, storage sheds, and a protective stone wall surrounding the site.
While the construction was beginning, Reavis began hiring rent collectors and agents. He also opened negotiations with James M. Barney, owner of the Silver King Mining Company
Silver King Mine
The Silver King Mine is an inactive silver mine located near Superior, Arizona in the United States. The richest silver mine in Arizona, it produced an estimated US$42 million worth of silver ore between 1875 and 1900....
. After several weeks Barney agreed to pay US$25,000 for a quitclaim
Quitclaim deed
A quitclaim deed is a legal instrument by which the owner of a piece of real property, called the grantor, transfers his interest to a recipient, called the grantee. The owner/grantor terminates his right and claim to the property, thereby allowing claim to transfer to the...
. While a considerable sum for the day, this price was small compared to the profits generated by the mine. Reavis then printed and posted notices throughout the claim instructing residents to contact his lawyer "for registering tenancy and signing agreements, or regard themselves liable to litigation for trespassing and expulsion when the Peralta Grant is, as it must be, validated by the U.S. Government." Arrangements for newspapers and hired publicists announcing the land grant were made, proclaiming the title was ironclad and included both water and mineral rights.
Soon after, Reavis and his agents began selling quitclaims to gullible and frightened settlers located within the claim boundaries. The prices charged for the quitclaims varied greatly and showed little relation to the value of a property or the current occupants ability to pay. Some residents received demands for as much as US$1,000 while others obtained a release for free or in exchange for a meal or a couple of drinks.
Initial reaction to the notices by local residents was stunned disbelief. The claim had the potential to nullify all existing land titles within the grant and most residents were concerned by the threat of possible litigation. When word spread that both the Southern Pacific Railroad and Silver King Mine had agreed to terms with Reavis, concern turned to panic. Many residents reasoned that if the mine and railroad, with their associated financial and legal resources, found Reavis' claim too strong to fight then they stood no chance against it. This belief was augmented by Reavis' willingness to allow any interested party access to inspect his documents. Faced with this challenge, some area pioneers abandoned their homes and land instead of trying to deal with Reavis.
Collapse of the claim
Most territory residents vehemently opposed Reavis' claim and his efforts to sell quitclaims. Leading the opposition were two Phoenix newspapers, the Herald and GazettePhoenix Gazette
The Phoenix Gazette was a newspaper published in Phoenix, Arizona, USA. It was founded in 1881, and was known in its early years as the Phoenix Evening Gazette....
. Beginning in July 1883, the papers called upon area residents to not purchase quitclaims from Reavis. The effectiveness of this call was tainted in November 1883 when it was revealed that Herald owner Homer H. McNeil had purchased a quitclaim for his property. In response to the public backlash, the embarrassed McNeil was forced to publicly cancel the purchase.
About the time McNeil was returning his quitclaim, the Surveyor General's office dispatched Spanish language expert Rufus C. Hopkins to Mexico. Reavis and one of his lawyers followed Hopkins. Upon their arrival in Guadalajara, Reavis made his best effort to become indispensable to the 70-year old Hopkins. After introducing the Spanish expert to the local archivists, Reavis proceeded to guide him through the archives and point out the location of various documents. In addition to pointing out various bundles that he wished for Hopkins to inspect, Reavis took time to search new sections of the archive. During this effort he discovered a copy of the December 1748 recommending the initial grant.
While Reavis and Hopkins were in Mexico, Surveyor General J.W. Robbins died from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body...
and was replaced by his chief clerk, Royal A. Johnson. Hopkin's report on his findings were favorable and indicated the claim was well founded. Johnson was unhappy with the report, noting that while it indicated the seals and signatures all appeared genuine, other parts of the original documents had been received on cursory inspection. Additionally no copy of Charles III's
Charles III of Spain
Charles III was the King of Spain and the Spanish Indies from 1759 to 1788. He was the eldest son of Philip V of Spain and his second wife, the Princess Elisabeth Farnese...
signature had been located for comparison purposes. In a supplementary report Hopkins indicated that he had found no mention of Peralta or the grant during a brief search of the records in Mexico City.
With the release of Hopkin's initial report, Reavis proclaimed that confirmation of his claim was just a matter of time. He even began rumors that the U.S. government was planning to offer US$100 million to buy rights to his claim. Johnson in turn only reported that the investigation was ongoing and refused to provide additional details to the public. As a result, the Surveyor General was labeled as an accomplice to Reavis and vilified by the local newspapers.
While this was ongoing, Reavis sought to expand his sale of quitclaims from Phoenix
Phoenix, Arizona
Phoenix is the capital, and largest city, of the U.S. state of Arizona, as well as the sixth most populated city in the United States. Phoenix is home to 1,445,632 people according to the official 2010 U.S. Census Bureau data...
, where his efforts were initially focused, to the town of Florence
Florence, Arizona
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 17,054 people, 2,226 households, and 1,540 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,056.2 people per square mile . There were 3,216 housing units at an average density of 387.7 per square mile...
. The initial target of the expansion was Tom Weedin, editor of the Florence Enterprise, whom Reavis approached in January 1884. The newspaper editor refused Reavis's offer and instead published an editorial calling for creation of a committee to raise funds to hire a lawyer to fight the Peralta grant in court. Shortly thereafter, Anti-Reavis committees were established in Florence, Globe
Globe, Arizona
Globe has an arid climate, characterized by hot summers and moderate to warm winters. Globe's arid climate is somewhat tempered by its elevation, however, leading to slightly cooler temperatures and slightly more precipitation than Phoenix or Yuma....
, Phoenix, and Tempe
Tempe, Arizona
Tempe is a city in Maricopa County, Arizona, USA, with the Census Bureau reporting a 2010 population of 161,719. The city is named after the Vale of Tempe in Greece. Tempe is located in the East Valley section of metropolitan Phoenix; it is bordered by Phoenix and Guadalupe on the west, Scottsdale...
.
Over the next year-and-a-half Reavis faced two lawsuits. The first came from George Willing Sr., father of Reavis' former business partner. The elder Willing claimed that Mary Ann Willing only possessed a life estate
Life estate
A life estate is a concept used in common law and statutory law to designate the ownership of land for the duration of a person's life. In legal terms it is an estate in real property that ends at death when there is a "reversion" to the original owner...
on her husband's property and could not have legally provided a warranty deed
Warranty deed
A general warranty deed is a type of deed where the grantor guarantees that he or she holds clear title to a piece of real estate and has a right to sell it to the grantee . The guarantee is not limited to the time the grantor owned the property—it extends back to the property's origins. A General...
to Reavis. An attempt to raise funds for this suit was made by appealing to residents living within the grant and offering land for 20% less than the price set by Congress. The attempt was unsuccessful. As a result, Willing ran out of funds after a short time and was not heard from again.
