Leonese language
Encyclopedia
The Leonese language is the endonym term used to refer to all vernacular Romance dialects of the Astur-Leonese linguistic group in the Spanish
provinces of León and Zamora; Astur-Leonese also includes the dialects of Asturian
in Asturias
and the Mirandese language
of Miranda do Douro
in Portugal
. Leonese has no written policy officially regulated. Some associations have proposed a standard, different from those existing in the rest of the linguistic area (such as that applicable in Asturias
, regulated by the Academy of the Asturian Language
, or the Lhéngua Mirandesa Anstituto applicable to Miranda of Miranda do Douro). On the other hand, other Leonese writers and associations intend to follow the spelling rules of the Academy of the Asturian Language
.
The term "Leonese" has also been used historically by some authors to refer to the whole linguistic region, which extends from Cantabria
to Extremadura
and is known primarily as the Astur-Leonese linguistic group. Some authors speak of a Leonese language or historical dialect from Latin, and of Asturian and Mirandese as co-dialects of Leonese.
The Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language
defines Leonese (from a linguistic point of view) in the meanings six and seven. In the meaning six there is a reference to the term asturleonés (Asturianleonese) whose second definition reads as follows: "It is the romance dialect originated in Asturias and in the ancient reign of Leon as a result of the peculiar evolution of Latin". Meaning seven of the term Leonese indicates: "It is the variety of Spanish spoken in Leonese territory". Therefore, the meaning of Leonese which will be used is the six in the Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language and the reference to Leonese made in article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute of Castile and León
is for the language originated in Asturias
and in the ancient reign of Leon
. On the other hand, it is necessary to point out that the name of Leonese, the one legally considered, is the term used in Leon and Zamora to refer to the same language that in the Principality of Asturias is called Asturian
, although the situation of this language in the Principality of Asturias and Castile and Leon is very different in its social situation, territorial distribution, legal treatment or institutional promotion, questions which do not prevent from considering the essential unit of this language.
. The majority of Leonese vocabulary comes from Latin. Other languages, like the Celtic languages and Germanic languages, have influenced Leonese as well.
/a/) in non-stressed position, represented with e, u , a at the end of word.
rather than Spanish
:
Other traits different from Spanish:
s (singular
and plural
)
The main endings are -u for masculine singular and -os for masculine plural.
For the feminine, the endings are -a for the singular and -as for the plural.
(masculine and feminine) and two number
s (singular and plural
).
The main endings are -u for masculine singular and -os for masculine plural. For the feminine, the endings are -a for the singular and -as for the plural. For both are -e for singular and -es for the plural.
Adjectives have a concordance
in gender and number with the noun.
There are three conjugations
in Leonese language vebs, depending on the ending of the infinitive
: -are, -ere, or -ire.
There are two divisions in Leonese gerunds depending on the ending: -andu or -endu.
There are three kinds of participles in Leonese, ending in -áu (first conjugation), -iéu (second conjugation), or -íu (third conjugation).
These are:
where some prepositions (en, de, pa) elide before a vowel (n', d', p').
The native languages of Leon and Zamora, as well as those from Asturias and the Land of Miranda (Portugal) are the result of the singular evolution of Latin introduced by the Roman
conquerors in this area. Their colonization and organization led to the establishment of Conventus Astururm, with its capital in Asturica Augusta, nowadays Astorga, city which became the main centre of Romanization or Latinization of the pre-existent tribes. The unitary conception of this area would remain until the Islamic invasion of the 7th Century with the creation of an astur dukedom as an evidence, also with capital in Astorga, which together with other seven configured the Spanish territory both political and administratively speaking. Later, about the 11th century it starts to be defined as a Leonese territory that corresponds in general terms to the southern territory of the ancient convent. The great medieval reign was configured from this space spreading to all the centre and west of the Iberian Peninsula
previously led from Cangas de Onís
, Pravia
, Oviedo
and finally in the city of León. In this medieval reign of León the romances Galician
, Asturianleonese and Castilian
were being created spreading to the south as the reign consolidated its domain to the southern territories.
