Khvarenah
Encyclopedia
or is an Avestan language
word for a Zoroastrian
concept literally denoting "glory" or "splendour" but understood as a divine mystical force or power projected upon and aiding the appointed. The neuter noun thus also connotes "(divine) royal glory," reflecting the perceived divine empowerment of kings. The term also carries a secondary meaning of "(good) fortune"; those who possess it are able to complete their mission or function.
In 3rd-7th century Sassanid-era inscriptions as well as in the 9th-12th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the word appears as Zoroastrian Middle Persian
khwarrah, rendered with the Pahlavi ideogram GDE, reflecting Aramaic gada "fortune." Middle Persian khwarrah continues as New Persian k(h)orra. These variants, which are assumed to be learned borrowings from the Avestan, are the only Iranian language
forms with an initial 'xv-'. In all other dialects, the word has an initial f- (see details under related terms, below).
Avestan xvar- "to eat".
Of the numerous Iranian languages
in which the word is attested, the initial xv- is only evident as Avestan khvar(e)nah and as Zoroastrian Middle Persian
khwarrah, from which New Persian khorra then derives. In other Iranian dialects the word has an f- form, for instance as Median
and Old Persian farnah-, from which Middle- and New Persian farr(ah) and adjectival farrokh derive. For many decades, the f- form was believed to represent a specific Median sound-law change of proto-Iranian xv- to f-. This hypothesis has since been shown to be untenable, and the proto-Iranian form is today reconstructed as *hu̯, preserved in Avestan as xv- and dissimilated as f- in other Iranian dialects.
In the Iranian languages of the middle period, the word is also attested as Bactrian
far(r)o, Khotanese pharra, Parthian
farh, Sogdian
f(a)rn, and Ossetic farnae and farn, though in these languages the word does not necessarily signify "glory" or "fortune":
In Buddhism
, Sogdian farn and Khotanese pharra signified a "position of a Buddha," that is, with "dignity" or "high position." This meaning subsequently passed into Tocharian
. In Manicheanism, Sogdian frn signified "luck" and was a designator of the "first luminary". Manichean Parthian farh again signifies "glory." In Scytho-Sarmatian
and Alan
culture, Digoron Ossetic farnae and Iron Ossetic farn signified "peace, happiness, abundance, fortune."
The term also appears as a borrowing in Armenian
pʿarkʿ, but with a greater range of meaning than in Iranian languages.
s, the oldest hymns of Zoroastrianism and considered to have been composed by the prophet himself. The one instance of Gathic khvarenah occurs in Yasna
51.18, where the word appears to mean royal glory. The primary source of information on khvarenah comes from the Yasht
s, the younger Avesta's
collection of 21 hymns dedicated to individual divinities.
Two distinct forms of khvarenah are discernible in Yasht
19:
Similarly Yasht 18, although nominally dedicated to Arshtat
, is a short 9-verse ode to a third variant of khvarenah; the Iranian khvarenah (airiianəm xvarənah) that is created by Ahura Mazda
and that is "full of milk and pastures," vanquishes the daeva
s and the Un-Iranians
.
Yasht 19, which is nominally dedicated to Zam
"Earth", further typifies khvarenah as a yazata
, that is, itself "worthy of worship." The same hymn includes a list of divinities and mortals who perform their duties due to the power of khvarenah. Among these are the
mythological Kayanian kings – the kavis (kauuis) – who are rulers through the grace of, and empowered by, khvarenah.
Khvarenah is however also glory held by divinities: Ahura Mazda
has it (19.9-13), the Amesha Spenta
s have it (19.14-20), the other yazata
s as well (19.21-24). Yima loses it thrice, in turn to Mithra
, Thraetaona and Keresaspa. Khvarenah assumes the shape of a bird when leaving Yima. (19.35-36, 19.82)
According to Yasht 13.14, the waters flow, the plants spring forth, and the winds blow through the khvarenah of the Fravashi
s. In Yasna 68.11, the waters of Aredvi Sura are invoked to bestow radiance and glory. Khvarenah is also associated with the waters in other texts; with the world-sea Vourukasha in Yasht 19.51 and 19.56-57; with the Helmand river in Yasht 19.66ff. It is also identified with Haoma
, together with which it plays a seminal role in the legend of the birth of Zoroaster. In these passages, khvarenah has a seminal and germinal implication, being both fiery fluid and living seed.