The second suit was filed by Territorial Attorney General Clark Churchill to settle title
Title (property)
Title is a legal term for a bundle of rights in a piece of property in which a party may own either a legal interest or an equitable interest. The rights in the bundle may be separated and held by different parties. It may also refer to a formal document that serves as evidence of ownership...
issues with his personal land holdings. To deal with Churchill's suit, Reavis employed a strategy of delay and obfuscation. During a February 1884 deposition Reavis was forced to explain how he had come into possession of the Peralta grant and the nature of his relationship with Mary Ann Willing. Questions into his finances however were answered vaguely with Reavis claiming he would need to consult his "agents" to determine most details. Additional questions regarding the exact boundaries of the grant were answered with similarly vague responses. When the suit came to trial in May 1885, Reavis argued the court did not have jurisdiction to determine the validity of a Spanish grant. The court overruled this and granted Churchill clear title to his property.
Following the ruling in the Churchill suit, Land Office
General Land Office
The General Land Office was an independent agency of the United States government responsible for public domain lands in the United States. It was created in 1812 to take over functions previously conducted by the United States Department of the Treasury...
Commissioner W. A. Sparks communicated with Royal Johnson instructing the Surveyor General to halt work on verifying the Peralta grant. Johnson willingly honored the request. Territorial residents were elated by news of this event as it effectively halted Reavis' efforts. The Tucson Citizen
Tucson Citizen
The Tucson Citizen was a daily newspaper in Tucson, Arizona. It was founded by Richard C. McCormick with John Wasson as publisher and editor on October 15, 1870 as the Arizona Citizen....
reported "The tempest was all in a teapot after all" while another territorial newspaper ran the headline "Reavis Nailed Up". Public meetings were quickly organized throughout the territory calling for a final determination on the grant. Sensing the situation turning against him, Reavis hastily left for California. Two weeks later he was largely forgotten as Geronimo
Geronimo
Geronimo was a prominent Native American leader of the Chiricahua Apache who fought against Mexico and the United States for their expansion into Apache tribal lands for several decades during the Apache Wars. Allegedly, "Geronimo" was the name given to him during a Mexican incident...
led 144 Chiricahua Apache off the reservation and brought the Apache Wars
Apache Wars
The Apache Wars were a series of armed conflicts between the United States and Apaches fought in the Southwest from 1849 to 1886, though other minor hostilities continued until as late as 1924. The Confederate Army participated in the wars during the early 1860s, for instance in Texas, before being...
back to Arizona Territory.
Second claim
Before the collapse of his first claim, Reavis realized the complex series of conveyancesConveyancing
In law, conveyancing is the transfer of legal title of property from one person to another, or the granting of an encumbrance such as a mortgage or a lien....
on which he based his claim to the Peralta grant represented a serious weakness to his plans. To overcome this weakness Reavis had begun the work to establish an heiress to the grant while he was still preparing his first claim.
Reavis claimed to have heard rumors of a Peralta descendant as early as his 1875 arrival in California. It was not until 1877 however that he met the heiress. While traveling on a train, he spotted a young lady who bore a striking resemblance to the second baroness. After inquiring about her identity and background, and learning she knew of the name Maso, Reavis told her that she was most likely the heiress to a large fortune. As the young lady had no papers establishing her identity, it was left to Reavis to find them. The pair exchanged letters with each other until the end of 1882. At that time Reavis visited her in Knights Landing, California
Knights Landing, California
Knights Landing is a census-designated place in Yolo County, California, USA founded by William Knight. It is located on the Sacramento River in the northeastern portion of the county. Knights Landing's ZIP Code is 95645 and its area code 530. It lies at an elevation of 36 feet...
, were she worked as a house servant, and proposed marriage. The couple were married in a civil ceremony
Civil marriage
Civil marriage is marriage performed by a government official and not a religious organization.-History:Every country maintaining a population registry of its residents keeps track of marital status, and most countries believe that it is their responsibility to register married couples. Most...
dated December 31, 1882. Following their marriage, Reavis enrolled his new bride in a convent school to train her in the skills expected of a well-born lady.
After his first claim collapsed, Reavis returned to California to collect letters of introduction to influential New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
ers from his friends and business contacts. To these he added a number of Spanish contacts from his association with Spanish reporter Carlos Satana and a friendship with the Spanish consul
Consul (representative)
The political title Consul is used for the official representatives of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the peoples of the two countries...
stationed in San Francisco. Reavis then traveled with his wife, who was presented as his ward
Ward (law)
In law, a ward is someone placed under the protection of a legal guardian. A court may take responsibility for the legal protection of an individual, usually either a child or incapacitated person, in which case the ward is known as a ward of the court, or a ward of the state, in the United States,...
, to New York. There he met with persons such as U.S. Senator Roscoe Conkling
Roscoe Conkling
Roscoe Conkling was a politician from New York who served both as a member of the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. He was the leader of the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party and the last person to refuse a U.S. Supreme Court appointment after he had...
, former U.S. Congressman Dwight Townsend
Dwight Townsend
Dwight Townsend was a U.S. Representative from New York.Born in New York City, Townsend was educated at the grammar school of Columbia College, New York City.He engaged in the sugar business in the early sixties....
, Henry Porter of the American Bank Note Company
American Bank Note Company
The American Bank Note Company was a major worldwide engraver of national currency and postage stamps. Currently it engraves and prints stock and bond certificates.-History:Robert Scot, the first official engraver of the young U.S...
, and Hector de Castro
Hector de Castro
Hector de Castro was an Ottoman born American businessman and diplomat.Born in Constantinople, de Castro was educated in Paris and Vienna. He emigrating to the United States and was naturalized in 1885. He became Vice President of the American Cable Company...
. John W. Mackay was so impressed by Reavis' papers that he agreed to finance a search of the Spanish archives for additional documents. To this end, Mackay provided him with a US$500/month stipend, an amount sufficient for the Reavis party to travel in a manner consistent with an influential family.
In December 1885, the Reavis party sailed for Europe. Upon reaching Spain, Reavis began searching archives in Madrid
Madrid
Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
and Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
for information related to the second Baron and his descendants. It took several months of searching before Don Jesus Miguel's will leaving his estate to Sophia was located. In addition to the various documents he located in the archives, Reavis also acquired several portrait painting
Portrait painting
Portrait painting is a genre in painting, where the intent is to depict the visual appearance of the subject. Beside human beings, animals, pets and even inanimate objects can be chosen as the subject for a portrait...
s and daguerreotype
Daguerreotype
The daguerreotype was the first commercially successful photographic process. The image is a direct positive made in the camera on a silvered copper plate....
photographs of individuals he claimed to have been his wife's ancestors. Spanish members of the Peralta and Ibarras, believing Sophia was a long-lost relative, entertained Reavis' wife while he was performing his search. After he located the desired papers, Reavis and his wife publicly announced their marriage and recorded their marriage contract with the United States legation
Legation
A legation was the term used in diplomacy to denote a diplomatic representative office lower than an embassy. Where an embassy was headed by an Ambassador, a legation was headed by a Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary....
's chargé d'affaires
Chargé d'affaires
In diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission, either on a temporary basis or when no more senior diplomat has been accredited.-Chargés d’affaires:Chargés d’affaires , who were...
. The announcement was met with a new round of celebrations before the couple left Spain to make a tour of Mediterranean ports. The couple did not return to the United States till November 1886.