The first text known to have appeared in the Asturian-Leonese Romance language is the document,
Nodizia de Kesos
, between 974 and 980 BC. This is a list of cheeses written in the margin on the back of a document in Latin.
Between the 12th and 13th centuries Leonese reached its maximum territorial expansion and a quite normal situation as the language of the reign obtained a series of formal uses acquiring Latin as its usage in literature (Poema de Elena y María, El Libro de Alexandre…), in the Leonese court, in justice (with the translation of the Liber Iudicum o Liber Iudiciorum Visigoth to leonés), in the administration and organization of the territory (as stated in the jurisdiction of Zamora, Salamanca, Leon, Oviedo
, Aviles
, etc. which were written in Leonese from Latin). After the union of the reigns of Leon and Castile in the year 1230 Leonese reached a greater level of written and even institutional usage, although from the end of the 13th century the Spanish started to replace the leonés in writing in a slow process not finally adopted until the 15th century. The previous circumstances, together with the fact that the Leonese was not used in institutional and formal affairs, led Leonese to suffer a territorial withdrawal. From this moment Leonese in the ancient kingdom of Leon was reduced to the condition of oral and rural language with very little literary development.
At the beginning of the 20th century Leonese survived with relative firmness in the north and mid-west of the province of Leon and in the west of Zamora. 1906 was the beginning of the scientific study of Leonese and a timid cultural movement of protest in the province of Leon. But from the 50s and 60s, the number of Leonese speakers drastically decreased and the areas where it was spoken were also outstandingly reduced. This social and territorial withdrawal has not stopped yet although the 80s were the beginning of a cultural movement of recovery and revalorization of the Leonese linguistic patrimony, linguistic protest and promotion of the native language.
The Asturian-Leonese linguistic domain covers nowadays approximately most part of the Principality of Asturias, the north and west of the province of Leon, the northeast of Zamora, both provinces in Castile and Leon, the region of Miranda do Douro, in the East of the Portuguese district of Bragança. However, the main objective of this article is the autonomous community of Castile and Leon.
Julio Borrego Nieto in the article about Leonese in his work Manual de dialectología española. El español de España (1996), points out the area where Leonese is best kept, defined as area 1, "includes the west part of Leon and Zamora if we exclude those before mentioned areas in which the Galician features either dominate or mix with the Leonese ones. Area 1 consists of the regions of Babia and Laciana
, perhaps part of Luna and part of Los Argüellos, East Bierzo and the Cabrera; in Zamora, the no Galician Sanabria
. It is the most dialectal area and it is, therefore, where the traditional features of the Leonese people offer a greater extent (that is, affect to a greater number of words) and vitality (that is, those used by a greater number of inhabitants), to the extent that the dialect is perceived as a different code, capable of alternating with Spanish in a kind of bilingual game". Besides Borrego Nieto points out at last other geographical circle, which he calls area 2, where the Leonese keeps a more eroding presence and that: “In Leon it is extended to the regions between the interior area and the Ribera del Órbigo
(Maragatería
, Cepeda
, Omaña…). In Zamora, the region of La Carballeda
–with the subregion La Requejada- and Aliste
, with at least a part of its adjacent lands (Alba
and Tábara
). This area is characterized by a blur and progressive disappearance, greater as we move to the East, of the features still clearly seen in the previous area. The gradual and negative character of this characteristic explains how vague the limits are”.
A speaker of Leonese is a person who knows and can speak any variety of Leonese.
There is not any linguistic census which accurately provides with the real number of speakers of the Leonese in the provinces of Leon and Zamora. The different estimations based on the current number of speakers of the Leonese establish a number of inhabitants between 5,000 and 50,000 people.
*Referred only to the counties of EL Bierzo, valles de Ribas de Sil, Fornela and La Cabrera.
