Jayaatu Khan
Encyclopedia
Jayaatu Khan born Tugh Temür, also known as Emperor Wenzong of Yuan (Chinese
: 元文宗, February 16, 1304 – September 2, 1332), was an Emperor
of the Yuan Dynasty
, and is regarded as the 12th Great Khan
of the Mongols
in Mongolia.
He first ruled from October 16, 1328 to April 3, 1329,second ruled from September 8, 1329 to September 2, 1332.
Thanks to his father's loyal partisans, Tugh Temur did restore the line of Khayishan to the throne; but persecuted his eldest brother Kusala's family, and later expressed remorse for what he had done to him. His name means "Blessed/lucky Khan
" in the Mongolian language
.
Tugh Temur sponsored many cultural activities, wrote poetry
, painted
, and read the classical texts. Examples of his quite competent poetry and calligraphy
have survived. He mandated and closely monitored the compilation called "The Imperial Dynasty's grand institutions for managing the world"; through this textual production, he proclaimed his reign as new beginning, which took stock of the administrative practices and rules of the past and looked forward to a fresh chapter in Mongolia
n dynastic governance. But his reign was brief, and his administration was in the hands of powerful ministers, such as El Temür of the Qipchaq and Bayan of the Merkid
who had helped him to win the succession struggle in 1328.
and other Khunggirad faction members including Temüder since they were not mothered by Khunggirad khatuns. After Ayurbarwada's son Shidibala ascended the throne in 1320, Tugh Temür was banished to Hainan
. When Shidibala was assassinated and Yesün Temür
took over as the new ruler, conditions improved for Tugh Temur. He was given the title of Prince of Huai and relocated to Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing
) and then to Jiangling. By this time he already showed a wide range of scholarly and artistic interests and had surrounded himself with many distinguished Chinese literati and artists. As the persecuted sons of Khayisan Kulug Khan, Tugh Temur and Kusala still enjoyed a measure of sympathy among the Borjigin
princes and, more importantly, the lingering loyalty of some of their father's followers who had survived various political purges.
to overthrow the late Khagan's court. He and his entourages enjoyed enormous geographical and economic advantages over the loyalists of Yesun Temur. Tugh Temür was recalled to Dadu
by El Temür since his more influential brother Kuśala stayed in far-away Central Asia
. He was installed as the new ruler in Dadu in September while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh
succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support from Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Not everyone who participated in the movement had ties as close as El Temür's to Khayisan's family. The restorationists under El Temür had the extensive human and material resources of Chungshu, Hunan
, Chiangche, Chinagshi and Hukuang provinces whereas the loyalists at Shangdu took the support of only Lingpei, Liaoyang
, Shanxi
, Sichuan
and Yunnan
, all of which were geographically peripheral.
Ragibagh's forces broke through the Great Wall at several points, and penetrated as far as the outskirts of Dadu. El Temür, however, was able to turn the tide quickly in his favor. The restorationists from Manchuria
and eastern Mongolia
launched a surprise attack on the loyalists. Their army under the command of Bukha Temur and Orlug Temur, descendants of Chingis Khan's brothers, surrounded Shangdu on 14 November, at a time most of the loyalists were involved on the Great Wall front. The loyalists in Shangdu surrendered on the very next day, and Dawlat Shah and most of the leading loyalists were taken prisoner and later executed. Ragibagh was reported to be missing. With the surrender of Shangdu, the way to restoring Khayisan's imperial line was cleared.