Upon his return, Reavis visited New York to renew his acquaintances with various political and business leaders. Showing his recently acquired documents to these luminaries netted Reavis several useful endorsements. James Broadhead
James Broadhead
James Overton Broadhead was an American lawyer and political figure. He was a member of the House of Representatives and of the Missouri senate, he was also the first president of the American Bar Association....
, who in 1884 believed the claim would be denied, following his examination by proclaiming, "The Peralta claim has been submitted to Mr. Conkling, Mr. Ingersoll and Mr. Hurd who have pronounced it good. I have associated with them in the case and my opinion coincides with theirs. Mr. J. Addison Reavis is the gentleman who is pushing the claim and his is a man of remarkable energy and persistence." Roscoe Conkling
Roscoe Conkling
Roscoe Conkling was a politician from New York who served both as a member of the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. He was the leader of the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party and the last person to refuse a U.S. Supreme Court appointment after he had...
in turn stated "I can say, however, that having been consulted ... and having made a somewhat careful examination of the ancient papers and other papers produces, of which there are many, and on the facts and history of the case, I find they all go to show Mrs. Reavis to be the person she believes herself to be, namely the lineal descendant of the original grantee." In addition to the endorsement, Conkling introduced Reavis to Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert Green "Bob" Ingersoll was a Civil War veteran, American political leader, and orator during the Golden Age of Freethought, noted for his broad range of culture and his defense of agnosticism. He was nicknamed "The Great Agnostic."-Life and career:Robert Ingersoll was born in Dresden, New York...
. Ingersoll was so impressed by Peralta papers that he agreed to represent Reavis in his efforts to have the new claim confirmed.
From New York the Reavis party went to California. There Reavis obtained an affidavit from Alfred Sherwood certifying he had known Sophia and her parents since her birth, she had been born in San Diego County, California
San Diego County, California
San Diego County is a large county located in the southwestern corner of the US state of California. Hence, San Diego County is also located in the southwestern corner of the 48 contiguous United States. Its county seat and largest city is San Diego. Its population was about 2,813,835 in the 2000...
, and that she had been left in the custody of Don Jose R. C. Maso following the death of her mother and twin brother when her father had need to travel to Spain.
By the time Reavis returned to Arizona Territory in August 1887 he was using the name "James Addison Peralta-Reavis". He went to Tucson to file a new claim on behalf of his wife, Doña Sophia Micaela Maso Reavis y Peralta de la Córdoba, third Baroness of Arizona. Before making the formal filing, Reavis hired a carriage and took a trip to the mountains south of Phoenix. During this trip he and his wife happened across the "Inicial Monument" that marked her great-grandfather's land.
Formal filing of the second claim occurred on September 2, 1887. Included with the official copies and photographs of original wills and codicils was a photograph of the third Baroness standing before the "Inicial Monument". With the discovery of this marker, the claim was shifted 8 miles (12.9 km) south. To address possible inconsistencies with his original claim, Reavis claimed he suspected some of Willing's papers to be forgeries, but upon advice of his lawyers had filed his initial claim to initially establish the grant before U.S. authorities and to buy time while searching for proof of his wife's identity. Reavis also posted a US$10,000 deposit to assure an official survey of the grant. Surveyor General John Hise refused to allow the survey as it would imply government approval of the claim.
Second baron and his family
Within the new filings were the following additions to the Peralta family story:The second Baron of Arizona, Don Jesus Miguel, never took an interest in his Arizona property due to the threatening Apache presence. He married Doña Juana Laura Ibarra, a member of a prominent Guadalajara family, in 1822. Something of a spendthrift, Don Jesus Miguel frittered away most of his inheritance. After selling most of his properties, the second Baron settled into his Sonora
Sonora
Sonora officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities; the capital city is Hermosillo....
estate. After ten years of marriage the couple had their only child, Sophia Laura Micaela de Peralta de la Córdoba y Ibarra.
Doña Sophia married José Ramon Carmen Maso in 1860. With his remote location providing a limited selection of suitable suitors, the Baron was initially pleased to have found a husband for his 28-year old daughter. It was only after the wedding he discovered his new son-in-law had a reputation as a "gentleman sport" (professional gambler) and ne'er-do-well in California.
In 1862, Maso was called to Spain to collect some funds owed to him and the Baron. Maso left for San Francisco with the Baron, his mother, Doña Carmelita Maso, and his then pregnant wife. No explanation as to why the party did not embark from the more convenient port at Guaymas
Guaymas
Guaymas is a city and municipality located in the southwest part of the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. The city is located 117 km south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and 242 miles from the U.S. border, and is the principal port for the state. The municipality is located in the...
was ever given. While in Agua Mansa, California
Agua Mansa, California
Agua Mansa is a former settlement in an unincorpated area of San Bernardino County, California, United States. Now a ghost town, only the cemetery remains, it once was the largest settlement in San Bernardino County. The town was established in 1845 on the Santa Ana River, across from the town of...
, Doña Sophia unexpectedly went into labor and gave birth to twins, one boy and one girl. The twins were quickly baptized
Infant baptism
Infant baptism is the practice of baptising infants or young children. In theological discussions, the practice is sometimes referred to as paedobaptism or pedobaptism from the Greek pais meaning "child." The practice is sometimes contrasted with what is called "believer's baptism", or...
at the nearby Mission San Salvador. Complications from the birth occurred and the boy and mother both died. A wet nurse
Wet nurse
A wet nurse is a woman who is used to breast feed and care for another's child. Wet nurses are used when the mother is unable or chooses not to nurse the child herself. Wet-nursed children may be known as "milk-siblings", and in some cultures the families are linked by a special relationship of...
was located and arrangements made for care of the newborn girl by a friend of Maso, John A. Treadway. Maso then continued his journey while Don Jesus Miguel remained in San Francisco to be near his granddaughter. Several months later, Don Jesus Miguel was summoned to Spain by Maso. They both died in Spain, but not before the Baron had filed a codicil to his San Francisco will naming his granddaughter as his sole heir.
In California, Treadway made arrangements with Alfred Sherwood to look after the infant Sophia and Doña Carmelita Maso while he took a business trip. During this trip, Treadway died near Sacramento, California
Sacramento, California
Sacramento is the capital city of the U.S. state of California and the county seat of Sacramento County. It is located at the confluence of the Sacramento River and the American River in the northern portion of California's expansive Central Valley. With a population of 466,488 at the 2010 census,...
. Doña Carmelita Maso died when Sophia was five. When she was eight years old, Sophia was taken into the house of John Snowball. He remembered the young girl speaking of an inheritance that was to come to her.
Development plans for Arizona
Reaction to the new claim by Arizona residents was nearly unanimously negative, with some newspapers publishing open incitements to violence against Reavis. As a result of the opposition, sale of new quitclaims effectively ended.During his trip to Spain and visits to New York, Reavis had gained an understanding of government and big business finance. He put this new knowledge to work and began offering investment opportunities involving development of Arizona Territory. With the accomplished business leaders he had met in New York advocating the legitimacy of his claim, Reavis began to gain millions of dollars in new funds.