Perceptions of speakers
In two recent sociolinguistic studies respectively made in the north of Leon and in all the province (Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón. Uviéu, ALLA, 2006, and II Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón. Uviéu, ALLA, 2008) and centred in the analysis of the prevalence of the Leonese, conscience of use and linguistic attitudes on the part of the traditional speakers of the Leonese, states that:
“People from Leon appreciate their traditional language and are aware that this is a part of what we could refer to as “Leonese culture”. In this sense, they completely reject the connection between its usage and linguistic incorrection. Although the traditional language is disappearing, fact most of the people in Leon are aware of, there is still a minimum number of users necessary to be able to initiate with guarantee a process of linguistic recuperation. To fight against this possibility of loss, most of the people in Leon are bound to the legal recognition of the traditional language, by collaborating with Asturias in linguistic politics, its presence at school and its institutional promotion.”
About the needs and wishes expressed by the society in the province of León about the leonés some data form the II Estudiu Sociollingüísticu de Lleón (2008) are revealing:.
The maintenance of the traditional language is the main wish among people, even though with different options. Thus, almost a 37% thinks that the language should be kept for non official uses and about a 30% states that it should be used as Spanish. On the other hand, the wish that it disappears is expressed just by a 22% of the population.
Most part of the people support the traditional language to have a legal recognition in the autonomous statute of the community, almost a 50% of the population.
The convenience to establish forms of collaboration to develop proceedings of linguistic politics in a coordinated way between León and Asturias reaches a high percentage among population, so that about 7 out of 10 people are in favour of this idea, whereas only a 20% of the people from Leon reject this option.
The scholar study of the traditional language is demanded by more than a 63% of the population. The resistance towards this possibility affect about a 34% of the population, or, which is the same, 1 out of 3 people from Leon do not accept the school option.
The positions in favour of the institutional promotion of the traditional language (especially by the town councils) get a percentage of more than 83% of the people’s opinions. In fact, the questioning to the promotional labour hardly reaches the 13% of the people from Leon.
Political recognition
The Autonomous Statute of Castile and Leon (The Organic Law 4/1983, 25 February), in the writing given by the Organic Law 14/2007, 30 November) deals in its article 5 with the Spanish languages and the linguistic patrimony of the Community. The first section of this precept is dedicated to the Spanish language, the second one to the Leonese and the third one to the Galician language. More specifically article 5.2 establishes the following:
“The Leonese will be specifically protected by the institutions for its particular value within the linguistic patrimony of the Community. Its protection, usage and promotion will be regulated.”
In the first paragraph it is stipulated that Leonese will be specifically protected by the institutions before referring to its particular value within the linguistic patrimony of the Community. It is of utmost importance that the composition of this paragraph provides Leonese and its treatment with the features of a living and valuable reality which must be preserved. About the rest of the previsions in this article, the protection of Leonese implies the obligation of the public power to adopt measures for keeping and protecting it, the usage of Leonese refers to the institutional usage of the Leonese, the promotion of Leonese refers to those activities and initiatives, in different aspects, beginning with education which would mean the establishment of Leonese as an optative subject in the non-universitary centres in those areas where the Leonese is kept.
However, Castile and Leon have not developed any activity to promote the Leonese following these rules.
In this point it is necessary to point out that in Portugal the Mirandese language, which has some institutional recognition by the Portuguese Administration, belongs to the same linguistic domain as Leonese, even though no form of transactional interchange in the domain of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
has been established by Castile and Leon.
The Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon has not developed any politics, or materialized any actuation in favour of the Leonese corresponding to the objectives followed in the Charter for the minority languages. However, civic associations from Leon and Zamora, autonomic institutions such as the Ombudsman of Castile and Leon have encouraged the adoption of urgent measures to defend and promote the Leonese, even though these measures have always received as an answer evasive answers by the Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon which, in fact, constitute a repetitive and categorical “no” to the protection of promotion of the Leonese.
The 21st of November 2008 the Cultural Association of Zamora Furmientu promoted before the Cultural and Tourism Department of the Autonomous Government of Castle and Leon, with the appropriate expedient, the declaration of the Leonese as a Well of Cultural Interest and asked for the application of the European Charter of the Regional or Minority Languages to the Leonese, even though it has not received an answer yet.