However, the loyalists elsewhere carried on fighting for much longer. Indeed, the loyalists in Shanxi did not lay down their arms until December 1328, and their counterparts in Sichuan surrendered only in the following month. Early in the next year there was a revolt in Yunnan, where the Prince Tugel declared himself independent. Troops were sent against him, and were ordered to march by the country of Pa fan. With the support of the province's aboriginal tribes, such as the Lolos and other tribes of Miaotze on the borders of Yunnan, Tugel successfully resisted the imperial army. The Yuan army under the command of Temur Buka was defeated, and sent for reinforcements. Upon which the Prince Yuntu Temur was ordered to withdraw 20,000 men from the provinces of Kiangnan, Hunan, and Kiangsi, and to lead them by way of Hukuang towards Yunnan.
and entered Karakorum
with the overwhelming military presence. Realizing disadvantages, Tugh Temür declared abdication and summoned his brother. Accompanied by the Chagatayid Khan Eljigidey
, Kusala in response enthroned himself on 27 February 1329 north of Karakorum
. El Temür brought the imperial seal to Kuśala in Mongolia and announced Dadu's intent to welcome him, and Tugh Temür was made heir apparent. According to an oral tradition
, Kusala's retainers treated him discourteously when he came to the camp of Kusala, thus making him both fearful and angry. But Kusala thanked El Temür and appointed him grand councillar of the right wing of the Secretariat with the title of Darqan taishi. Kuśala had proceeded to appoint his own loyal followers to important posts in the Secretariat, the Bureau of Military Affairs, and the Censorate.
On his way to Dadu, in 26 August, Kuśala met with Tugh Temür in Ongghuchad near Shangdu. Only 4 days after a banquet with Tugh Temür, he suddenly died, or was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür since he feared being lost power to princes and officers of Chaghadayid Khanate and Mongolia, who followed Kuśala. Tugh Temür was restored to the throne on 8 September 1329. His conspiracy and victory over the loyalists and the death of Kusala eliminated the power of the steppe candidates from Mongolia.
Tugh Temur's administration carried out a bloody purge against its enemies. Not only leading supporters of Yesün Temür's successor Raghibagh were executed and exiled, but their properties were confiscated. Tugh Temur denied posthumous names of Yesün Temür and Raghibagh, and destroyed the chamber in the imperial shrine which contained the tablet of Yesün Temür's father Gammala. El Temür purged pro-Kuśala officers and brought power to warlord
s.
. As the persons who had been chiefly responsible for making the restoration possible, they acquired a measure of power and honor that had never before been attained by any official in the Yuan. They built their own power bases in the bureaucracy and the military, and their role overshadowed Tugh Temur. Tugh Temur honored his father's former ministers and gave them honorific titles, and restored the honors of Sanpo and Toghto who had been persecuted by Ayurbarwada. The participants in the restoration were given most of the positions of importance in his administration. A few of the Muslims held posts in provinces, however, they did not have any position in the central government.
In the latter part of 1330 the Emperor went in person to perform the great sacrifice to the sky, which was done by deputy. This was followed by a general amnesty, and by the proclamation of his young son Aratnadara as heir apparent in January 1331. Tugh Temur's consort Budashiri, having a grudge against Babusha
, the widow of Kusala, had her assassinated by an eunuch
. Then she sent Kusala's son Toghan Temur in exile to Korea
to secure her son's succession; but Aratnadara died one month after his designation as heir. This sudden death of his son completely upset Tugh Temur's plan for succession. Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temur caused his another son, Gunadara (Kulatana), to live with El Temur and recognize him as his father, and changed his name to El Tegus.
Because a budget deficit of the government drastically increased, and reached 2.3 million ding of paper currency in 1330 alone, Tugh Temur's court attempted to curtail its spending on such items as imperial grants, Buddhist sacrifices, and palace expenses. With those measures, they could keep the budget deficit within manageable figure, and had sufficient grain reserves at its disposal.
religion in China, formed a plot to displace him; but this was discovered, and they were duly punished.
Tugh Temür had a good knowledge of the Chinese language
and history and was also a creditable poet
, calligrapher, and painter
. With his actual power greatly circumscribed by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution. Posing as a cultivated sovereign of the Yuan, Tugh Temür adopted many measures honoring Confucianism
and promoting Chinese cultural values
. In 1330, he awarded laudatory titles to several past Confucian sages and masters, and himself performed the suburban offerings to Heaven, and thus became the first Yuan emperor to perform in person this important traditional Chinese state observance. To promote Confucian morality, the court each year honored many men and women who were known for their filial piety
and chastity.
