John Raymond Smythies
Encyclopedia
John Smythies M.D. F.R.C.P. is a neuropsychiatrist, neuroscientist
and neurophilosopher
(I, 2,3, 4). He has made extensive contributions to knowledge in a number of fields including the neurochemistry
of schizophrenia
(5,6) and the neuropharmacology
of psychedelic drugs (7); the functional neuroanatomy
of synapse
s with particular regard to the role of synaptic plasticity
, endocytosis
and redox factors (8,9); the role in the brain of orthoquinone metabolites of catecholamines (10); the role of virtual reality
mechanisms in visual perception (11) and, in particular, theories of brain-consciousness relations (12-17). Smythies has held positions as the Charles Byron Ireland Professor Emeritus of Psychiatric Research at the University of Alabama
Medical Center at Birmingham, Visiting Scholar at the Center for Brain and Cognition, University of California San Diego, and Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Neurology, University College London
.
became a prominent ornithologist. His cousins on the Smythies side include Richard Dawkins
, Graham Greene
and Christopher Isherwood
.
In 1932 Smythies enrolled at Cheltenham College Junior School, transferred to Rugby School
in 1936, and thence to Christ’s College, Cambridge in 1940 (18) and to University College Hospital, London in 1942 where he studied medicine (19). He graduated M.B. B.Chir. (Cantab) in 1945. After two years as a Surgeon-Lieutenant in the R.N.V.R. as ship’s doctor on H.M.S. Porlock Bay based in Bermuda, he completed his basic medical postgraduate training at Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge before selecting neuropsychiatry for a speciality. Two weeks into his first psychiatric residency at St. George’s Hospital, London (20), noting the close chemical relation between the psychotomimetic drug mescaline and the neurotransmitter catecholamines, he suggested that schizophrenia might be caused by some abnormality in catecholamine metabolism that produced a mescaline-like substance in the brain. He developed this idea, in collaboration with the organic chemist John Harley-Mason and Humphrey Osmond, his psychiatric colleague at St. George’s, into the first specific biochemical theory of schizophrenia—the transmethylation hypothesis (5).
In the same year, inspired by the fact that mescaline produces such remarkable effects on all human mental faculties and by the interdisciplinary work of Albert Schweitzer
, Smythies decided to tackle the mind-brain problem in a systematic way i.e. by undertaking a rigorous training in neuroscience, experimental psychology and philosophy. So first he worked for one year as a resident in the EEG Department at the National Hospital, Queen Square, London (21). He then took an M.Sc. degree in neuroanatomy, philosophy and cultural anthropology with the neuroanatomist William C. Gibson at the University of British Columbia (22). The neuroanatomical research involved was as study of the synaptic structure in human cortex as revealed by silver staining and was awarded a post-graduate M.D degree by Cambridge (23). His teacher in philosophy was the distinguished American philosopher Avrum Stroll
, who became a life-long mentor and friend. This was followed during the tenure of a Nuffield Fellowship by six months with the Nobel Laureate Sir John Eccles in neurophysiology and 18 months at the Psychological Laboratory in Cambridge with Oliver Zangwill
studying the stroboscopic patterns (the complex geometrical hallucinations induced by looking at a flickering light). This work has been extensively reviewed by John Geiger
(24). Then Smythies worked a further two years in neuropharmacology with Harold E. Himwich in Galesburg, Illinois and with Hudson Hoagland at the Worcester Foundation, before returning to London where he completed his formal clinical psychiatric training with Sir Aubrey Lewis
at the Maudsley Hospital (25). He then joined the Faculty of the University of Edinburgh for twelve years, first as Senior Lecturer then Reader (26), before being invited to a personal Chair at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, funded by the Ireland family, where he stayed for eighteen years (27).
In 1956 Smythies published his first book “Analysis of Perception” (28) on the mind-brain problem in which he presented a new theory — extended materialism — based on an analysis of fundamental flaws in the current orthodox theory (mind-brain identity) and previous work by Joseph Priestly, C.D. Broad, H.H. Price and Bertrand Russell
. A second book “The Walls of Plato’s Cave” followed in 1994 (17) on the same topic. This book was reviewed by Robert Almader (29) who said: “This is certainly one of the four or five most arresting and compelling books written on the nature of consciousness, the mind-brain problem, and human personality.” The theory extends our concepts of consciousness and analyses possible geometrical and topological relations between phenomenal space and physical space linked to brane theory in physics. Recently the distinguished British physicist Bernard Carr (30), following a different line of research, has presented a very similar theory as the basis for a necessary new paradigm shift in cosmology. In 1998 wrote "Every person's guide to Antioxidants" (36). Smythies gives an account of his work on synaptic plasticity in his book “The Dynamic Neuron” (2002) (8).