In February 2009 the Cultural Association of Zamora Furmientu complained to the Ombudsman of Castile and Leon because of the lack of measures for the protection and promotion of the Leonese. In the expedient about this complaint (number 20090528) due to the lack of development of article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute in Castile and Leon, the Ombudsman pronounced a resolution to remind that:
After continuous requirements to the Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon the Ombudsman answered the 19th of November 2009, even though only giving a rhetorical answer without any content offered by the Counselor of the Presidency of the Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon by which “the Resolution of the Institution of the Ombudsman is accepted and shared in the strict terms of the current Autonomous Statute of Castile and Leon”, and which does not specify either initiatives or protective measures of the use or promotion of the Leonese, and the legal development of article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute is not foreseen.
On 24 February 2010 the parliamentary group in the Courts of Castile and Leon of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
presented a Non-Legal Proposition in the Courts of Castile and Leon to:
This proposition was approved unanimously by the Plenary session of the Parliament of Castile and Leon on May 26, 2010. Nevertheless, the position of the Government of Castile and Leon in relation with the promotion of the Leonese language one has not changed, and, this way, no measure or plan has promised to be in order to give fulfillment to the article 5.2 of the Statute of Autonomy.
Endangered language
The UNESCO
in its Atlas of Languages in Danger in the World, places the Leonese between the languages in danger.
Leonese is classified in the worst of the possible situations whose characteristics are:
Language standardization
There is not in Castile and Leon an institutional organ to promote the minority languages in the community, or an entity in charge of advising the Administration about the questions referring to the minority languages in the community.
In this sense, one must point out that the University of Leon celebrated two congresses about Leonese, and these congresses offered a continuity. It is also essential to bear in mind the labour to the Academy of the Asturian Language which has led linguistic and sociolinguistic investigations about the linguistic reality in Leon, publishing many research books and works about this topic and in the annual congresses it celebrates (Xornaes d’Estudiu) it uses to invite investigators from Leon and Zamora to deal with the language in these provinces.
In these congresses posed the following measures to be taken to move towards language standardization:
Promotion of language
For approximately fifteen years some cultural associations have offered courses to learn the Leonese, sometimes with the support or collaboration of local Administrations in the provinces of Leon and Zamora. The autonomous community of Castile and Leon has never collaborated in these courses which in most occasions have taken place in precarious conditions, without continuity or by non qualified teachers and very often, far from the area where Leonese is spoken.
At the end of the 1990s, several associations unofficially promoted Leonese language courses. In 2001, the Universidad de León
(University of León) created a course for teachers of Leonese, and local and provincial governments developed Leonese language courses for adults. Nowadays, Leonese can be studied in the most important villages of León
, Zamora and Salamanca
provinces in El Fueyu Courses, after the signing of an agreement between the Leonese Provincial Government and this organization. The Leonese Language Teachers and Monitors Association (Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa
) was created in 2008 for the promotion of Leonese language activities.
Leonese language lessons started in 2008 with two schools, and are currently taught in sixteen schools in León city in 2008-2009, promoted by the Leonese Local Government's Department for Education. This Leonese language course is for pupils in their 5th and 6th year of Primary School (children 11 and 12 years old), where Leonese is taught along with Leonese culture.
Leonese Language Day (Día de la Llingua Llïonesa, in Leonese), is a celebration for promoting the Leonese language and the advances in its field and was the result of a protocol signed between the Leonese Provincial Government and the Cultural Association for Leonese Language El Fueyu
.
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
provinces of León and Zamora; Astur-Leonese also includes the dialects of Asturian
Asturian language
Asturian is a Romance language of the West Iberian group, Astur-Leonese Subgroup, spoken in the Spanish Region of Asturias by the Asturian people...
in Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
and the Mirandese language
Mirandese language
The Mirandese language is a Romance language belonging to the Astur-Leonese linguistic group, sparsely spoken in a small area of northeastern Portugal, in the municipalities of Miranda do Douro, Mogadouro and Vimioso...
of Miranda do Douro
Miranda do Douro
Miranda do Douro or Miranda de l Douro , is a city in Miranda do Douro Municipality, district of Bragança, Portugal.The city has a population of 1,960.-General information:...
in Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
. Leonese has no written policy officially regulated. Some associations have proposed a standard, different from those existing in the rest of the linguistic area (such as that applicable in Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
, regulated by the Academy of the Asturian Language
Academy of the Asturian Language
The Academia de la Llingua Asturiana or Academy of the Asturian Language is an organization that promotes and regulates the Asturian language, a language of the Spanish autonomous community of Asturias. Among its principal objectives are investigating and normalizing the Asturian Language,...