In Yasna 60.2, the family priest is seen to request joy and blessings for the righteous, good nature, truth, prosperity, power, and glory for the house in which he offers prayers. The hymn to Mithra speaks of the divinity as the "dispenser of khvarenah" (Yasht 10.16, 10.128, 10.141). Other texts describe Mithra as "most endowed with glory" (Yasht 19.35, Vendidad
19.15).
In Yasht 19.46, Akem Manah
, the demon of "evil purpose" attempts (but fails) to seize khvarenah. The Iranian khvarenah and Dahman, the hypostasis of prayer, render Bushyasta
- the demoness of "sloth" – powerless (Yasht l0.97, 13.4).
At the final renovation of the world, the royal glory will follow the Saoshyants
(Yasht 19.89).
khwarrah) is a spiritual force that exists before the creation of the tan-gohr, the mortal body (Bundahishn
II.7ff, Zadspram 3.75). In these later texts, the glory appears to be acquirable through learning and knowledge (Bundahishn II.9ff).
Khwarrah continues to be identified with astral bodies (Dadistan-i Denig I.25, I.35-36), but its primary function is in its role as the divine glory of kings, the continuation of the Avestan notion of the kavam khvarenah. New in tradition is an identification of khwarrah with religion, as in "the great khwarrah-bestowing force of the pure religion" (Dadistan-i Denig I.36)
In the Kar-namag i Ardaxshir 4.11.16 and 4.11.22-23, khwarrah is said to assume the shape of a ram.
That khwarrah – in addition to its significance as "royal fortune" – also signified "fortune" in a general sense is demonstrated by the use of an Aramaic ideogram in the Middle Persian texts of the Sassanid and post-Sassanid periods. This custom was probably a remnant of the Achaemenid age, as suggested by iconography and inscription of a 3rd century BCE plaque representing – or so it has been interpreted - khvarenah as Syriac gd(y).
Because the concepts of khvarenah/khwarrah and gd(y) circulated in the same areas and have many characteristics in common, it is possible but not certain whether the Mesopotamian concept influenced the Zoroastrian one. In contrast, khvarenah appears to have a parallel in Indic tejas
The concept of the royal khwarrah survived the 7th century downfall of the Sassanid empire
, and remained a central motif (for instance as the farr-e elahi) in the culture and epics of Islamic Iran.
Avestan language
Avestan is an East Iranian language known only from its use as the language of Zoroastrian scripture, i.e. the Avesta, from which it derives its name...
word for a Zoroastrian
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of prophet Zoroaster and was formerly among the world's largest religions. It was probably founded some time before the 6th century BCE in Greater Iran.In Zoroastrianism, the Creator Ahura Mazda is all good, and no evil...
concept literally denoting "glory" or "splendour" but understood as a divine mystical force or power projected upon and aiding the appointed. The neuter noun thus also connotes "(divine) royal glory," reflecting the perceived divine empowerment of kings. The term also carries a secondary meaning of "(good) fortune"; those who possess it are able to complete their mission or function.
In 3rd-7th century Sassanid-era inscriptions as well as in the 9th-12th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the word appears as Zoroastrian Middle Persian
Middle Persian
Middle Persian , indigenously known as "Pârsig" sometimes referred to as Pahlavi or Pehlevi, is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times became a prestige dialect and so came to be spoken in other regions as well. Middle Persian is classified as a...
khwarrah, rendered with the Pahlavi ideogram GDE, reflecting Aramaic gada "fortune." Middle Persian khwarrah continues as New Persian k(h)orra. These variants, which are assumed to be learned borrowings from the Avestan, are the only Iranian language
Iranian languages
The Iranian languages form a subfamily of the Indo-Iranian languages which in turn is a subgroup of Indo-European language family. They have been and are spoken by Iranian peoples....
forms with an initial 'xv-'. In all other dialects, the word has an initial f- (see details under related terms, below).
Etymology and related terms
Avestan khvarenah is probably derived from Proto-Avestan *hvar "to shine," nominalized with the -nah suffix. Proto-Avestan *hvar is in turn related to Old Indic svar with the same meaning. Other proposals suggest a linguistic relationship withAvestan xvar- "to eat".
