John Robert Seeley
Encyclopedia
Sir John Robert Seeley, KCMG (10 September 1834 - 13 January 1895) was an English
essayist and historian
.
, the son of R.B. Seeley, a publisher. Seeley developed a taste for religious and historical subjects. He was educated at the City of London School
and at Christ's College, Cambridge
, where he was head of the classical tripos and senior chancellor's medallist, was elected fellow and became classical tutor of his college. For a time he was a master at his old school, and in 1863 was appointed professor of Latin
at University College, London. He was made Regius Professor of Modern History, Cambridge in 1869.
In August 1869, he married Mary Agnes Phillot.
. Dealing only with Christ
's humanity, it dwells on his work as the founder and king of a theocratic state, and points out the effect which this society, his church, has had upon the standard and active practice of morality
among men. Seeley intended the book as "a fragment" and the text did not deny the truth of those doctrines it did not address, but many critics still found fault with its treatment of Christ. Many considered the book to be valuable not only in its content but also in its style, which is characterized by relatively terse and fluid writing.
His later essay on Natural Religion, which denies that supernaturalism is essential to religion and maintains that the negations of science tend to purify rather than destroy Christianity satisfied no one and excited far less interest than his earlier work. In 1869 he was appointed professor of modern history at the University of Cambridge
. He was a popular instructor; he prepared his lectures carefully and they were largely attended. In historical work he is distinguished as a thinker rather than a scholar. He valued history solely in its relation to politics, as the science of the state. He maintained that it should be studied scientifically and for a practical purpose, that its function was the solution of existing political questions. Hence he naturally devoted himself mainly to recent history, and specially to the relations between England and other states. His Life and Times of Stein, a valuable narrative of the anti-Napoleon
ic revolt, led by Prussia
mainly at Stein's instigation, was written under German influence, and shows little of the style of his short essays. Its length, its colourlessness, and the space it devotes to subsidiary matters render it unattractive.
Far otherwise is it with his Expansion of England (1883). Written in his best manner, this essay answers to his theory that history should be used for a practical purpose; it points out how and why Britain
gained her colonies and India
, the character of her empire
, and the light in which it should be regarded. As an historical essay the book is a fine composition, and its defence of the empire was, at the time, very persuasive. Seeley's defence of the Empire consists largely of the claim that British rule is in India's best interest. Seeley also questioned the usefulness of India to the power and security of Britain whilst claiming that there was 'no doubt' that India vastly increased the responsibilities and dangers to Britain. The book contains the much-quoted statement that "the British Empire was acquired in a fit of absence of mind". Expansion of England appeared at an opportune time, and did much to make Englishmen regard the colonies not as mere appendages, but as an expansion of the British state as well as of British nationality, and to remind them of the value of Britain's empire in the East. It was reprinted ten times between the year it was published and many more times in later years. Seeley was rewarded for this public service by being made a Knight of the Order of St Michael and St George
, on the recommendation of Lord Rosebery.
His last book, The Growth of British Policy, written as an essay and intended to be an introduction to a full account of the expansion of Britain, was published posthumously. He married in 1869 Miss Mary Agnes Phillott, who survived him.
In 1897, the history library of the University of Cambridge was named the Seeley Historical Library
in honour of Sir John.
Inagaki Manjiro
dedicated his Japan and the Pacific and the Japanese View of the Eastern Question (1890) to Seeley who had taught him at Caius College.
Correspondence to and from Sir John, including that relating to the publication of and reactions to Ecce Homo, is held by the archives in Senate House Library.
won...[and] covers the two great careers of Robert Clive and Hastings...[T]he end of the struggle is marked by the reign of Lord Cornwallis, which began in 1785."
The trial of Warren Hastings
had been the final act in the efforts spanning the eighteenth century to harness imperial power - along with imperial wealth and prestige - securely to Britain, both as a "nation
" and as a "state
". Once Burke
had succeeded in this endeavor, the stain of commercial origins could be removed, the special mix of economic and political interests realigned as the expression of national interest
, the blot of scandal washed out as the moral mandate for a new kind of imperial project was launched.
al amnesia
about the significance of empire for the history of England itself. He began his lectures with a critique
of the blinkers of English historiography
: "They [our historians] make too much of the parliamentary wrangle and the agitations
about liberty
, in all which matters the eighteenth century of England was but a pale reflection of the seventeenth. They do not perceive that in that century the history of England
is not in England but in Americas
and Asia
"
turned into political conquest
by accident rather than contrivance or calculation
.
Most imperial historians have argued that the East India Company was drawn reluctantly into political and military conflict in India, only taking an interest in territorial power and revenue as a last ditch effort to protect its trading activities.
