Korean-style fortresses in Japan - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Over the course of the Yamato period

Yamato period

The is the period of Japanese history when the Japanese Imperial court ruled from modern-day Nara Prefecture, then known as Yamato Province.While conventionally assigned to the period 250–710 , the actual start of Yamato rule is disputed...

, in the early centuries of the establishment of a Japanese state, a great number of Korean-style
Korean architecture
Korean architecture refers to the built environment of Korea from c. 30,000 BC to the present.-Introduction:From a technical point of view, buildings are structured vertically and horizontally...

fortresses (朝鮮式山城, chōsen shiki yamajiro
Japanese castle
' were fortresses composed primarily of wood and stone. They evolved from the wooden stockades of earlier centuries, and came into their best-known form in the 16th century...

) were constructed in Japan. Old fortresses dating to the 8th century and earlier can be found all over western Japan. Many of these sites have been identified with fortresses whose construction, repair, and destruction are described in detail in ancient chronicles such as Nihonshoki and Shoku Nihongi
Shoku Nihongi
The is an imperially commissioned Japanese history text. Completed in 797, it is the second of the Six National Histories, coming directly after the Nihon Shoki and followed by Nihon Kōki. Fujiwara no Tsugutada and Sugano no Mamichi served as the primary editors...

. According to some interpretations of these texts, these fortresses were built under the guidance of, and at the orders of, various members of the Korean nobility or royalty.

Comparisons of these sites have been made to other Japanese fortresses, and to sites of the same period in both Korea

Korea

Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...

and China

China

Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...

. The theory persists of direct Korean involvement in the construction of these fortresses and threat of invasion by the Korean Silla

Silla

Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...

Dynasty and Chinese Tang Dynasty

Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...

incited the Yamato court to build the Korean influenced castles. Many of the sites have been definitively dated to centuries earlier, however, and so, even if this theory holds for some sites, it does not encompass the majority.

Research on these sites is ongoing, and the questions of the purposes and origins of the fortresses, and their possible connections to Korea remain hotly debated among scholars, in part due to the nationalistic elements involved. Though some scholarship questions the identification of these fortresses with Korean origins, the Japanese term chōsen shiki yamajiro (朝鮮式山城, lit. "Korean style mountain castles/fortresses") continues to be used, likely because of the high probability of Korean influence – Yamato Japan had very little need for major fortifications until that time and likely lacked such expertise, which was then likely contributed by residents of Korean descent. The term kodai yamajiro (古代山城, lit. "old period mountain castle/fortresses") is sometimes used, but its opponents argue that it can be interpreted too broadly; chōsen shiki yamajiro, even if not an entirely accurate description, denotes a very particular group of sites.

For the most part, researchers and specialists today doubt the appropriateness of the term "Korean-style fortresses," and continue to propose, research, and develop alternative theories as to the origins and purposes of these fortresses. However, mainstream sources such as newspapers and magazines, continue to represent the widely believed "traditional" version of events put forward by older scholarship, and to use the Korean-related terminology. However, the fact that Korean kings and nobility established infastructure and settlements in Japan is an undeniable fact.

Research and debate

Cooperative research and discussions between the two countries, over the issue of determining the origins of these fortresses began in the 1970s. Fortresses of roughly the same type are extant in Korea, but only because they have been repaired or restored, either during the Joseon period or in the 20th century, and thus arguments of their similarity to the Japanese fortresses in question are difficult to prove. On the other hand, enough of the ruins do remain that most scholars believe it obvious that these fortresses in question have far more in common with one another than with other Japanese fortresses, particularly later ones.

Much of the debate over these fortresses began in the late Meiji period

Meiji period

The , also known as the Meiji era, is a Japanese era which extended from September 1868 through July 1912. This period represents the first half of the Empire of Japan.- Meiji Restoration and the emperor :...

(1868–1912) and early Taishō period

Taisho period

The , or Taishō era, is a period in the history of Japan dating from July 30, 1912 to December 25, 1926, coinciding with the reign of the Taishō Emperor. The health of the new emperor was weak, which prompted the shift in political power from the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen to the Diet...

(1912–1923), when geography and archaeology took off in Japan for the first time, and the classification of kōgoishi
Kogoishi
Kōgoishi are earthenwork structures, on a stone foundation, constructed in Japan during the Asuka period, particularly in areas around Fukuoka, on the island of Kyūshū...

fortresses emerged. One key element of the debate was, and continues to be, whether these fortresses were built in the late 7th century, following Japan's defeat in the battle of Hakusukinoe, as defenses against a possible Silla

Silla

Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...

/T'ang China

Tang Dynasty

invasion of Japan, or whether they were built earlier, possibly independently from the policies or orders of the Yamato court. During the first decades of the twentieth century, a vibrant discourse was expounded regarding the time these fortresses were built, their similarities to one another and to Korean structures, the way in which they spread, and the reasons they were built. This debate continues among archaeologists today.