, or the Lhéngua Mirandesa Anstituto applicable to Miranda of Miranda do Douro). On the other hand, other Leonese writers and associations intend to follow the spelling rules of the Academy of the Asturian Language
Academy of the Asturian Language
The Academia de la Llingua Asturiana or Academy of the Asturian Language is an organization that promotes and regulates the Asturian language, a language of the Spanish autonomous community of Asturias. Among its principal objectives are investigating and normalizing the Asturian Language,...
.
The term "Leonese" has also been used historically by some authors to refer to the whole linguistic region, which extends from Cantabria
Cantabria
Cantabria is a Spanish historical region and autonomous community with Santander as its capital city. It is bordered on the east by the Basque Autonomous Community , on the south by Castile and León , on the west by the Principality of Asturias, and on the north by the Cantabrian Sea.Cantabria...
to Extremadura
Extremadura
Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Its component provinces are Cáceres and Badajoz. It is bordered by Portugal to the west...
and is known primarily as the Astur-Leonese linguistic group. Some authors speak of a Leonese language or historical dialect from Latin, and of Asturian and Mirandese as co-dialects of Leonese.
The Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language
Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española
The Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española or DRAE is the most authoritative dictionary of the Spanish language. It is produced, edited, and published by the Real Academia Española ; the first edition was published in 1780...
defines Leonese (from a linguistic point of view) in the meanings six and seven. In the meaning six there is a reference to the term asturleonés (Asturianleonese) whose second definition reads as follows: "It is the romance dialect originated in Asturias and in the ancient reign of Leon as a result of the peculiar evolution of Latin". Meaning seven of the term Leonese indicates: "It is the variety of Spanish spoken in Leonese territory". Therefore, the meaning of Leonese which will be used is the six in the Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language and the reference to Leonese made in article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute of Castile and León
Castile and León
Castile and León is an autonomous community in north-western Spain. It was so constituted in 1983 and it comprises the historical regions of León and Old Castile...
is for the language originated in Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
and in the ancient reign of Leon
Kingdom of León
The Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in AD 910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León...
. On the other hand, it is necessary to point out that the name of Leonese, the one legally considered, is the term used in Leon and Zamora to refer to the same language that in the Principality of Asturias is called Asturian
Asturian language
Asturian is a Romance language of the West Iberian group, Astur-Leonese Subgroup, spoken in the Spanish Region of Asturias by the Asturian people...
, although the situation of this language in the Principality of Asturias and Castile and Leon is very different in its social situation, territorial distribution, legal treatment or institutional promotion, questions which do not prevent from considering the essential unit of this language.
Classification
Asturleonese language has evolved from Latin, keeping some linguistic structures different from other Romance languagesRomance languages
The Romance languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family, more precisely of the Italic languages subfamily, comprising all the languages that descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of ancient Rome...
. The majority of Leonese vocabulary comes from Latin. Other languages, like the Celtic languages and Germanic languages, have influenced Leonese as well.
Phonology
Leonese language has a system with 5 vowels in a stressed position, represented a, e, i, o, u and three (two archiphonemes /I/, /U/ and one phonemePhoneme
In a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances....
/a/) in non-stressed position, represented with e, u , a at the end of word.