To prevent the Chinese from following Mongolian and hence un-Confucian customs, the government decreed in 1330 that men who took their widowed stepmothers or sister-in-law as wives, in violation of their own community's customs, would be punished. In the mean time, to encourage the Mongols and the Muslims to follow the Chinese customs, the officials of these two ethnic groups were allowed in 1329 to observe the Chinese custom of three years of mourning for deceased parents. He supported Zhu Xi
's Neo-Confucianism
and also devoted himself in Buddhism
. He supervised the construction of the Stupa of Master Zhaozhou in the Buddhist Bailin Temple
.
His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was his founding of the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature , first established in the spring of 1329, and was designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment". These tasks included the elucidation of the Confucian classics and Chinese history to the emperor; the education of the scions of high-ranking notables and the younger members of the kesig; the collection, collation, and compilation of books; and the appraisal and classifications of the paintings and calligraphic works in the imperial collection. Of the 113 officials successively serving in the academy, there were many distinguished Chinese literati, and the best Mongolian and Muslim scholars of Chinese learning of the time. Concentrating so many talents in one governmental organ to perform various literary, artistic, and educational activities was unprecedented not only in the Yuan Dynasty but also in Chinese history
.
The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books. But its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium
named Jingshi Dadian . The purpose of bringing together and systematizing all important Yuan official documents and laws in this work according to the pattern of Huiyao of the Tang
and Song
dynasties was apparently to demonstrate that Yuan rule was as perfect as that of earlier Chinese dynasties
. Started in May 1330, this ambitious project was completed in thirteen months. It later provided the basis for the various treatises of the Yuanshi
(History of Yuan), which was compiled at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty
.
and the Ilkhanate
. And he also sent Muqali
's descendant Naimantai to Eljigidey, who strongly supported Kusala, to give the royal seal and gifts in order to mollify his anger. However, Tugh Temur made regarding success, and saw favorable responses.
The western Mongol khanates under Abu Said
, Eljigidey
, Tarmashirin
and Ozbeg sent total 14 tributary missions to the Yuan court during his reign. The Chagatayid prince
Changshi
, who would later become khan, sent 170 Russian
captives to Tugh Temür. Tugh Temür rewarded him with precious stones. There were settlements of Russians in Dadu and eastern Mongolia. Tugh Temür formed a regiment composed of them as Ever faithful Russian (Ulosz or Urosh) life guard in 1330, and appointed Bayan head of the kheshig
s. The Emperor was also given more Russian captives by Mongol princes in Moghulistan
and Ozbeg Khan. Pope John XXII
was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the Pax Mongolica
of the Mongol Empire
that "...Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs, and all lords of this state, e.g. the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, who salute his holiness to pay their respects. These three monarchs send their sovereign cheetahs, camels, falcons as well as precious jewelries every year...They acknowledge him as their absolute supreme lord.".
was installed by El Temür only at the age of six because Toghan Temur was far away from the central government.
Standard Mandarin
Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
: 元文宗, February 16, 1304 – September 2, 1332), was an Emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
of the Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
, and is regarded as the 12th Great Khan
Khagan
Khagan or qagan , alternatively spelled kagan, khaghan, qaghan, or chagan, is a title of imperial rank in the Mongolian and Turkic languages equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate...
of the Mongols
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
in Mongolia.
He first ruled from October 16, 1328 to April 3, 1329,second ruled from September 8, 1329 to September 2, 1332.
Thanks to his father's loyal partisans, Tugh Temur did restore the line of Khayishan to the throne; but persecuted his eldest brother Kusala's family, and later expressed remorse for what he had done to him. His name means "Blessed/lucky Khan
Khan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
" in the Mongolian language
Mongolian language
The Mongolian language is the official language of Mongolia and the best-known member of the Mongolic language family. The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5.2 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the Mongolian residents of the Inner...
.