Reavis formed three corporations in rapid succession in 1887, each bearing the name Casa Grande Improvement Company. Each had Reavis as director and well known business leaders selected to serve as president and vice-presidents. The third, the Casa Grande Improvement Company of Arizona, was incorporated in November and absorbed the prior two entities. The company planned to develop the land of the grant by building roads, railways, dams, irrigation canals, telegraph lines, and other improvements while simultaneously engaging in leasing water rights, selling livestock, and performing other activities. Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert Green "Bob" Ingersoll was a Civil War veteran, American political leader, and orator during the Golden Age of Freethought, noted for his broad range of culture and his defense of agnosticism. He was nicknamed "The Great Agnostic."-Life and career:Robert Ingersoll was born in Dresden, New York...
was the company's first president while other initial investors included Hector de Castro
Hector de Castro
Hector de Castro was an Ottoman born American businessman and diplomat.Born in Constantinople, de Castro was educated in Paris and Vienna. He emigrating to the United States and was naturalized in 1885. He became Vice President of the American Cable Company...
, Dwight Townsend
Dwight Townsend
Dwight Townsend was a U.S. Representative from New York.Born in New York City, Townsend was educated at the grammar school of Columbia College, New York City.He engaged in the sugar business in the early sixties....
and Henry Porter of the American Bank Note Company
American Bank Note Company
The American Bank Note Company was a major worldwide engraver of national currency and postage stamps. Currently it engraves and prints stock and bond certificates.-History:Robert Scot, the first official engraver of the young U.S...
Among the development plans Reavis announced was construction of a large scale irrigation system. At the core of the system was a proposed 450 feet (137.2 m) masonry dam on the Salt River
Salt River (Arizona)
The Salt River is a stream in the U.S. state of Arizona. It is the largest tributary of the Gila River. The river is about long. Its drainage basin is about large. The longest of the Salt River's many tributaries is the Verde River...
near its junction with Tonto Creek
Tonto Creek
Tonto Creek is a stream located in the Mogollon Rim area of the state of Arizona on the north edge of the Tonto National Forest. The closest town, Payson, is away. Tonto Creek is a stream that flows year round, starting just below the Mogollon Rim, at the northern edge of Tonto National Forest...
(near where Theodore Roosevelt Dam
Theodore Roosevelt Dam
Theodore Roosevelt Dam is a dam on the Salt River located northeast of Phoenix, Arizona. The dam is high and forms Theodore Roosevelt Lake as it impounds the Salt River. Originally built between 1905 and 1911, the dam was renovated and expanded in 1989-1996. The dam is named after then-President...
was later built) and a 250 feet (76.2 m) dam on the Gila River
Gila River
The Gila River is a tributary of the Colorado River, 650 miles long, in the southwestern states of New Mexico and Arizona.-Description:...
west of Florence. Proposed cost of these dams were US$2.5 million and US$1 million respectively.
By the time of the second filing, Reavis was dressing in the finest linen and broadcloth while his wife wore the products of New York and San Francisco's best dressmakers. Finding conditions in Arizona too hostile to his ambitions, Reavis rarely spent time at his mansion in Arizola. He and his wife instead maintained residences in San Francisco, St. Louis, and near New York City were they entertained the social and financial elite. During one stay in New York, Mrs. Reavis, possibly feeling lonely while her husband was busy with his business dealings, found a two-month old orphan boy. She adopted the boy and named him Fenton after her husband's father. Reavis also purchased a hacienda
Hacienda
Hacienda is a Spanish word for an estate. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even business factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities...
in Chihuahua. In Mexico, Reavis became a patron
Patrón
Patrón is a luxury brand of tequila produced in Mexico and sold in hand-blown, individually numbered bottles.Made entirely from Blue Agave "piñas" , Patrón comes in five varieties: Silver, Añejo, Reposado, Gran Patrón Platinum and Gran Patrón Burdeos. Patrón also sells a tequila-coffee blend known...
of various charities, opening a home for the blind and a hospital. Additionally he built a monument dedicated to Don Miguel de Peralta in Monterrey
Monterrey
Monterrey , is the capital city of the northeastern state of Nuevo León in the country of Mexico. The city is anchor to the third-largest metropolitan area in Mexico and is ranked as the ninth-largest city in the nation. Monterrey serves as a commercial center in the north of the country and is the...
and donated new altar linens for a cathedral in Guadalajara, Jalisco
Guadalajara, Jalisco
Guadalajara is the capital of the Mexican state of Jalisco, and the seat of the municipality of Guadalajara. The city is located in the central region of Jalisco in the western-pacific area of Mexico. With a population of 1,564,514 it is Mexico's second most populous municipality...
.
Fraud revealed
The U.S. Presidential election of 1888United States presidential election, 1888
The 1888 election for President of the United States saw Grover Cleveland of New York, the incumbent president and a Democrat, try to secure a second term against the Republican nominee Benjamin Harrison, a former U.S. Senator from Indiana...
resulted in the return of a Republican
Republican Party (United States)
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP . The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S...
to the White House
White House
The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., the house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban, and built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the Neoclassical...
. Following the inauguration of Benjamin Harrison
Benjamin Harrison
Benjamin Harrison was the 23rd President of the United States . Harrison, a grandson of President William Henry Harrison, was born in North Bend, Ohio, and moved to Indianapolis, Indiana at age 21, eventually becoming a prominent politician there...
, Royal Johnson was reappointed Surveyor General for Arizona Territory in July 1889. Despite having been out of office, Johnson had continued to investigate the validity of the Reavis claim. About this time, the acting Commissioner of the Land Office had received inquiries as to the status of the Peralta grant. In September 1889, he sent Johnson a letter directing the Surveyor General to "please report to me the exact condition of said grant as shown by papers and records in your office, and all the information you can obtain in regard to it." Johnson responded to this request on October 12, 1889 with the release of Adverse report of the Surveyor General of Arizona, Royal A. Johnson, upon the alleged Peralta Grant : a complete expose of its fraudulent character.
Among the issues found in the report with the Peralta grant were:
- Most of the claim's 18th century documents showed evidence of having been written with steel nibbedNib (pen)A nib is the part of a quill, dip pen or fountain pen which comes into contact with the writing surface in order to deposit ink. Different types of nibs vary in their purpose, shape and size, as well as the material they are made from.-Quill:...
pens, a tool rarely used until the 19th century, instead of a quillQuillA quill pen is a writing implement made from a flight feather of a large bird. Quills were used for writing with ink before the invention of the dip pen, metal-nibbed pens, the fountain pen, and, eventually, the ballpoint pen...
. - Printing styles on the Peralta documents differed with documents from the same time period, particularly in the use of the long sLong sThe long, medial or descending s is a form of the minuscule letter s formerly used where s occurred in the middle or at the beginning of a word, for example "ſinfulneſs" . The modern letterform was called the terminal, round, or short s.-History:The long s is derived from the old Roman cursive...
. - Search of Spanish archives for supporting documents failed to find information on the Peralta grant in locations where such information was expected.