Writing
The Leonese language is written using the Latin alphabet, but lacks a written policy officially regulated. Some associations have proposed a standard itself, as distinct from those existing in the linguistic area (as applicable in Asturias, regulated by the Academy of the Asturian Language, or the Anstituto de la Lhéngua Mirandesa applicable to the Mirandese language of Miranda do Douro) while other associations and writers from Leon and Zamora intend to follow the spelling rules of the Academy of the Asturian Language.Sample texts
| Dialect | Location | Linguistic variety | Text |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carreño Carreño Carreño is a municipality in the Autonomous Community of the Principality of Asturias, Spain. It is bordered by Corvera de Asturias on the west, Gozón on the north, the Cantabrian Sea on the north and east, and Gijón on the east and south. Its capital is Candás.- History :Almost everywhere in... 's dialect (asturian Asturian language Asturian is a Romance language of the West Iberian group, Astur-Leonese Subgroup, spoken in the Spanish Region of Asturias by the Asturian people... ) |
Asturias Asturias The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages... |
Central asturleonese | Tolos seres humanos nacen llibres y iguales en dignidá y drechos y, pola mor de la razón y la conciencia de so, han comportase fraternalmente los unos colos otros. |
| Somiedo Somiedo Somiedo is a municipality in the Autonomous Community of the Principality of Asturias, Spain. It is bordered on the north by Belmonte de Miranda, on the east by Teverga, on the west by Tineo and Cangas del Narcea, and on the south by the province of León.It is the second least densely populated... 's dialect (asturian Asturian language Asturian is a Romance language of the West Iberian group, Astur-Leonese Subgroup, spoken in the Spanish Region of Asturias by the Asturian people... ) |
Asturias Asturias The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages... |
Occidental asturleonese | Tódolos seres humanos nacen ḷḷibres ya iguales en dignidá ya dreitos ya, dotaos cumo tán de razón ya conciencia, han portase fraternalmente los unos conos outros. |
| Paḷḷuezu (Leonese) | León León (province) León is a province of northwestern Spain, in the northwestern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.About one quarter of its population of 500,200 lives in the capital, León. The weather is cold and dry during the winter.... |
Occidental asturleonese | Tódolos seres humanos nacen ḷḷibres ya iguales en dignidá ya dreitos ya, dotaos cumo tán de razón ya conciencia, han portase fraternalmente los unos conos outros. |
| Cabreirés (Leonese) | León León (province) León is a province of northwestern Spain, in the northwestern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.About one quarter of its population of 500,200 lives in the capital, León. The weather is cold and dry during the winter.... |
Occidental asturleonese | Tódolos seres humanos ñacen llibres y iguales en dignidá y dreitos y, dotaos cumo están de razón y concéncia, han portase fraternalmente los unos pa coños outros. |
| Mirandese | Trás-os-Montes Trás-os-Montes (region) Trás-os-Montes was one of the 13 regions of continental Portugal identified by geographer Amorim Girão, in a study published between 1927 and 1930.Together with Alto Douro it formed Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province.- See also :... (Portugal Portugal Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the... ) |
Occidental asturleonese | Todos ls seres houmanos nácen lhibres i eiguales an denidade i an dreitos. Custuituídos de rezon i de cuncéncia, dében portar-se uns culs outros an sprito de armandade. |
Historical changes
A number of historical traits link Leonese to PortuguesePortuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
rather than Spanish
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
:
- Leonese language kept the initial /f/ from Latin, like Portuguese, CatalanCatalan languageCatalan is a Romance language, the national and only official language of Andorra and a co-official language in the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Valencian Community, where it is known as Valencian , as well as in the city of Alghero, on the Italian island...
, FrenchFrench languageFrench is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
and most Occitan dialects (vs. Spanish /h/ > nothing). - The Latin initial consonant clusterConsonant clusterIn linguistics, a consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word splits....
s /pl/, /kl/, /fl/ evolved into Leonese ⟨ch⟩ (vs. Spanish ⟨ll⟩). - Proto-Romance medial clusters and became medieval /ʎ/, modern /j/ (vs. medieval Spanish /dʒ/, modern /x/).
- The cluster /-mb-/ is kept (vs. Spanish /mb/ > /m/).
- Proto-Romance becomes /m/ (vs. Spanish /mbr/): > lume (Spanish lumbre).
- Falling diphthongs /ei/, /ou/ preserved (vs. Spanish /e/, /o/).