Tugh Temur sponsored many cultural activities, wrote poetry
Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
, painted
Painting
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a surface . The application of the medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush but other objects can be used. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action. However, painting is...
, and read the classical texts. Examples of his quite competent poetry and calligraphy
Calligraphy
Calligraphy is a type of visual art. It is often called the art of fancy lettering . A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious and skillful manner"...
have survived. He mandated and closely monitored the compilation called "The Imperial Dynasty's grand institutions for managing the world"; through this textual production, he proclaimed his reign as new beginning, which took stock of the administrative practices and rules of the past and looked forward to a fresh chapter in Mongolia
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
n dynastic governance. But his reign was brief, and his administration was in the hands of powerful ministers, such as El Temür of the Qipchaq and Bayan of the Merkid
Bayan of the Merkid
Bayan of the Mergid was a Mongol general of the Mergid clan and official in the Yuan Dynasty. At the turn of the 13th/14th centuries he, together with the Turk El Temür, was a member of the group around Qaishan. Qaishan was a nephew of Temür Khan and appointed to defend Mongolia against the...
who had helped him to win the succession struggle in 1328.
Early life
He was the second son of Khayishan (Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong) and a Tangut woman, and a younger brother of Kuśala. When his father Khayishan suddenly died and his younger brother Ayurbarwada inherited leadership in 1311, he and his brother were removed from the central government by his grandmother DagiDagi
Dagi was an Ancient Egyptian vizier of the Eleventh Dynasty. He was in office under Mentuhotep II in the Eleventh Dynasty, around 2000 BC. The vizier was the most important official at Egyptian royal court....
and other Khunggirad faction members including Temüder since they were not mothered by Khunggirad khatuns. After Ayurbarwada's son Shidibala ascended the throne in 1320, Tugh Temür was banished to Hainan
Hainan
Hainan is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China . Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, of its land mass is Hainan Island , from which the province takes its name...
. When Shidibala was assassinated and Yesün Temür
Yesun Temur
Yesun Temur may refer to:* Yesün Temür Khan, Emperor Taiding of Yuan* Yesun Temur...
took over as the new ruler, conditions improved for Tugh Temur. He was given the title of Prince of Huai and relocated to Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
) and then to Jiangling. By this time he already showed a wide range of scholarly and artistic interests and had surrounded himself with many distinguished Chinese literati and artists. As the persecuted sons of Khayisan Kulug Khan, Tugh Temur and Kusala still enjoyed a measure of sympathy among the Borjigin
Borjigin
Borjigin , also known as the Altan urug , were the imperial clan of Genghis Khan and his successors....
princes and, more importantly, the lingering loyalty of some of their father's followers who had survived various political purges.
Civil war
The death of Yesün Temür Khan in Shangdu in 1328 gave Khayisan's line an opportunity to surface. But it was mainly due to El Temür's political ingenuity, whose Qipchaq family reached its zenith under Khayisan. He activated a conspiracy in DaduKhanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu refers to a city which is now Beijing, the current capital of the People's Republic of China...
to overthrow the late Khagan's court. He and his entourages enjoyed enormous geographical and economic advantages over the loyalists of Yesun Temur. Tugh Temür was recalled to Dadu
Khanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu refers to a city which is now Beijing, the current capital of the People's Republic of China...
by El Temür since his more influential brother Kuśala stayed in far-away Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
. He was installed as the new ruler in Dadu in September while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh
Ragibagh Khan
Ragibagh , also known as Emperor Tianshun of Yuan , was a son of Yesün Temür who was briefly installed to the throne of the Yuan Dynasty in Shangdu in 1328...
succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support from Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Not everyone who participated in the movement had ties as close as El Temür's to Khayisan's family. The restorationists under El Temür had the extensive human and material resources of Chungshu, Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
, Chiangche, Chinagshi and Hukuang provinces whereas the loyalists at Shangdu took the support of only Lingpei, Liaoyang
Liaoyang
Liaoyang is a city in China, Liaoning province, located in the middle of the Liaodong Peninsula. The city is situated on the T'ai-tzu River and forms with Anshan a built up area of 2,057,200 inhabitants in 2010....
, Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
, Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
and Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
, all of which were geographically peripheral.
Ragibagh's forces broke through the Great Wall at several points, and penetrated as far as the outskirts of Dadu. El Temür, however, was able to turn the tide quickly in his favor. The restorationists from Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
and eastern Mongolia
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
launched a surprise attack on the loyalists. Their army under the command of Bukha Temur and Orlug Temur, descendants of Chingis Khan's brothers, surrounded Shangdu on 14 November, at a time most of the loyalists were involved on the Great Wall front. The loyalists in Shangdu surrendered on the very next day, and Dawlat Shah and most of the leading loyalists were taken prisoner and later executed. Ragibagh was reported to be missing. With the surrender of Shangdu, the way to restoring Khayisan's imperial line was cleared.
However, the loyalists elsewhere carried on fighting for much longer. Indeed, the loyalists in Shanxi did not lay down their arms until December 1328, and their counterparts in Sichuan surrendered only in the following month. Early in the next year there was a revolt in Yunnan, where the Prince Tugel declared himself independent. Troops were sent against him, and were ordered to march by the country of Pa fan. With the support of the province's aboriginal tribes, such as the Lolos and other tribes of Miaotze on the borders of Yunnan, Tugel successfully resisted the imperial army. The Yuan army under the command of Temur Buka was defeated, and sent for reinforcements. Upon which the Prince Yuntu Temur was ordered to withdraw 20,000 men from the provinces of Kiangnan, Hunan, and Kiangsi, and to lead them by way of Hukuang towards Yunnan.
Regicide and purge
At the same time, however, his elder brother Kuśala gathered support from princes and generals in Mongolia and Chagatai KhanateChagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
and entered Karakorum
Karakorum
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14-15th century. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery...
with the overwhelming military presence. Realizing disadvantages, Tugh Temür declared abdication and summoned his brother. Accompanied by the Chagatayid Khan Eljigidey
Eljigidey
Eljigidey was khan of the Chagatai Khanate, a division of the Mongol Empire in 1326-1329. He was the son of Duwa. After the death of his brother Kebek, Eljigidey took control of the Chagatai Khanate. He was involved in the succession struggles of Yuan court from 1327 to 1328. His friend Kusala was...
, Kusala in response enthroned himself on 27 February 1329 north of Karakorum
Karakorum
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14-15th century. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery...
. El Temür brought the imperial seal to Kuśala in Mongolia and announced Dadu's intent to welcome him, and Tugh Temür was made heir apparent. According to an oral tradition
Oral tradition
Oral tradition and oral lore is cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another. The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speech or song and may take the form, for example, of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants...
, Kusala's retainers treated him discourteously when he came to the camp of Kusala, thus making him both fearful and angry. But Kusala thanked El Temür and appointed him grand councillar of the right wing of the Secretariat with the title of Darqan taishi. Kuśala had proceeded to appoint his own loyal followers to important posts in the Secretariat, the Bureau of Military Affairs, and the Censorate.
On his way to Dadu, in 26 August, Kuśala met with Tugh Temür in Ongghuchad near Shangdu. Only 4 days after a banquet with Tugh Temür, he suddenly died, or was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür since he feared being lost power to princes and officers of Chaghadayid Khanate and Mongolia, who followed Kuśala. Tugh Temür was restored to the throne on 8 September 1329. His conspiracy and victory over the loyalists and the death of Kusala eliminated the power of the steppe candidates from Mongolia.
Tugh Temur's administration carried out a bloody purge against its enemies. Not only leading supporters of Yesün Temür's successor Raghibagh were executed and exiled, but their properties were confiscated. Tugh Temur denied posthumous names of Yesün Temür and Raghibagh, and destroyed the chamber in the imperial shrine which contained the tablet of Yesün Temür's father Gammala. El Temür purged pro-Kuśala officers and brought power to warlord
Warlord
A warlord is a person with power who has both military and civil control over a subnational area due to armed forces loyal to the warlord and not to a central authority. The term can also mean one who espouses the ideal that war is necessary, and has the means and authority to engage in war...
s.