- Multiple spelling errors and grammar issues were present in the Peralta documents, a situation highly atypical of documents from the Spanish Royal court.
Johnson's report was met with celebration by Arizona residents and the once demonized Surveyor General became the toast of the town. The Gazette praised the Surveyor General's intelligence and fairness while extending the thanks of the Salt River valley. The Herald in turn printed "No one has criticized Johnson more than we and these criticisms were founded largely on his own statements, but no one will do Mr. Johnson complete justice for his actions on behalf of the settlers sooner or more heartily give him credit for standing by them in their time of need than the Herald." Governor Murphy
Oakes Murphy
Nathan Oakes Murphy was the fourteenth Governor of Arizona Territory.Born in Jefferson, Maine, Murphy attended the public schools.He taught school in Wisconsin....
even invited Johnson to Phoenix where a public reception was held in his honor.
Response in Washington to Johnson's report was more subdued. Reavis had enlisted the aid of Secretary of the Interior
United States Secretary of the Interior
The United States Secretary of the Interior is the head of the United States Department of the Interior.The US Department of the Interior should not be confused with the concept of Ministries of the Interior as used in other countries...
John Willock Noble
John Willock Noble
John Willock Noble was a U.S. lawyer and brevet general in the Civil War. He served as the Secretary of the Interior between 1889 and 1893....
and U.S. Senator Francis Cockrell
Francis Cockrell
Francis Marion Cockrell was a Confederate military commander and American politician from the state of Missouri. He served as a United States Senator from Missouri for five terms. He was a prominent member of the famed South–Cockrell–Hargis family of Southern politicians.-Early life:Cockrell was...
in his lobbying efforts. As a result it took until February 20, 1890 for the Commissioner of the Land Office, Lewis Groff, to respond to Johnson's report. Groff's letter to Johnson was generally critical of the Surveyor General but could not disregard the report's findings. The letter ended with instructions for Johnson "to strike the case from your docket and notify Mr. Reavis of the action, allowing the usual time for an appeal to the Hon. Secretary of the Interior."
Reavis' response
In response to Johnson's report and the subsequent dismissal of his claim, Reavis filed suitLawsuit
A lawsuit or "suit in law" is a civil action brought in a court of law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendant's actions, demands a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiff's complaint...
against the United States in the Court of Claims
United States Court of Claims
The Court of Claims was a federal court that heard claims against the United States government. It was established in 1855 as the Court of Claims, renamed in 1948 to the United States Court of Claims , and abolished in 1982....
. The lawsuit claimed the government had taken land belonging to Reavis and his wife and sold it to settlers, the government had reserved 1500000 acres (6,070.3 km²) for its own use, had appropriated excessive water rights from the Gila River, and had denied the plaintiffs of their constitutional right
Constitutional right
An inalienable right is a freedom granted by a Nature or the Creator's endowment by birth , and may not be legally denied by that government.-United States:...
to due process
Due process
Due process is the legal code that the state must venerate all of the legal rights that are owed to a person under the principle. Due process balances the power of the state law of the land and thus protects individual persons from it...
. Reavis sought US$11 million in damages
Damages
In law, damages is an award, typically of money, to be paid to a person as compensation for loss or injury; grammatically, it is a singular noun, not plural.- Compensatory damages :...
already incurred with provisions in the suit for "further relief and costs" against future damages. Southern Pacific Railroad
Southern Pacific Railroad
The Southern Pacific Transportation Company , earlier Southern Pacific Railroad and Southern Pacific Company, and usually simply called the Southern Pacific or Espee, was an American railroad....
attorney Harvey S. Brown served as Reavis' lead council while Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert G. Ingersoll
Robert Green "Bob" Ingersoll was a Civil War veteran, American political leader, and orator during the Golden Age of Freethought, noted for his broad range of culture and his defense of agnosticism. He was nicknamed "The Great Agnostic."-Life and career:Robert Ingersoll was born in Dresden, New York...
and James Broadhead
James Broadhead
James Overton Broadhead was an American lawyer and political figure. He was a member of the House of Representatives and of the Missouri senate, he was also the first president of the American Bar Association....
assisted in preparing the case.
At the time of filing, Reavis and his wife said they were aware that the Surveyor General had released a report but claimed to have been unable to obtain a copy. Following the initial filing a continuance
Continuance
In American procedural law, a continuance is the postponement of a hearing, trial, or other scheduled court proceeding at the request of either or both parties in the dispute, or by the judge sua sponte. In response to delays in bringing cases to trial, some states have adopted "fast-track" rules...
was filed to allow time for the collection of additional evidence. During the course of this delay, in March 1891, the United States Court of Private Land Claims
United States Court of Private Land Claims
The United States Court of Private Land Claims , was a United States court created to decide land claims guaranteed by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in the territories of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, and in the states of Nevada, Colorado, and Wyoming.-Origins:During Spanish and Mexican rule...
was created with jurisdiction to adjudicate claims involving old French, Mexican, and Spanish land claims.
After filing suit, Reavis went to California to locate witnesses who were familiar with the details of Sophia's youth. During October and November 1890 a series of depositions
Deposition (law)
In the law of the United States, a deposition is the out-of-court oral testimony of a witness that is reduced to writing for later use in court or for discovery purposes. It is commonly used in litigation in the United States and Canada and is almost always conducted outside of court by the...
were held in San Francisco and Los Angeles
Los Ángeles
Los Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the commune of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123,445 inhabitants...
to take testimony from the witnesses he had located. Key witness located during this process were Miguel Noe Sr., his son Miguel Jr., Andrés Sandoval, Alfred Sherwood, and John Snowball. Noe testified to having been a friend of José Ramon Carmen Maso and to having met the second Baron during his time in California before his trip to Spain. The testimony included a wide variety of details related to the second Baron's stay and included Noe accompanying the Baron to Sherwood Valley to confirm that his granddaughter was well cared for. The senior Noe's testimony was supported by Miguel Jr. relaying his childhood memories of the second Baron. Sandoval testified to having run a boardinghouse and restaurant where the second Baron and his son-in-law had stayed while they were in San Francisco. Sherwood provided details of Sophia's life from when she had been brought home by John Treadway at four months of age in July 1862, how she had been attended by her wet nurse and grandmother, and how her grandmother had told the young girl of a large inheritance she would someday receive. Snowball in turn testified as to how he had taken the orphaned girl into his house when she was eight and raised her till 1876, when she left to work with a dressmaker. Other witnesses filled in additional details of Sophia's life between 1879 and 1882.
In addition to details about his wife's early childhood, Reavis discovered other witnesses able to relate details about her family. In this manner additional details were revealed about the second Baron and his activities during the 1850s. Another revelation was the existence of a previously unknown third cousin to the third Baroness, Miguel Lauro Peralta y Vasquez. Information discovered about this cousin showed that he had traveled through Arizona during the time period in which Willing had purchased the rights to the Peralta grant and could potentially have posed as the second Baron during the transaction.