- Final -o becomes /u/.
Other traits different from Spanish:
- The final "e" of the Latin infinitives is kept, like in ItalianItalian languageItalian is a Romance language spoken mainly in Europe: Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City, by minorities in Malta, Monaco, Croatia, Slovenia, France, Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia, and by immigrant communities in the Americas and Australia...
. - Like in CatalanCatalan languageCatalan is a Romance language, the national and only official language of Andorra and a co-official language in the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Valencian Community, where it is known as Valencian , as well as in the city of Alghero, on the Italian island...
, /l/ is palatalized word-initially; sometimes /n/ as well. - The medial cluster /sk/ becomes -x-.
- Western Romance /ɛ/,/ɔ/ consistently diphthongize to ⟨ie⟩, ⟨ue⟩, even before palatals (as in AragoneseAragonese languageAragonese is a Romance language now spoken in a number of local varieties by between 10,000 and 30,000 people over the valleys of the Aragón River, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza in Aragon, Spain...
): > tierra "land", > güeyo "eye" (cf. Spanish tierra, ojo with no diphthongization before palatals, Portuguese terra, olho with no diphthongization at all).
Nouns
Leonese has two genders (masculine and feminine) and two numberNumber
A number is a mathematical object used to count and measure. In mathematics, the definition of number has been extended over the years to include such numbers as zero, negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and complex numbers....
s (singular
Grammatical number
In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions ....
and plural
Plural
In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one...
)
The main endings are -u for masculine singular and -os for masculine plural.
For the feminine, the endings are -a for the singular and -as for the plural.
Adjectives
Leonese has two gendersGrammatical gender
Grammatical gender is defined linguistically as a system of classes of nouns which trigger specific types of inflections in associated words, such as adjectives, verbs and others. For a system of noun classes to be a gender system, every noun must belong to one of the classes and there should be...
(masculine and feminine) and two number
Grammatical number
In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions ....
s (singular and plural
Plural
In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one...
).
The main endings are -u for masculine singular and -os for masculine plural. For the feminine, the endings are -a for the singular and -as for the plural. For both are -e for singular and -es for the plural.
Adjectives have a concordance
Agreement (linguistics)
In languages, agreement or concord is a form of cross-reference between different parts of a sentence or phrase. Agreement happens when a word changes form depending on the other words to which it relates....
in gender and number with the noun.
Infinitives
There are three conjugations
Grammatical conjugation
In linguistics, conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection . Conjugation may be affected by person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, voice, or other grammatical categories...
in Leonese language vebs, depending on the ending of the infinitive
Infinitive
In grammar, infinitive is the name for certain verb forms that exist in many languages. In the usual description of English, the infinitive of a verb is its basic form with or without the particle to: therefore, do and to do, be and to be, and so on are infinitives...
: -are, -ere, or -ire.
Gerunds
There are two divisions in Leonese gerunds depending on the ending: -andu or -endu.
Participles
There are three kinds of participles in Leonese, ending in -áu (first conjugation), -iéu (second conjugation), or -íu (third conjugation).
Possessives
Possessives in Leonese, like in other Romance languages, must have the article before the possessive.These are:
- One possessor
- (el) mieu, tou, sou
- (la) mia, tua, sua
- (los) mieus, tous, sous
- (las) mias, tuas, suas
- More than one possessor
- (el) nuesu, vuesu, sou
- (la) nuesa, vuesa, sua
- (los) nuesos, vuesos, sous
- (las) nuesas, vuesas, suas
Apostrophe
Leonese uses an apostropheApostrophe
The apostrophe is a punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritic mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet or certain other alphabets...
where some prepositions (en, de, pa) elide before a vowel (n', d', p').