Administration and court life
The four year reign of Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temur was dominated by El Temur and Bayan of the MerkidBayan of the Merkid
Bayan of the Mergid was a Mongol general of the Mergid clan and official in the Yuan Dynasty. At the turn of the 13th/14th centuries he, together with the Turk El Temür, was a member of the group around Qaishan. Qaishan was a nephew of Temür Khan and appointed to defend Mongolia against the...
. As the persons who had been chiefly responsible for making the restoration possible, they acquired a measure of power and honor that had never before been attained by any official in the Yuan. They built their own power bases in the bureaucracy and the military, and their role overshadowed Tugh Temur. Tugh Temur honored his father's former ministers and gave them honorific titles, and restored the honors of Sanpo and Toghto who had been persecuted by Ayurbarwada. The participants in the restoration were given most of the positions of importance in his administration. A few of the Muslims held posts in provinces, however, they did not have any position in the central government.
In the latter part of 1330 the Emperor went in person to perform the great sacrifice to the sky, which was done by deputy. This was followed by a general amnesty, and by the proclamation of his young son Aratnadara as heir apparent in January 1331. Tugh Temur's consort Budashiri, having a grudge against Babusha
Babusha
Empress Babusha was a Chinese Empress consort of the Yuan Dynasty, married to the Khutughtu Khan, Emperor Mingzong of Yuan.- Sources :...
, the widow of Kusala, had her assassinated by an eunuch
Eunuch
A eunuch is a person born male most commonly castrated, typically early enough in his life for this change to have major hormonal consequences...
. Then she sent Kusala's son Toghan Temur in exile to Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
to secure her son's succession; but Aratnadara died one month after his designation as heir. This sudden death of his son completely upset Tugh Temur's plan for succession. Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temur caused his another son, Gunadara (Kulatana), to live with El Temur and recognize him as his father, and changed his name to El Tegus.
Because a budget deficit of the government drastically increased, and reached 2.3 million ding of paper currency in 1330 alone, Tugh Temur's court attempted to curtail its spending on such items as imperial grants, Buddhist sacrifices, and palace expenses. With those measures, they could keep the budget deficit within manageable figure, and had sufficient grain reserves at its disposal.
Rebellion
The added costs of the war against the loyalists and the suppression of the revolts by the ethnic minorities, and natural disasters heavily taxed resources of Tugh Temur's government. The war in Yunnan continued with doubtful success, but the Imperial general Aratnashiri having collected an army of 100,000 men, defeated the Lolos and other mountaineers, and killed two of their chiefs. He seems to have quelled the rebellion and pacified Yunnan and Sichuan. Lo yu, one of the rebel chiefs in Yunnan, had escaped to the mountains; he collected a body of his people, and, dividing them into sixty small parties, overran the country of Chunyuen, where they committed frightful devastation. A force marched against them and Tugh Temur's army stormed their chief stronghold. Three sons and two brothers of Prince Tugel were made prisoners, while a third brother drowned himself rather than fall into the hands of the imperial army. Tugel's partisans gave up their cause in March 1332. This campaigns costed 630,000 ding of paper currency. Tugh Temur, who preferred luxury life, hardly deigned to show any interest in this distant campaign. The conduct of the Emperor caused much discontent, and Yelu Timur, son of Ananda who attempted to take the throne in 1307, in conjunction with the heads of the LamaLama
Lama is a title for a Tibetan teacher of the Dharma. The name is similar to the Sanskrit term guru .Historically, the term was used for venerated spiritual masters or heads of monasteries...
religion in China, formed a plot to displace him; but this was discovered, and they were duly punished.
Academy, arts and learning
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
and history and was also a creditable poet
Poet
A poet is a person who writes poetry. A poet's work can be literal, meaning that his work is derived from a specific event, or metaphorical, meaning that his work can take on many meanings and forms. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary...