Of the numerous Iranian languages
Iranian languages
The Iranian languages form a subfamily of the Indo-Iranian languages which in turn is a subgroup of Indo-European language family. They have been and are spoken by Iranian peoples....
in which the word is attested, the initial xv- is only evident as Avestan khvar(e)nah and as Zoroastrian Middle Persian
Middle Persian
Middle Persian , indigenously known as "Pârsig" sometimes referred to as Pahlavi or Pehlevi, is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times became a prestige dialect and so came to be spoken in other regions as well. Middle Persian is classified as a...
khwarrah, from which New Persian khorra then derives. In other Iranian dialects the word has an f- form, for instance as Median
Median language
The Median language was the language of the Medes. It is an Old Iranian language and classified as belonging to the northwestern Iranian subfamily which includes many other languages such as Azari, Zazaki, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Kurdish and Baluchi.-Attestation:Median is only attested by numerous...
and Old Persian farnah-, from which Middle- and New Persian farr(ah) and adjectival farrokh derive. For many decades, the f- form was believed to represent a specific Median sound-law change of proto-Iranian xv- to f-. This hypothesis has since been shown to be untenable, and the proto-Iranian form is today reconstructed as *hu̯, preserved in Avestan as xv- and dissimilated as f- in other Iranian dialects.
In the Iranian languages of the middle period, the word is also attested as Bactrian
Bactrian language
The Bactrian language is an extinct Eastern Iranian language which was spoken in the Central Asian region of Bactria. Linguistically, it is classified as belonging to the middle period of the East Iranian branch...
far(r)o, Khotanese pharra, Parthian
Parthian language
The Parthian language, also known as Arsacid Pahlavi and Pahlavanik, is a now-extinct ancient Northwestern Iranian language spoken in Parthia, a region of northeastern ancient Persia during the rule of the Parthian empire....
farh, Sogdian
Sogdian language
The Sogdian language is a Middle Iranian language that was spoken in Sogdiana , located in modern day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan ....
f(a)rn, and Ossetic farnae and farn, though in these languages the word does not necessarily signify "glory" or "fortune":
In Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, Sogdian farn and Khotanese pharra signified a "position of a Buddha," that is, with "dignity" or "high position." This meaning subsequently passed into Tocharian
Tocharian languages
Tocharian or Tokharian is an extinct branch of the Indo-European language family. The name is taken from the people known to the Greeks as the Tocharians . These are sometimes identified with the Yuezhi and the Kushans. The term Tokharistan usually refers to 1st millennium Bactria, which the...
. In Manicheanism, Sogdian frn signified "luck" and was a designator of the "first luminary". Manichean Parthian farh again signifies "glory." In Scytho-Sarmatian
Sarmatians
The Iron Age Sarmatians were an Iranian people in Classical Antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD....
and Alan
Alans
The Alans, or the Alani, occasionally termed Alauni or Halani, were a group of Sarmatian tribes, nomadic pastoralists of the 1st millennium AD who spoke an Eastern Iranian language which derived from Scytho-Sarmatian and which in turn evolved into modern Ossetian.-Name:The various forms of Alan —...
culture, Digoron Ossetic farnae and Iron Ossetic farn signified "peace, happiness, abundance, fortune."
The term also appears as a borrowing in Armenian
Armenian language
The Armenian language is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian people. It is the official language of the Republic of Armenia as well as in the region of Nagorno-Karabakh. The language is also widely spoken by Armenian communities in the Armenian diaspora...
pʿarkʿ, but with a greater range of meaning than in Iranian languages.
In scripture
Bisyllabic khvarenah is only attested once in the GathaGatha
Gatha is a type of metered and often rhythmic poetic verse or a phrase in the ancient Indian languages of Prakrit and Sanskrit. The word is originally derived from the Sanskrit/Prakrit root gai , which means, to speak, sing, recite or extol. Hence gatha can mean either speech, verse or a song...
s, the oldest hymns of Zoroastrianism and considered to have been composed by the prophet himself. The one instance of Gathic khvarenah occurs in Yasna
Yasna
Yasna is the name of the primary liturgical collection of texts of the Avesta as well as the name of the principal Zoroastrian act of worship at which those verses are recited. The Yasna, or Izeshne, is primarily the name of the ceremony in which the entire book is recited and appropriate...
51.18, where the word appears to mean royal glory. The primary source of information on khvarenah comes from the Yasht
Yasht
The s are a collection of twenty-one hymns in Younger Avestan. Each of these hymns invokes a specific Zoroastrian divinity or concept. Yasht chapter and verse pointers are traditionally abbreviated as Yt....
s, the younger Avesta's
Avesta
The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language.-Early transmission:The texts of the Avesta — which are all in the Avestan language — were composed over the course of several hundred years. The most important portion, the Gathas,...
collection of 21 hymns dedicated to individual divinities.