Smythies has served as President of the International Society of Psychoneuroendocrinology from 1970-1974 (31), Consultant to the World Health Organization
from 1963-1968 (32), and Editor of the International Review of Neurobiology from 1958-1991. He was elected a member of the Athenaeum in 1968 (33). He has published over 200 scientific papers and sixteen books.
At the start of his book on the effects of mescaline
, The Doors of Perception
, the author Aldous Huxley
credits Smythies with having inspired him to take the substance.
Neuroscientist
A neuroscientist is an individual who studies the scientific field of neuroscience or any of its related sub-fields...
and neurophilosopher
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
(I, 2,3, 4). He has made extensive contributions to knowledge in a number of fields including the neurochemistry
Neurochemistry
Neurochemistry is the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. This principle closely examines the manner in which these neurochemicals influence the network of neural operation...
of schizophrenia
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests itself as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social...
(5,6) and the neuropharmacology
Neuropharmacology
Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system. There are two main branches of neuropharmacology: behavioral and molecular. Behavioral neuropharmacology focuses on the study of how drugs affect human behavior , including the study of how drug dependence...
of psychedelic drugs (7); the functional neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy and organization of the nervous system. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems, and thus we can begin to speak of...
of synapse
Synapse
In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell...
s with particular regard to the role of synaptic plasticity
Synaptic plasticity
In neuroscience, synaptic plasticity is the ability of the connection, or synapse, between two neurons to change in strength in response to either use or disuse of transmission over synaptic pathways. Plastic change also results from the alteration of the number of receptors located on a synapse...
, endocytosis
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process by which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. It is used by all cells of the body because most substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma or cell membrane...
and redox factors (8,9); the role in the brain of orthoquinone metabolites of catecholamines (10); the role of virtual reality
Virtual reality
Virtual reality , also known as virtuality, is a term that applies to computer-simulated environments that can simulate physical presence in places in the real world, as well as in imaginary worlds...
mechanisms in visual perception (11) and, in particular, theories of brain-consciousness relations (12-17). Smythies has held positions as the Charles Byron Ireland Professor Emeritus of Psychiatric Research at the University of Alabama
University of Alabama
The University of Alabama is a public coeducational university located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States....
Medical Center at Birmingham, Visiting Scholar at the Center for Brain and Cognition, University of California San Diego, and Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Neurology, University College London
University College London
University College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom and the oldest and largest constituent college of the federal University of London...
.
Biography
Smythies was born on November 30, 1922 in Naini Tal, United Provinces, India, where his father Evelyn Arthur Smythies (a noted philatelist) was employed by the Department of Forests. His brother Bertram Evelyn (“Bill”) SmythiesBertram E. Smythies
Bertram Evelyn Smythies was a British forester and ornithologist.Smythies was born in India, to E. A. Smythies, silviculturist of Uttar Pradesh and, in the 1940s, Chief Conservator of Forest of Nepal, and his wife, Olive, well-known author of The Tiger Lady...
became a prominent ornithologist. His cousins on the Smythies side include Richard Dawkins
Richard Dawkins
Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL , known as Richard Dawkins, is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author...
, Graham Greene
Graham Greene
Henry Graham Greene, OM, CH was an English author, playwright and literary critic. His works explore the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world...
and Christopher Isherwood
Christopher Isherwood
Christopher William Bradshaw Isherwood was an English-American novelist.-Early life and work:Born at Wyberslegh Hall, High Lane, Cheshire in North West England, Isherwood spent his childhood in various towns where his father, a Lieutenant-Colonel in the British Army, was stationed...
.
In 1932 Smythies enrolled at Cheltenham College Junior School, transferred to Rugby School
Rugby School
Rugby School is a co-educational day and boarding school located in the town of Rugby, Warwickshire, England. It is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain.-History:...
in 1936, and thence to Christ’s College, Cambridge in 1940 (18) and to University College Hospital, London in 1942 where he studied medicine (19). He graduated M.B. B.Chir. (Cantab) in 1945. After two years as a Surgeon-Lieutenant in the R.N.V.R. as ship’s doctor on H.M.S. Porlock Bay based in Bermuda, he completed his basic medical postgraduate training at Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge before selecting neuropsychiatry for a speciality. Two weeks into his first psychiatric residency at St. George’s Hospital, London (20), noting the close chemical relation between the psychotomimetic drug mescaline and the neurotransmitter catecholamines, he suggested that schizophrenia might be caused by some abnormality in catecholamine metabolism that produced a mescaline-like substance in the brain. He developed this idea, in collaboration with the organic chemist John Harley-Mason and Humphrey Osmond, his psychiatric colleague at St. George’s, into the first specific biochemical theory of schizophrenia—the transmethylation hypothesis (5).