A trip to San Bernardino in early 1892 resulted in Reavis discovering baptismal records for the Maso twins along with a record of burial of mother and new born son. Following this stop, Reavis returned to Guadalajara to search for additional records. A local historian informed him that some records had been stored in the archives of the Ayuntamiento (Common Council). An extended search of these records resulted in a copy of the first baron's probate proceedings being found. The apparent reason for why they had never been found in previous searches was that they had been misfiled with a group of 1824 papers, possibly as a consequence of the first Baron's probate proceedings. Included in these records was a Peralta family genealogy and Escutcheon, and showing the first barons promotion to captain of dragoons (1748), declaring the royal intention to make a land grant (1748), and approving the grant (1778).
During the second half of 1892 Reavis had hoped to perform another search for witnesses in the company of James Broadhead. Broadhead's duties as a Congressman however forced a delay of this plan until at least mid-1893. This delay worked for Reavis as on March 8, 1893 his wife gave birth to twin boys, named Carlos Jesús and Miguel in honor of the first and second Barons. Reavis viewed this birth as further proof of Sophia being a twin.
By 1893, Reavis began to develop financial problems. Travel, research, and legal expenses, combined with the maintenance expenses of his various households, had consumed most of his cash. Questions about the status of the Peralta claim in turn had dried up most new investments. To maintain solvency and defray his expenses, Reavis made arrangements with a group of Washington and San Francisco businessmen to extend him US$30,000 at the rate of US$2500/month.
With the volume of evidence and witness testimony accumulated, James Broadhead decided that the Peralta case was proven.
Reavis went to Santa Fe, New Mexico Territory
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Santa Fe is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of . Santa Fe had a population of 67,947 in the 2010 census...
to file his final complaint in February 1893. Land Office draftsman William Strover recalled "an express wagon drove up and unloaded an array of boxes and packages, all addressed to the court and marked 'Peralta Grant.' When all was unpacked three large tables, placed end to end, filled with documents, ancient books,pictures, including a large oil painting of the Marquis de Peralta, in his robes as grandee of Spain. There were documents with large leaden seals attached and signed by the king of Spain. There was a complete history of the marquis [and] letters to him and from him."
After submitting his amended filing, Reavis and his family moved back to his mansion in Arizola.
Government investigation
Mathew Given Reynolds, a special attorney for the United States Court of Private Land ClaimsUnited States Court of Private Land Claims
The United States Court of Private Land Claims , was a United States court created to decide land claims guaranteed by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in the territories of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, and in the states of Nevada, Colorado, and Wyoming.-Origins:During Spanish and Mexican rule...
, was assigned to represent the government in Reavis' suit. Sevaro Mallet-Prevost, a Mexican born New York lawyer familiar with Spanish and Mexican law, and William M. Tipton, an expert on document analysis
Questioned document examination
Questioned document examination is the forensic science discipline pertaining to documents that are in dispute in a court of law...
, were assigned to assist. Mallet-Prevost and Tipton were dispatched to Tucson in January 1894 to make an examination of Reavis' original claim. From there, Mallet-Prevost continued on to the archives in Mexico.
As the archives in Guadalajara were in the process of being moved, Mallet-Prevost began his search in Mexico City. A search of the National Archives found no record of the Peralta grant but did produce copies of signatures and 18th century documents for use in later comparisons. From Mexico City he went to Guadalajara, arriving just after the move of the archive was completed. Upon his return to Santa Fe in April 1894, Mallet-Prevost stated he was "entirely convinced of the spurious character of every paper there filed".
Mallet-Prevost was then sent to Spain, arriving in Madrid on June 12, 1894. The first place the Mexican-born lawyer checked was the in Seville. There he found that Reavis had arrived as a tourist and after several days had applied for and was granted permission to search the archives. Reavis searched bundles for several days without success, the archivist assigned to assist him believing the documents he was searching for did not exist. Reavis then requested access to case 77, drawer 3, (file) 31. The assisting archivist was surprised to see a document he had previously never seen in the bundle. This incident was reported to the Chief Archivist who ordered that Reavis be carefully watched and that all records be carefully numbered before he was allowed to examine them in the future.
When Reavis later returned to the archive, the prescribed measures had been put into place. At the end of one day Reavis discovered a document in a bundle he was searching and requested a certified copy of it. The document was in an envelope and the paper folded. No other documents in the bundle were folded and the document Reavis had found was not numbered as other pages in the bundle had been. Based upon this evidence and testimony from other clerks in the archive that the questioned document had not originally been part of the bundle, an arrest warrant was issued for Reavis. Reavis however left Seville before an arrest could be made and influential friends in Madrid had suppressed any further investigation.
While Mallet-Prevost was at the archives in Spain, Reynolds went to California to perform background investigations on the witnesses Reavis had located. During this process, Reynolds was approached by San Francisco lawyer William W. Allen. Allen informed the investigator that "I have an original contract made by and between Reavis and his wife, and a witness, in which the witness is to receive a contingency fee of fifty thousand dollars if he testifies to a certain statement prepared by Reavis." Allen later told how Reavis had given Miguel Noe information about Don José Maso, his supposed close friend, for Noe to commit to memory. As part of the agreement, Noe was expected to locate other persons willing to memorize and testify to other events.
On September 6, 1894, the government requested a judge be commissioned to take testimony. Despite protests from Reavis' attorney, Judge Thomas C. Fuller was appointed. Testimony was taken in Guadalajara between October 16 and October 26, 1894. Despite being informed of the proceedings, no one representing Reavis attended the proceedings. The most likely explanation for this is that Reavis could no longer pay his attorneys. The testimony centered on the December 20, 1748 recommending the Viceroy make the Peralta grant. When asked about this document, archivist Emitiro Robles Giles testified "I have searched all those archives in which such a should be found and I do not find it; I have found, however, a record to that effect; I have found in the protocol of the Notory Diego de la Sierra y Dueñas certain documents in relation to the matter which are notoriously not genuine."
On January 5, 1895 Judge Wilbur F. Stone left New York to take evidence in Spain. Due to delays in obtaining cooperation from the Spanish government this process was not completed till March 3, 1895. Following his return, a trial date was set for May 30, 1895. As details of the government's evidence became known, the lawyers representing Reavis began withdrawing from the case. Attorney Phil B. Thompson notified the Court of Private Land Claims of his withdrawal in a letter. James Broadhead was unable to continue to represent Reavis due to his appointment as Minister to Switzerland
United States Ambassador to Switzerland and Liechtenstein
This is a list of United States Ambassadors to Switzerland.Since 1997, the US ambassador to Switzerland is also accredited to Liechtenstein. The position is generally held by a political appointee, not a career diplomat.-Ambassadors:-See also:...
. In the mean time, Reavis' money had run out and he was destitute by the time the trial began.
Civil suit
The trial for Reavis' civil action began on Monday June 3, 1895 at 10:00. As neither Reavis nor anyone representing him was in attendance, the court adjourned till 14:00 before beginning without his presence. The first motion was from a lawyer representing a group of 106 individuals related to Miguel Peralta of Wickenburg, Arizona TerritoryWickenburg, Arizona
Wickenburg is a town in Maricopa County, Arizona, United States. According to 2006 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the town is 6,423.-Geography:Wickenburg is located at ....