Two distinct forms of khvarenah are discernible in Yasht
Yasht
The s are a collection of twenty-one hymns in Younger Avestan. Each of these hymns invokes a specific Zoroastrian divinity or concept. Yasht chapter and verse pointers are traditionally abbreviated as Yt....
19:
- kavam khvarenah (kauuaēm xvarənah), the fortune of the kavis, the Kayanian kings
- akhvaretem khvarenah (axvarətəm xvarənah), glory that both divinities and mortals should strive for.
Similarly Yasht 18, although nominally dedicated to Arshtat
Arshtat
Arshtat is the Avestan language name of a Zoroastrian principle and signifies either "justice" or "honesty." As a substantive, arshtat designates the divinity Arshtat, the hypostasis of "Rectitude" and "Justice"...
, is a short 9-verse ode to a third variant of khvarenah; the Iranian khvarenah (airiianəm xvarənah) that is created by Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazdā is the Avestan name for a divinity of the Old Iranian religion who was proclaimed the uncreated God by Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism...
and that is "full of milk and pastures," vanquishes the daeva
Daeva
Daeva in Avestan language meaning "a being of shining light", is a term for a particular sort of supernatural entity with disagreeable characteristics. Equivalents in Iranian languages include Pashto dêw , Baluchi dêw , Persian dīv , Kurdish dêw...
s and the Un-Iranians
Aniran
Anīrān or Anērān is an ethno-linguistic term that signifies "non-Iranian" or "non-Iran." Thus, in a general sense, 'Aniran' signifies lands where Iranian languages are not spoken...
.
Yasht 19, which is nominally dedicated to Zam
Zam
Zam is the Avestan language term for the Zoroastrian concept of "earth", in both the sense of land and soil and in the sense of the world...
"Earth", further typifies khvarenah as a yazata
Yazata
Yazata is the Avestan language word for a Zoroastrian concept. The word has a wide range of meanings but generally signifies a divinity...
, that is, itself "worthy of worship." The same hymn includes a list of divinities and mortals who perform their duties due to the power of khvarenah. Among these are the
mythological Kayanian kings – the kavis (kauuis) – who are rulers through the grace of, and empowered by, khvarenah.
Khvarenah is however also glory held by divinities: Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazdā is the Avestan name for a divinity of the Old Iranian religion who was proclaimed the uncreated God by Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism...
has it (19.9-13), the Amesha Spenta
Amesha Spenta
' is an Avestan language term for a class of divine entities in Zoroastrianism, and literally means "Bounteous Immortal" The noun is amesha "immortal", and spenta "furthering, strengthening, bounteous, holy" is an adjective of it...
s have it (19.14-20), the other yazata
Yazata
Yazata is the Avestan language word for a Zoroastrian concept. The word has a wide range of meanings but generally signifies a divinity...
s as well (19.21-24). Yima loses it thrice, in turn to Mithra
Mithra
Mithra is the Zoroastrian divinity of covenant and oath. In addition to being the divinity of contracts, Mithra is also a judicial figure, an all-seeing protector of Truth, and the guardian of cattle, the harvest and of The Waters....
, Thraetaona and Keresaspa. Khvarenah assumes the shape of a bird when leaving Yima. (19.35-36, 19.82)
According to Yasht 13.14, the waters flow, the plants spring forth, and the winds blow through the khvarenah of the Fravashi
Fravashi
A fravashi is the guardian spirit mentioned in the Avesta of an individual, who sends out the urvan into the material world to fight the battle of good versus evil...
s. In Yasna 68.11, the waters of Aredvi Sura are invoked to bestow radiance and glory. Khvarenah is also associated with the waters in other texts; with the world-sea Vourukasha in Yasht 19.51 and 19.56-57; with the Helmand river in Yasht 19.66ff. It is also identified with Haoma
Haoma
Haoma is the Avestan language name of a plant and its divinity, both of which play a role in Zoroastrian doctrine and in later Persian culture and mythology. The Middle Persian form of the name is hōm, which continues to be the name in Modern Persian and other living Iranian languages.Sacred haoma...
, together with which it plays a seminal role in the legend of the birth of Zoroaster. In these passages, khvarenah has a seminal and germinal implication, being both fiery fluid and living seed.