, calligrapher, and painter
Painting
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a surface . The application of the medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush but other objects can be used. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action. However, painting is...
. With his actual power greatly circumscribed by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution. Posing as a cultivated sovereign of the Yuan, Tugh Temür adopted many measures honoring Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
and promoting Chinese cultural values
Culture of China
Chinese culture is one of the world's oldest and most complex. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and provinces...
. In 1330, he awarded laudatory titles to several past Confucian sages and masters, and himself performed the suburban offerings to Heaven, and thus became the first Yuan emperor to perform in person this important traditional Chinese state observance. To promote Confucian morality, the court each year honored many men and women who were known for their filial piety
Filial piety
In Confucian ideals, filial piety is one of the virtues to be held above all else: a respect for the parents and ancestors. The Confucian classic Xiao Jing or Classic of Xiào, thought to be written around 470 BCE, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiào /...
and chastity.
To prevent the Chinese from following Mongolian and hence un-Confucian customs, the government decreed in 1330 that men who took their widowed stepmothers or sister-in-law as wives, in violation of their own community's customs, would be punished. In the mean time, to encourage the Mongols and the Muslims to follow the Chinese customs, the officials of these two ethnic groups were allowed in 1329 to observe the Chinese custom of three years of mourning for deceased parents. He supported Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi
Zhū Xī or Chu Hsi was a Song Dynasty Confucian scholar who became the leading figure of the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist Neo-Confucian in China...
's Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
and also devoted himself in Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. He supervised the construction of the Stupa of Master Zhaozhou in the Buddhist Bailin Temple
Pagoda of Bailin Temple
The Pagoda of Bailin Temple , located in Zhao County, Hebei province, China is an octagonal-based brick Chinese pagoda built in 1330 during the reign of Emperor Wenzong, ruler of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty .-Features:...
.
His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was his founding of the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature , first established in the spring of 1329, and was designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment". These tasks included the elucidation of the Confucian classics and Chinese history to the emperor; the education of the scions of high-ranking notables and the younger members of the kesig; the collection, collation, and compilation of books; and the appraisal and classifications of the paintings and calligraphic works in the imperial collection. Of the 113 officials successively serving in the academy, there were many distinguished Chinese literati, and the best Mongolian and Muslim scholars of Chinese learning of the time. Concentrating so many talents in one governmental organ to perform various literary, artistic, and educational activities was unprecedented not only in the Yuan Dynasty but also in Chinese history
History of China
Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
.
The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books. But its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium
Compendium
A compendium is a concise, yet comprehensive compilation of a body of knowledge. A compendium may summarize a larger work. In most cases the body of knowledge will concern some delimited field of human interest or endeavour , while a "universal" encyclopedia can be referred to as a compendium of...
named Jingshi Dadian . The purpose of bringing together and systematizing all important Yuan official documents and laws in this work according to the pattern of Huiyao of the Tang
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
and Song
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
dynasties was apparently to demonstrate that Yuan rule was as perfect as that of earlier Chinese dynasties
Dynasties in Chinese history
The following is a chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history.Chinese history is not as neat as is often described and it was rare for one dynasty to change peacefully into the next. Dynasties were often established before the overthrow of an existing regime, or continued for a time after they...
. Started in May 1330, this ambitious project was completed in thirteen months. It later provided the basis for the various treatises of the Yuanshi
History of Yuan
The History of Yuan is one of the official Chinese historical works known as the Twenty-Four Histories of China. The historical work consists of 210 chapters chronicling the history of the Genghisid Yuan Dynasty from the time of Genghis Khan to the flight of the last Yuan Emperor Huizong from...
(History of Yuan), which was compiled at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
.
Mongol Empire
Action was also taken to win recognition from the other Mongolian khanates to be accepted as their nominal suzerain. Tugh Temür sent 3 princes with lavish gifts to the Golden HordeGolden Horde
The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that formed the north-western sector of the Mongol Empire...
and the Ilkhanate
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Azerbaijan and Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire...