As it relates quite closely to the origins of Japanese culture and society, nationalistic bias on the parts of both Korean and Japanese scholars continues to have a major effect on this discourse.

Sites

Name	Kanji Kanji Kanji are the adopted logographic Chinese characters hanzi that are used in the modern Japanese writing system along with hiragana , katakana , Indo Arabic numerals, and the occasional use of the Latin alphabet...	Romanization	Year of Construction	Possible Locations	Current Situation
Takayasu fortress	高安城	Takayasu no ki	667	Kyūan-ji, Nara Prefecture Nara Prefecture is a prefecture in the Kansai region on Honshū Island, Japan. The capital is the city of Nara.-History:The present-day Nara Prefecture was created in 1887, making it independent of Osaka Prefecture.... ; Takayasu-yama, Osaka Prefecture Osaka Prefecture is a prefecture located in the Kansai region on Honshū, the main island of Japan. The capital is the city of Osaka. It is the center of Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto area.- History :...	The outer walls and water gate may have been found, but the extent of the fortress' remains, records of its history, and the area it covered have not been extensively investigated.
Yashima fortress	屋嶋城	Yashima no ki	667	Takamatsu Takamatsu, Kagawa is a city located in central Kagawa Prefecture on the island of Shikoku in Japan, and is the seat of the prefectural government. It is designated a core city by the Japanese Government. It is a port city located on the Seto Inland Sea, and is the closest port to Honshu from Shikoku island... , Kagawa Prefecture Kagawa Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located on Shikoku island. The capital is Takamatsu.- History :Kagawa was formerly known as Sanuki Province.For a brief period between August 1876 and December 1888, Kagawa was made a part of Ehime Prefecture.-Battle of Yashima:...	Stone walls Ishigaki Ishigaki IslandIshigaki, OkinawaIshigaki AirportJapanese escort IshigakiAi Ishigaki , guitarist for The Mad Capsule MarketsIshigaki Rin... , earthworks, water gate, remains of the lookout towers and other remains have been found, but site has not been extensively investigated. Site of the 1185 battle of Yashima Battle of Yashima The naval Battle of Yashima took place on 22 March 1185. Following a long string of defeats, the Taira clan retreated to Yashima, today's Takamatsu, just off the coast of Shikoku... .
Nagato fortress	長門城	Nagato no ki	665	Shimonoseki Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi is a city located in Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan. It is at the southwestern tip of Honshū, facing the Tsushima Strait and also Kitakyushu across the Kanmon Straits.... , Yamaguchi Prefecture Yamaguchi Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan in the Chūgoku region on Honshū island. The capital is the city of Yamaguchi, in the center of the prefecture. The largest city, however, is Shimonoseki.- History :...	Unknown
Ōno castle	大野城	Ōno jō	665	Dazaifu Dazaifu, Fukuoka is a city located in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. Nearby cities include Ōnojō and Chikushino. Although mostly urban, it does have arable land used for paddy fields and market gardening.... , Fukuoka Prefecture Fukuoka Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located on Kyūshū Island. The capital is the city of Fukuoka.- History :Fukuoka Prefecture includes the former provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen....	Earthworks, stone walls Ishigaki Ishigaki IslandIshigaki, OkinawaIshigaki AirportJapanese escort IshigakiAi Ishigaki , guitarist for The Mad Capsule MarketsIshigaki Rin... , water gate, and remnants of buildings remain.
Kii castle	基肄城	Kii jō	665	Kiyama Kiyama, Saga is a town located in Miyaki District, Saga Prefecture, Japan on the island of Kyūshū. It can be considered part of an economic sphere with nearby cities Tosu in Saga Prefecture and Ogōri and Kurume in Fukuoka Prefecture... , Saga Prefecture Saga Prefecture is located in the northwest part of the island of Kyūshū, Japan. It touches both the Sea of Japan and the Ariake Sea. The western part of the prefecture is a region famous for producing ceramics and porcelain, particularly the towns of Karatsu, Imari, and Arita...	Ruins remain of the castle foundations, main gates, earthworks, stone walls Ishigaki Ishigaki IslandIshigaki, OkinawaIshigaki AirportJapanese escort IshigakiAi Ishigaki , guitarist for The Mad Capsule MarketsIshigaki Rin... , and water gate.
Kaneta fortress	金田城	Kaneta no ki	667	Tsushima city Tsushima, Nagasaki is a city governed by Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. It is the only city of Tsushima Subprefecture and it encompasses all of Tsushima Island Archipelago, which lies in the Tsushima Strait north of Nagasaki on the western side of Kyūshū, the southernmost mainland island of Japan. the city has an... , Nagasaki Prefecture Nagasaki Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū. The capital is the city of Nagasaki.- History :Nagasaki Prefecture was created by merging of the western half of the former province of Hizen with the island provinces of Tsushima and Iki...	Ruins remain of castle walls, main gate, water gate, and lookout towers.