. These real Peralta family members had heard about the case and hoped for a portion of any settlement. In his statement to the court, the lawyer informed the court that:
- "The Government Attorney ... yesterday afternoon placed in my hands the printed evidence .. and to my mind it did seem as though that grant, upon which Reavis relies—it seems to me, from a cursory examination ... that it is a fabrication, and as such, if such it turns out to be ... I want it distinctly understood by the Court and by the Government Attorney, that we have had nothing to do with it. We wash our hands from all of it."
Presentation of the government case began in earnest on Tuesday morning, Reavis and his counsel still not present. First on the stand was Mallet-Prevost who testified about language and grammar problems present in some of the Peralta documents. As an example of the problem he identified one document containing the word , a word not in the Spanish language
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
. Another example was the word , an incorrect past tense of the verb , being used instead of the correct .
Tipton, the government's document analysis expert, next took the stand to discuss the 1748 . His examination had found that while the coversheet appeared to be authentic, the only mention of Don Miguel de Peralta was located on a piece of yellowed tissue paper pasted to the paper. The five sheets of paper contained inside the cover he declared forgeries due to their style of writing not being consistent with the handwriting in use at the time and the seals being glued to the paper instead of impressed by a metal seal as was the custom at the time of the document.
Following this, Tipton went on to problems with other original papers that had been located during the search of the Guadalajara archives. One group of papers was located in a set of papers related to work done by the notary
Notary
A notary is a lawyer or person with legal training who is licensed by the state to perform acts in legal affairs, in particular witnessing signatures on documents...
Diego de la Sierra between 1697 and 1698. The Peralta papers had been inserted between two pages of a bound volume numbered 178 and 179 respectively, printed on paper that was shorter and narrower than the other pages of the book, showed evidence of being folded unlike the book's other pages, and were glued in place instead of being bound as was the rest of the volume.
Wednesday began with Mallet-Prevost testifying on his findings during his trip to Spain. He began with the will of Miguel de Peralta where the only mentions of the name occurred over erasures. Additionally the will indicated it had been recorded in the Registry of Mortgages, volume 23, page 2, leaf 216, in section 122. An examination of that part of the Registry found an unrelated document. Tipton and Maller-Provest continued to examine other documents and depositions until later that afternoon. At that time a telegraph arrived from Reavis asking for a continuance till June 10, 1895. The request was granted.
Reavis first appeared in court on Monday June 10, 1895. His first act was to ask for a continuance so that he could locate new legal representation. When this motion met resistance, Reavis made a motion to dismiss
Motion (legal)
In law, a motion is a procedural device to bring a limited, contested issue before a court for decision. A motion may be thought of as a request to the judge to make a decision about the case. Motions may be made at any point in administrative, criminal or civil proceedings, although that right is...
. Reavis was finally granted a one day continuance so he could prepare to represent himself.
Tuesday's court session began with Reavis taking the stand. Beginning with an account of his early career, he described his meeting Dr. Willing and his trip to Prescott to obtain the Peralta documents. During the testimony, Reavis listed the names of the many influential legal and business figures with whom he had associated. When cross-examined
Cross-examination
In law, cross-examination is the interrogation of a witness called by one's opponent. It is preceded by direct examination and may be followed by a redirect .- Variations by Jurisdiction :In...
by Reynolds, Reavis employed a tactic of providing excessive and irrelevant details within his answers. Later in the day Reavis was questioned about his discovery of documents within the San Xavier record books, his 1883 trip to the archives in Mexico, and his trip to Spain.
Wednesday morning's session began with Reavis being questioned about his marriage contract to his wife, moved to details on his discovery of the "Inicial Monument", and was followed by questions about his financial transactions with the Southern Pacific Railroad and Silver King mine. When questioned about the boundaries of the grant, Reavis testified that he had found a copy of a map in the Mexico City archives but the archivist had refused to make him a copy as the map was surrounded by papers the archivist considered to be of a questionable nature. To explain the lack of documents from Mexico City, Reavis stated that the archives of the Inquisition had been sealed and no one was allowed access.
In the afternoon, questioning turned to Reavis' discovery of the baptismal and burial records in San Bernardino. The subject then turned to Alfred Sherwood's 1887 affidavit regarding Sophia's noble birth. During this line of questioning an apparent contradiction appeared where Reavis had known of Miguel Noe and others with knowledge of Sophia's early life as early as 1885 yet he did not look for any of these people till 1892. On the morning of June 13, Reavis was forced to admit he had doubted some of the documents in his 1883 filing were genuine, but he had still filed them on advice of counsel while believing his wife was the true heir. At the same time he admitted that he had at that time not told his lawyers of his marriage.
Thursday afternoon, Father P.J. Stockman, rector
Rector
The word rector has a number of different meanings; it is widely used to refer to an academic, religious or political administrator...
of the church of San Bernardino, testified the records of the baptismal of Mrs. Reavis and her twin brother and deaths of the boy and his mother were forged. During a trip away from the parish, Stockman had left a young and inexperienced priest, Father Joseph O'Reilly, in charge of the church. The young priest had been convinced to loan the birth and death registers to Reavis, but had failed to inform Reavis that the church kept a separate index that was organized by last name and updated annually. During Father Stockman's testimony he pointed out differences in the inks between the pages related to Mrs. Reavis and the rest of the ledger. The index made no mention of Doña Sophia Laura or her son and there was no evidence of either of their graves in the parish graveyard. This testimony was followed by Father O'Reilly, who identified Reavis as the person he had given possession of the record books for a period of between two weeks and a month. Following the priest's testimony the trial returned to an examination of the documentary evidence. Reavis was granted a request to be excused from the court during this phase of the trial.
Testimony on Friday began with Tipton examining the genealogical document for the Peralta family from the first Baron's will. His testimony showed the first and last leaves of the document to be genuine documents from the indicated period but that the pages in between were all forgeries.
This was followed by an examination of the 1742 appointment of Don Miguel Peralta as royal inspector. It was pointed out the bottom of the document contained the line "". Within this line it was possible for an untrained person to see the words and had been written in a darker ink and by a different hand than the rest of the line. Further investigation of the document by Tipton had revealed the document had originally announced the appointment of Pedro Cebrián, 5th Count of Fuenclara as Viceroy of New Spain. Other evidence showed that the name Peralta had never appeared on lists of members of the Military Order of Montesa or the Knights of the Golden Fleece. The rest of the day was taken by Royal Johnson who testified to the steps he had taken during his investigation of the Peralta claim and how he came to his conclusions. Rufus C. Hopkins testified on Saturday morning about his part in the Peralta claim investigation. During the examination he admitted to having a limited knowledge of Spanish and having to make educated guesses as to a document's true meaning during his translations into English.