. And he also sent Muqali
Muqali
Mukhulai was one of the greatest generals under Genghis Khan of Jalayir descent and the first prince of the Mongol Empire. The fact that his father died trying to save Genghis Khan during a battle coupled with his own skills in battle led Muqali to become one of the Khan's most trusted generals...
's descendant Naimantai to Eljigidey, who strongly supported Kusala, to give the royal seal and gifts in order to mollify his anger. However, Tugh Temur made regarding success, and saw favorable responses.
The western Mongol khanates under Abu Said
Abu Sa'id (Ilkhanid dynasty)
Abu Sa'id also Abusaid Bahador Khan, Abu Sayed Behauder , was the ninth ruler of the Ilkhanate state in Iran ....
, Eljigidey
Eljigidey
Eljigidey was khan of the Chagatai Khanate, a division of the Mongol Empire in 1326-1329. He was the son of Duwa. After the death of his brother Kebek, Eljigidey took control of the Chagatai Khanate. He was involved in the succession struggles of Yuan court from 1327 to 1328. His friend Kusala was...
, Tarmashirin
Tarmashirin
Tarmashirin Khan was the khan of the Chagatai Khanate following Duwa Timur.Tarmashirin is famous for his campaign in India in 1327 before he was enthroned. He destroyed every army on his way to Delhi. The Delhi Sultan gave him a large tribute to spare his life...
and Ozbeg sent total 14 tributary missions to the Yuan court during his reign. The Chagatayid prince
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
Changshi
Changshi
Changshi was one of the last effective khans of the Chagatai Khanate. His father was prince Ebugen who was the son of Duwa, the Chagatai Khan....
, who would later become khan, sent 170 Russian
Russians
The Russian people are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries....
captives to Tugh Temür. Tugh Temür rewarded him with precious stones. There were settlements of Russians in Dadu and eastern Mongolia. Tugh Temür formed a regiment composed of them as Ever faithful Russian (Ulosz or Urosh) life guard in 1330, and appointed Bayan head of the kheshig
Kheshig
Kheshig were the imperial guard for Mongol royalty in the Mongol Empire, particularly for the rulers like the Genghis Khan and his wife Borte. Their primary purpose was as a body guard for the emperors and rulers and to protect them during the day and night...
s. The Emperor was also given more Russian captives by Mongol princes in Moghulistan
Moghulistan
Moghulistan or Mughalistan is a historical geographic unit in Central Asia that included parts of modern-day Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and the Chinese Autonomous Region of Xinjiang...
and Ozbeg Khan. Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII , born Jacques Duèze , was pope from 1316 to 1334. He was the second Pope of the Avignon Papacy , elected by a conclave in Lyon assembled by Philip V of France...
was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the Pax Mongolica
Pax Mongolica
The Pax Mongolica is a Latin phrase meaning "Mongol Peace" coined by Western scholars to describe the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural, and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and...
of the Mongol Empire
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
that "...Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs, and all lords of this state, e.g. the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, who salute his holiness to pay their respects. These three monarchs send their sovereign cheetahs, camels, falcons as well as precious jewelries every year...They acknowledge him as their absolute supreme lord.".
Later life
Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the empire, the actual impact of the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature on the government as a whole was limited. El Temür eventually seized control of the academy in early 1332, just six months before the death of Tugh Temür. The academy had come to an end after Tugh Temür's death. Although El Tegüs was still alive, on his deathbed the Khagan expressed remorse for what he had done to his elder brother, Kusala, and his intention to pass the throne to Toghan Temur. After Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temur died on 2 September 1332, Kuśala's second son RinchinbalRinchinbal Khan
Rinchinbal , also known as Emperor Ningzong of Yuan , was a son of Kuśala who was briefly installed to the throne of the Yuan Dynasty, but died soon after he seized the throne of Great Khan of the Mongols and Emperor of China...
was installed by El Temür only at the age of six because Toghan Temur was far away from the central government.