Among the narratives of empire historians, Seeley too concurred and wrote that India "lay there waiting to be picked up by somebody." What happened in India in the late eighteenth century was therefore an "internal revolution" rather than a "foreign Conquest", according to Seeley.
Seeley's extraordinary capacity to appreciate the constitutive significance of empire for modern Britain thus must regrettably be seen as the flip side of his failure to accept the integrity of India's own history.
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
essayist and historian
Historian
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is...
.
Life
He was born in LondonLondon
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
, the son of R.B. Seeley, a publisher. Seeley developed a taste for religious and historical subjects. He was educated at the City of London School
City of London School
The City of London School is a boys' independent day school on the banks of the River Thames in the City of London, England. It is the brother school of the City of London School for Girls and the co-educational City of London Freemen's School...
and at Christ's College, Cambridge
Christ's College, Cambridge
Christ's College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge.With a reputation for high academic standards, Christ's College averaged top place in the Tompkins Table from 1980-2000 . In 2011, Christ's was placed sixth.-College history:...
, where he was head of the classical tripos and senior chancellor's medallist, was elected fellow and became classical tutor of his college. For a time he was a master at his old school, and in 1863 was appointed professor of Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
at University College, London. He was made Regius Professor of Modern History, Cambridge in 1869.
In August 1869, he married Mary Agnes Phillot.
Works
His essay Ecce Homo, published anonymously in 1866, and afterwards acknowledged by him, was widely read, and prompted many replies, being deemed an attack on ChristianityChristianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. Dealing only with Christ
Christ
Christ is the English term for the Greek meaning "the anointed one". It is a translation of the Hebrew , usually transliterated into English as Messiah or Mashiach...
's humanity, it dwells on his work as the founder and king of a theocratic state, and points out the effect which this society, his church, has had upon the standard and active practice of morality
Morality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
among men. Seeley intended the book as "a fragment" and the text did not deny the truth of those doctrines it did not address, but many critics still found fault with its treatment of Christ. Many considered the book to be valuable not only in its content but also in its style, which is characterized by relatively terse and fluid writing.
His later essay on Natural Religion, which denies that supernaturalism is essential to religion and maintains that the negations of science tend to purify rather than destroy Christianity satisfied no one and excited far less interest than his earlier work. In 1869 he was appointed professor of modern history at the University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
. He was a popular instructor; he prepared his lectures carefully and they were largely attended. In historical work he is distinguished as a thinker rather than a scholar. He valued history solely in its relation to politics, as the science of the state. He maintained that it should be studied scientifically and for a practical purpose, that its function was the solution of existing political questions. Hence he naturally devoted himself mainly to recent history, and specially to the relations between England and other states. His Life and Times of Stein, a valuable narrative of the anti-Napoleon
Napoleon I of France
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution.As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815...
ic revolt, led by Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
mainly at Stein's instigation, was written under German influence, and shows little of the style of his short essays. Its length, its colourlessness, and the space it devotes to subsidiary matters render it unattractive.
Far otherwise is it with his Expansion of England (1883). Written in his best manner, this essay answers to his theory that history should be used for a practical purpose; it points out how and why Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
gained her colonies and India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, the character of her empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
, and the light in which it should be regarded. As an historical essay the book is a fine composition, and its defence of the empire was, at the time, very persuasive. Seeley's defence of the Empire consists largely of the claim that British rule is in India's best interest. Seeley also questioned the usefulness of India to the power and security of Britain whilst claiming that there was 'no doubt' that India vastly increased the responsibilities and dangers to Britain. The book contains the much-quoted statement that "the British Empire was acquired in a fit of absence of mind". Expansion of England appeared at an opportune time, and did much to make Englishmen regard the colonies not as mere appendages, but as an expansion of the British state as well as of British nationality, and to remind them of the value of Britain's empire in the East. It was reprinted ten times between the year it was published and many more times in later years. Seeley was rewarded for this public service by being made a Knight of the Order of St Michael and St George
Order of St Michael and St George
The Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George is an order of chivalry founded on 28 April 1818 by George, Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, while he was acting as Prince Regent for his father, George III....
, on the recommendation of Lord Rosebery.
His last book, The Growth of British Policy, written as an essay and intended to be an introduction to a full account of the expansion of Britain, was published posthumously. He married in 1869 Miss Mary Agnes Phillott, who survived him.
In 1897, the history library of the University of Cambridge was named the Seeley Historical Library
Seeley Historical Library
The Seeley Historical Library is the history library of the University of Cambridge, England. It is housed within the History Faculty building on the Sidgwick Site off West Road, Cambridge. Since October 2003, incoming books have been classified according to the Library of Congress scheme; before...
in honour of Sir John.