After adjourning for the weekend, the trial resumed on Monday June 17. Local newspapers had reported that Mrs. Reavis had arrived from Denver on Friday afternoon and the courtroom was packed with spectators looking to see the third Baroness. Upon taking the stand, she told of her childhood memories and then confirmed her husband's claim that an archivist in Seville had demanded a bribe before allowing documents related to the Peralta Grant to be copied. She was however unable to provide any details about the claim papers. Throughout the proceedings, Mrs. Reavis maintained she was the granddaughter of the second Baron despite intense questioning about his existence. Monday's testimony ended with Bishop Salpointe stating he was familiar with the San Xavier
Mission San Xavier del Bac
Mission San Xavier del Bac is a historic Spanish Catholic mission located about 10 miles south of downtown Tucson, Arizona, on the Tohono O'odham San Xavier Indian Reservation...
record book from his historical studies and the documents related to Miguel de Peralta in the record book had not been present before the book had been sent to Philadelphia for the Centennial Exposition
Centennial Exposition
The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, the first official World's Fair in the United States, was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. It was officially...
.
The final day of testimony came on June 18. In an attempt to bolster his case, Reavis attempted to show that a portrait of Don Miguel Nemecio de Peralta de la Córdoba bore a strong resemblance to his twins. Other portraits, photographs, and documents were introduced in an attempt to prove the existence of Don Miguel and his family. Closing arguments were presented the next day. The government waived the right to a closing statement, feeling the presented evidence was strong enough to prove their case. Reavis used the opportunity to introduce a bill of 52 objections.
The Court of Private Land Claims presented its findings on June 28, 1895. The decision rejected the claim, finding "that the claim is wholly fictitious and fraudulent" and that the various Peralta documents had been forged and "surreptitiously introduced" into the various archives and record books where they were discovered.
Criminal trial
Some Reavis associates did not believe the court's conclusion. Dr. A. T. Sherwood, who led an attempt to colonize the grant, told reporters, "It is impossible that any one man could have forged all the signatures in this case. Reavis would have had to forge over 200 Spanish documents and signatures. No man could have done it. It is the most improbable thing conceivable." Despite this support, Reavis was arrested and charged, in a forty-two count indictment, with forgery, presenting false documents to the Court of Private Land Claims, and conspiracy to defraud the United States government.Reavis plea
Plea
In legal terms, a plea is simply an answer to a claim made by someone in a civil or criminal case under common law using the adversary system. Colloquially, a plea has come to mean the assertion by a criminal defendant at arraignment, or otherwise in response to a criminal charge, whether that...
ded not guilty and requested release on bail
Bail
Traditionally, bail is some form of property deposited or pledged to a court to persuade it to release a suspect from jail, on the understanding that the suspect will return for trial or forfeit the bail...
. The court set bail and allowed him to send telegrams to his previous business associates requesting assistance. No one was found willing to post the US$500 bail. Reavis spent roughly a year in jail awaiting trial. During this time his appeal of the civil ruling was denied and his wife moved to Denver. During this time, Reynolds went to California to investigate the witnesses that had testified for Reavis. While there he discovered the date on John Treadway's tombstone showed November 21, 1861, six months before Mrs. Reavis' birth.
The criminal trial began on June 27, 1896. The trial was mostly a recapitulation of evidence presented during the civil trial. Confronted with the government's evidence, José Ramon Valencia and Andrés Sandoval confessed to perjury and testified against Reavis. During his testimony, Valencia stated that he had been given a set of facts by Miguel Noe and was to testify to these facts in exchange for US$20,000 once the claim was confirmed. Noe had left for Mexico following the Court of Land Claims ruling and was not expected to return. Reavis was found guilty on June 30, 1896. On July 17, 1896, he was sentenced to two years and a fine of US$5,000.
Upon hearing the verdict, Reavis told his lawyer that he was sure the verdict would be reversed by the Supreme Court
Later life
Reavis was imprisoned from July 18, 1896 to April 18, 1898, earning a three-month sentence reduction for good behavior. By the time of the release, Sophia was living in Denver, ColoradoDenver, Colorado
The City and County of Denver is the capital and the most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. Denver is a consolidated city-county, located in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains...
with the couple's children and working as a milliner. Following his release, Reavis visited San Francisco, New York City, and Washington D.C. in an effort to find new investors to finance his development plans for Arizona Instead of the reaction he had previously received, people listened politely but no longer took him seriously. Unsuccessful in finding any investors, Reavis moved to Denver for a time to live with his wife and sons. He also wandered from place to place advocating his vision for a large scale irrigation system within Arizona. The "group of capitalists" he hoped would finance this dream never materialized.
In 1900, Reavis began the magazine Peralta Reavis Real Life Illustrated where he promised to provide the complete inside story of the Peralta fraud. The magazine folded after a single issue. The same year he wrote a memoir that was published in several installments by the San Francisco Call under the title "The Confessions of the Baron of Arizona".
In June 1902, Reavis's wife filed for divorce on grounds of nonsupport. Following the divorce little was heard from Reavis. By 1913 he was living in a poor house in Los Angeles. Reavis died in Denver, Colorado
Denver, Colorado
The City and County of Denver is the capital and the most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. Denver is a consolidated city-county, located in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains...
on November 20, 1914 and was buried in a pauper's grave. Sophia died on April 5, 1934. Her obituary in the Rocky Mountain News made no mention of the Peralta Grant.
After falling out of the public eye, Reavis became the subject of multiple magazine articles. He was even featured in an official tour book. Among the tales manufactured about the Baron of Arizona by these sources was that Reavis had used paper bearing the watermark
Watermark
A watermark is a recognizable image or pattern in paper that appears as various shades of lightness/darkness when viewed by transmitted light , caused by thickness or density variations in the paper...
of a Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
paper mill
Paper mill
A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres such as wood pulp, old rags and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier machine or other type of paper machine.- History :...
that did not exist until the 1870 or 1880s. Such tales discount the skill used by Reavis in the manufacture of his forgeries and the level of inspection they received before faults were eventually discovered.
Beyond the magazines, Reavis' exploits have also been utilized in several motion pictures. A fraudulent land claim similar to the one created by Reavis was used as a plot device in the 1939 film The Night Riders
The Night Riders (1939 film)
The Night Riders is a 1939 Three Mesquiteers film starring John Wayne, Ray "Crash" Corrigan, and Max Terhune. Wayne played the lead in eight of the fifty-one films in the popular series...
. Reavis' life later served as the basis for The Baron of Arizona
The Baron of Arizona
The Baron of Arizona is a 1950 film by Samuel Fuller and starring Vincent Price. Ed Wood was a stunt double in the film.The film concerns a master forger's attempted use of false documents to lay claim to the territory of Arizona late in the 19th century, and is based on the case of James Reavis,...
in 1950.
The mansion Reavis built in Arizola was rediscovered by the National Park Service
National Park Service
The National Park Service is the U.S. federal agency that manages all national parks, many national monuments, and other conservation and historical properties with various title designations...
in 1953 following years of use as a barn by a local farmer. An evaluation in April 1963 by the Park Service determined restoration of the building was financially infeasible.
External links
, from Internet ArchiveInternet Archive
The Internet Archive is a non-profit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It offers permanent storage and access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, music, moving images, and nearly 3 million public domain books. The Internet Archive...
(Part I) (Part II)