In the same year, inspired by the fact that mescaline produces such remarkable effects on all human mental faculties and by the interdisciplinary work of Albert Schweitzer
Albert Schweitzer
Albert Schweitzer OM was a German theologian, organist, philosopher, physician, and medical missionary. He was born in Kaysersberg in the province of Alsace-Lorraine, at that time part of the German Empire...
, Smythies decided to tackle the mind-brain problem in a systematic way i.e. by undertaking a rigorous training in neuroscience, experimental psychology and philosophy. So first he worked for one year as a resident in the EEG Department at the National Hospital, Queen Square, London (21). He then took an M.Sc. degree in neuroanatomy, philosophy and cultural anthropology with the neuroanatomist William C. Gibson at the University of British Columbia (22). The neuroanatomical research involved was as study of the synaptic structure in human cortex as revealed by silver staining and was awarded a post-graduate M.D degree by Cambridge (23). His teacher in philosophy was the distinguished American philosopher Avrum Stroll
Avrum Stroll
Avrum Stroll is a research professor at the University of California, San Diego. He is a distinguished philosopher and a noted scholar in the fields of epistemology, philosophy of language, and twentieth-century analytic philosophy.-Books:...
, who became a life-long mentor and friend. This was followed during the tenure of a Nuffield Fellowship by six months with the Nobel Laureate Sir John Eccles in neurophysiology and 18 months at the Psychological Laboratory in Cambridge with Oliver Zangwill
Oliver Zangwill
Oliver Louis Zangwill FRS was an influential British neuropsychologist. He was Professor of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, 1952-81, then Professor Emeritus. He was the son of Israel Zangwill and the grandson of William Edward Ayrton...
studying the stroboscopic patterns (the complex geometrical hallucinations induced by looking at a flickering light). This work has been extensively reviewed by John Geiger
John Geiger
John E. Geiger was an American rower who competed in the 1900 Summer Olympics.He was part of the American boat Vesper Boat Club, which won the gold medal in the eights.-External links:*...
(24). Then Smythies worked a further two years in neuropharmacology with Harold E. Himwich in Galesburg, Illinois and with Hudson Hoagland at the Worcester Foundation, before returning to London where he completed his formal clinical psychiatric training with Sir Aubrey Lewis
Aubrey Lewis
Sir Aubrey Julian Lewis, FRCP, FRCPsych , was the first Professor of Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, London, and is credited with being a driving force behind the flowering of British psychiatry after World War II as well as raising the profile of the profession worldwide.-Early...
at the Maudsley Hospital (25). He then joined the Faculty of the University of Edinburgh for twelve years, first as Senior Lecturer then Reader (26), before being invited to a personal Chair at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, funded by the Ireland family, where he stayed for eighteen years (27).
In 1956 Smythies published his first book “Analysis of Perception” (28) on the mind-brain problem in which he presented a new theory — extended materialism — based on an analysis of fundamental flaws in the current orthodox theory (mind-brain identity) and previous work by Joseph Priestly, C.D. Broad, H.H. Price and Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things...
. A second book “The Walls of Plato’s Cave” followed in 1994 (17) on the same topic. This book was reviewed by Robert Almader (29) who said: “This is certainly one of the four or five most arresting and compelling books written on the nature of consciousness, the mind-brain problem, and human personality.” The theory extends our concepts of consciousness and analyses possible geometrical and topological relations between phenomenal space and physical space linked to brane theory in physics. Recently the distinguished British physicist Bernard Carr (30), following a different line of research, has presented a very similar theory as the basis for a necessary new paradigm shift in cosmology. In 1998 wrote "Every person's guide to Antioxidants" (36). Smythies gives an account of his work on synaptic plasticity in his book “The Dynamic Neuron” (2002) (8).
Smythies has served as President of the International Society of Psychoneuroendocrinology from 1970-1974 (31), Consultant to the World Health Organization
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...
from 1963-1968 (32), and Editor of the International Review of Neurobiology from 1958-1991. He was elected a member of the Athenaeum in 1968 (33). He has published over 200 scientific papers and sixteen books.
At the start of his book on the effects of mescaline
Mescaline
Mescaline or 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally occurring psychedelic alkaloid of the phenethylamine class used mainly as an entheogen....
, The Doors of Perception
The Doors of Perception
The Doors of Perception is a 1954 book by Aldous Huxley detailing his experiences when taking mescaline. The book takes the form of Huxley’s recollection of a mescaline trip which took place over the course of an afternoon, and takes its title from William Blake's poem The Marriage of Heaven and Hell...
, the author Aldous Huxley
Aldous Huxley
Aldous Leonard Huxley was an English writer and one of the most prominent members of the famous Huxley family. Best known for his novels including Brave New World and a wide-ranging output of essays, Huxley also edited the magazine Oxford Poetry, and published short stories, poetry, travel...
credits Smythies with having inspired him to take the substance.