Inagaki Manjiro
Inagaki Manjiro
was a Japanese diplomat and political theorist that was active during the Meiji period of Japan.- Early life :Inagaki was born in Nagasaki, as the son of a samurai of the Hirado Domain...
dedicated his Japan and the Pacific and the Japanese View of the Eastern Question (1890) to Seeley who had taught him at Caius College.
Correspondence to and from Sir John, including that relating to the publication of and reactions to Ecce Homo, is held by the archives in Senate House Library.
Significance of Empire
He wrote that the first chapter of the history of British India "embraces chronologically the first half of George III's reign, that stormy period of transition in English history when at the same time America was lost and IndiaIndia
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
won...[and] covers the two great careers of Robert Clive and Hastings...[T]he end of the struggle is marked by the reign of Lord Cornwallis, which began in 1785."
The trial of Warren Hastings
Warren Hastings
Warren Hastings PC was the first Governor-General of India, from 1773 to 1785. He was famously accused of corruption in an impeachment in 1787, but was acquitted in 1795. He was made a Privy Councillor in 1814.-Early life:...
had been the final act in the efforts spanning the eighteenth century to harness imperial power - along with imperial wealth and prestige - securely to Britain, both as a "nation
Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
" and as a "state
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
". Once Burke
Edmund Burke
Edmund Burke PC was an Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist and philosopher who, after moving to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party....
had succeeded in this endeavor, the stain of commercial origins could be removed, the special mix of economic and political interests realigned as the expression of national interest
National interest
The national interest, often referred to by the French expression raison d'État , is a country's goals and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. The concept is an important one in international relations where pursuit of the national interest is the foundation of the realist...
, the blot of scandal washed out as the moral mandate for a new kind of imperial project was launched.
Blinkers of English historiography
Seeley was far more astute than many later imperial historians, for he complained that this very transformation had made possible a nationNation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
al amnesia
Amnesia
Amnesia is a condition in which one's memory is lost. The causes of amnesia have traditionally been divided into categories. Memory appears to be stored in several parts of the limbic system of the brain, and any condition that interferes with the function of this system can cause amnesia...
about the significance of empire for the history of England itself. He began his lectures with a critique
Critique
Critique is a method of disciplined, systematic analysis of a written or oral discourse. Critique is commonly understood as fault finding and negative judgement, but it can also involve merit recognition, and in the philosophical tradition it also means a methodical practice of doubt...
of the blinkers of English historiography
Historiography
Historiography refers either to the study of the history and methodology of history as a discipline, or to a body of historical work on a specialized topic...
: "They [our historians] make too much of the parliamentary wrangle and the agitations
Agitator
An agitator is a person who actively supports some ideology or movement with speeches and especially actions. The Agitators were a political movement as well as elected representatives of soldiers, including the New Model Army of Oliver Cromwell, during the English Civil War. They were also known...
about liberty
Liberty
Liberty is a moral and political principle, or Right, that identifies the condition in which human beings are able to govern themselves, to behave according to their own free will, and take responsibility for their actions...
, in all which matters the eighteenth century of England was but a pale reflection of the seventeenth. They do not perceive that in that century the history of England
History of England
The history of England concerns the study of the human past in one of Europe's oldest and most influential national territories. What is now England, a country within the United Kingdom, was inhabited by Neanderthals 230,000 years ago. Continuous human habitation dates to around 12,000 years ago,...
is not in England but in Americas
Americas
The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
and Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
"
Empire Justifications and Alibis
Seeley's account of imperial conquests repeats the justifications and alibis made first by the conquerors themselves: that the sole objective of tradeTrade
Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
turned into political conquest
Conquest (military)
Conquest is the act of military subjugation of an enemy by force of arms. One example is the Norman conquest of England, which provided the subjugation of the Kingdom of England and the acquisition of the English crown by William the Conqueror in 1066...
by accident rather than contrivance or calculation
Calculation
A calculation is a deliberate process for transforming one or more inputs into one or more results, with variable change.The term is used in a variety of senses, from the very definite arithmetical calculation of using an algorithm to the vague heuristics of calculating a strategy in a competition...
.
Most imperial historians have argued that the East India Company was drawn reluctantly into political and military conflict in India, only taking an interest in territorial power and revenue as a last ditch effort to protect its trading activities.
Among the narratives of empire historians, Seeley too concurred and wrote that India "lay there waiting to be picked up by somebody." What happened in India in the late eighteenth century was therefore an "internal revolution" rather than a "foreign Conquest", according to Seeley.
Seeley's extraordinary capacity to appreciate the constitutive significance of empire for modern Britain thus must regrettably be seen as the flip side of his failure to accept the integrity of India's own history.