In Yasna 60.2, the family priest is seen to request joy and blessings for the righteous, good nature, truth, prosperity, power, and glory for the house in which he offers prayers. The hymn to Mithra speaks of the divinity as the "dispenser of khvarenah" (Yasht 10.16, 10.128, 10.141). Other texts describe Mithra as "most endowed with glory" (Yasht 19.35, Vendidad
Vendidad
The Vendidad or Videvdat is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta. However, unlike the other texts of the Avesta, the Vendidad is an ecclesiastical code, not a liturgical manual.-Name:...
19.15).
In Yasht 19.46, Akem Manah
Akem Manah
Aka Manah is the Avestan language name for the Zoroastrian daeva "Evil Mind", "Evil Purpose", "Evil Thinking" or "Evil Intention". Aka Manah is the demon of sensual desire that was sent by Ahriman to seduce the prophet Zarathustra. His eternal opponent is Vohu Manah. Aka Manah is the hypostatic...
, the demon of "evil purpose" attempts (but fails) to seize khvarenah. The Iranian khvarenah and Dahman, the hypostasis of prayer, render Bushyasta
Bushyasta
Bushyasta is the Zoroastrian demon of "Sloth". Her stock epithet is "the long-handed."In scripture as well as in later tradition, Bushyasta is the hypostasis of laziness and idleness. She is the cause of procrastination as she strives to keep the righteous from performing productive tasks...
- the demoness of "sloth" – powerless (Yasht l0.97, 13.4).
At the final renovation of the world, the royal glory will follow the Saoshyants
Saoshyant
Saoshyant is a figure of Zoroastrian eschatology who brings about the final renovation of the world, the Frashokereti. The Avestan language name literally means "one who brings benefit," and is also used as common noun.-In scripture:...
(Yasht 19.89).
In tradition
In the 9th-12th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition khvarenah (→ Middle PersianMiddle Persian
Middle Persian , indigenously known as "Pârsig" sometimes referred to as Pahlavi or Pehlevi, is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times became a prestige dialect and so came to be spoken in other regions as well. Middle Persian is classified as a...
khwarrah) is a spiritual force that exists before the creation of the tan-gohr, the mortal body (Bundahishn
Bundahishn
Bundahishn, meaning "Primal Creation", is the name traditionally given to an encyclopædiaic collections of Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology written in Book Pahlavi. The original name of the work is not known....
II.7ff, Zadspram 3.75). In these later texts, the glory appears to be acquirable through learning and knowledge (Bundahishn II.9ff).
Khwarrah continues to be identified with astral bodies (Dadistan-i Denig I.25, I.35-36), but its primary function is in its role as the divine glory of kings, the continuation of the Avestan notion of the kavam khvarenah. New in tradition is an identification of khwarrah with religion, as in "the great khwarrah-bestowing force of the pure religion" (Dadistan-i Denig I.36)
In the Kar-namag i Ardaxshir 4.11.16 and 4.11.22-23, khwarrah is said to assume the shape of a ram.
Syncretic influences
"The fundamental motif of Iranian kingship, a hereditary dynastic charisma [...], which, could however be lost, was at the root of ideas that were widespread in the Hellenistic and Roman periods." For example, as the tyche baileos, fortuna regia, the saving grace (luck) of fortune of a king; and probably also the royal farrah in the tyche of the various Hellenistic rulers of the Seleucid and Arsacid periods as well as of the Kushan kings.That khwarrah – in addition to its significance as "royal fortune" – also signified "fortune" in a general sense is demonstrated by the use of an Aramaic ideogram in the Middle Persian texts of the Sassanid and post-Sassanid periods. This custom was probably a remnant of the Achaemenid age, as suggested by iconography and inscription of a 3rd century BCE plaque representing – or so it has been interpreted - khvarenah as Syriac gd(y).
Because the concepts of khvarenah/khwarrah and gd(y) circulated in the same areas and have many characteristics in common, it is possible but not certain whether the Mesopotamian concept influenced the Zoroastrian one. In contrast, khvarenah appears to have a parallel in Indic tejas
The concept of the royal khwarrah survived the 7th century downfall of the Sassanid empire
Sassanid Empire
The Sassanid Empire , known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr and Ērān in Middle Persian and resulting in the New Persian terms Iranshahr and Iran , was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sasanian Dynasty from 224 to 651...
, and remained a central motif (for instance as the farr-e elahi) in the culture and epics of Islamic Iran.