Kikuchi castle	鞠智城	Kikuchi jō	Nara Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794. Empress Gemmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō . Except for 5 years , when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital, Nagaoka-kyō, in 784... -early Heian Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height... pds	Yamaga Yamaga, Kumamoto is a city located in Kumamoto, Japan.On January 15, 2005 Yamaga absorbed the towns of Kahoku, Kamoto, Kaō and Kikuka, all from Kamoto District, into the new expanded city of Yamaga.... or Kikuchi Kikuchi, Kumamoto is a city located in Kumamoto, Japan.The city was founded on August 1, 1958. On March 22, 2005, the city merged with the municipalities of Kyokushi, Shichijo and Shisui into a new expanded city of Kikuchi. As of December 2006, the city has an estimated population of 52,646 and a density of 190.3... cities, Kumamoto Prefecture Kumamoto Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located on Kyushu Island. The capital is the city of Kumamoto.- History :Historically the area was called Higo Province; and the province was renamed Kumamoto during the Meiji Restoration. The creation of prefectures was part of the abolition of the feudal system...	Ruins of 64 buildings or towers remain.
Ibara fortress	茨城	Ibaraki	Nara period Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794. Empress Gemmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō . Except for 5 years , when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital, Nagaoka-kyō, in 784...	Fukuyama Fukuyama, Hiroshima is a city located on the Ashida River in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan.As of January 31, 2010, the city has an estimated population of 465,238 and a population density of 898.02 persons per km². The total area is 461.23 km². After Hiroshima City, it is the largest city in Hiroshima Prefecture... , Hiroshima Prefecture Hiroshima Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on Honshu island. The capital is the city of Hiroshima.- History :The area around Hiroshima was formerly divided into Bingo Province and Aki Province. This location has been a center of trade and culture since the beginning of Japan's recorded...	Unknown
Tsune fortress	常城	Tsuneki	665	Fuchū or Fukuyama Fukuyama, Hiroshima is a city located on the Ashida River in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan.As of January 31, 2010, the city has an estimated population of 465,238 and a population density of 898.02 persons per km². The total area is 461.23 km². After Hiroshima City, it is the largest city in Hiroshima Prefecture... cities, Hiroshima Prefecture Hiroshima Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on Honshu island. The capital is the city of Hiroshima.- History :The area around Hiroshima was formerly divided into Bingo Province and Aki Province. This location has been a center of trade and culture since the beginning of Japan's recorded...	Unknown
Minō castle	三野城	Minō-jō	late 7th c.	Hakata-ku, Fukuoka Hakata-ku, Fukuoka is one of the seven wards of Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. It is best known as the location of Fukuoka's main train station, Hakata Station.-Geography:... , Fukuoka Prefecture Fukuoka Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located on Kyūshū Island. The capital is the city of Fukuoka.- History :Fukuoka Prefecture includes the former provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen....	Unknown
Inazumi fortress	稲積城	Inazumi no ki	late 7th c.	Shima Shima, Fukuoka was a town located in former Itoshima District, Fukuoka, Japan.As of November 2009, the town had an estimated population of 17,432 and a density of 319.56 persons per km². The total area was 54.54 km².... , Fukuoka Prefecture Fukuoka Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located on Kyūshū Island. The capital is the city of Fukuoka.- History :Fukuoka Prefecture includes the former provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen....	Unknown
Mio fortress	三尾城	Mio no ki		Takashima Takashima, Shiga is a city in Shiga Prefecture, Japan.On November 30, 2004 the city had an estimated population of 56,220 and a density of 110 persons per square kilometres. The total area is 511 square kilometres.... , Shiga Prefecture Shiga Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan, which forms part of the Kansai region on Honshu Island. The capital is the city of Ōtsu.- History :Shiga was known as Ōmi Province or Gōshū before the prefectural system was established...	Unknown
Ki castle Ki castle was a Japanese castle of the kōgoishi type, constructed in the late 7th century by the Yamato Imperial court. The site, atop Kijō Mountain in what is today the Okayama Prefecture town of Sōja, is considered a national monument...	鬼ノ城	Ki no jō	late 7th c.	Sōja Soja, Okayama is a city located in Okayama Prefecture, Japan.As of April 30, 2011, the city has an estimated population of 67,357, with a household number of 24,623, and the density of 317.72 persons per km². The total area is 212.00 km².The city was founded on March 31, 1954... , Okayama Prefecture Okayama Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on Honshū island. The capital is the city of Okayama.- History :During the Meiji Restoration, the area of Okayama Prefecture was known as Bitchū Province, Bizen Province and Mimasaka Province.- Geography :...	Ruins of stone walls Ishigaki Ishigaki IslandIshigaki, OkinawaIshigaki AirportJapanese escort IshigakiAi Ishigaki , guitarist for The Mad Capsule MarketsIshigaki Rin... , water gate, various buildings remain. Western gate, several other buildings, reconstructed in first years of 21st century.

Research and debate

Sites

See also