Comparative tables
| LATIN Latin Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and... |
GALICIAN Galician language Galician is a language of the Western Ibero-Romance branch, spoken in Galicia, an autonomous community located in northwestern Spain, where it is co-official with Castilian Spanish, as well as in border zones of the neighbouring territories of Asturias and Castile and León.Modern Galician and... |
PORTUGUESE Portuguese language Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095... |
ASTURLEONESE | CASTILIAN Spanish language Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the... |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diphthongization of 'o' and 'e' | ||||
| Porta(m) (Door) | porta | porta | puerta | puerta |
| Oculu(m) (eye) | ollo | olho | güeyu/güechu | ojo |
| Tempu(m) (time) | tempo | tempo | tiempu | tiempo |
| Terra(m) (land) | terra | terra | tierra | tierra |
| F- (initial position) | ||||
| Facere (make) | facer | fazer | facere | hacer |
| Ferru(m) (iron) | ferro | ferro | fierru | hierro |
| L–(initial position) | ||||
| Lare(m) (fireplace) | lar | lar | llar/ḷḷar | lar |
| Lupu(m) (wolf) | lobo | lobo | llobu/ḷḷobu | lobo |
| N–(initial position) | ||||
| Nativitate(m) (Christmas) | nadal | natal | ñavidá | navidad |
| pl-,cl-,fl- groups | ||||
| Planu(m) (flat) | chan | chão | chanu/llanu | llano |
| Clave(m) (key) | chave | chave | chave/llave | llave |
| Flamma(m) (flame) | chama | chama | chama/llama | llama |
| Falling diphthongs | ||||
| Causa(m) (thing) | cousa | coisa | cousa/cosa | cosa |
| Ferrariu(m) (blacksmith) | ferreiru | ferreiro | ferreiru/-eru | herrero |
| –kt- and –lt- groups | ||||
| Factu(m) (made) | feito | feito | feitu/fechu | hecho |
| Nocte(m) (night) | noite | noite | nueite/nueche | noche |
| Multu(m) (much) | muito | muito | mueitu/muchu | mucho |
| Auscultare (listen) | escoitar | escutar | escueitare/-chare | escuchar |
| m´n groups | ||||
| Hom(i)ne(m) (man) | home | homem | home | hombre |
| Faminem (hunger, famine) | fame | fome | fame | hambre |
| Lum(i)ne(m) (fire) | lume | lume (light) | llume/ḷḷume | lumbre |
| intervocalic -l- | ||||
| Gelu(m) (ice) | xeo | gelo | xelu | hielo |
| Filictu(m) (fern) | fieito | feto | feleitu/-eichu | helecho |
| -ll- | ||||
| Castellu(m) (castle) | castelo | castelo | castiellu/-ieḷḷu | castillo |
| intervocalic -n- | ||||
| Rana(m) (frog) | ra | rã | rana | rana |
| –lj- group | ||||
| Muliere(m) (woman) | muller | mulher | muyer/mucher | mujer |
| c´l, t´l, g´l groups | ||||
| Novacula(m) (razor) | navalla | navalha | ñavaya | navaja |
| Vetulu(m) (old) | vello | velho | vieyu/viechu | viejo |
| Tegula(m) (tile) | tella | telha | teya | teja |
History of the language
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
conquerors in this area. Their colonization and organization led to the establishment of Conventus Astururm, with its capital in Asturica Augusta, nowadays Astorga, city which became the main centre of Romanization or Latinization of the pre-existent tribes. The unitary conception of this area would remain until the Islamic invasion of the 7th Century with the creation of an astur dukedom as an evidence, also with capital in Astorga, which together with other seven configured the Spanish territory both political and administratively speaking. Later, about the 11th century it starts to be defined as a Leonese territory that corresponds in general terms to the southern territory of the ancient convent. The great medieval reign was configured from this space spreading to all the centre and west of the Iberian Peninsula
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
previously led from Cangas de Onís
Cangas de Onis
Cangas de Onís is a municipality in the eastern part of the province and autonomous community of Asturias in the northwest of Spain. The capital of the municipality is also Cangas de Onís....
, Pravia
Pravia
Pravia is a municipality in the Autonomous Community of the Principality of Asturias. It is bordered on the north by Cudillero and Muros de Nalón, on the east by Candamo and Soto del Barco, on the west by Cudillero and Salas, and on the south by Candamo and Salas.Since 774, when King Silo...
, Oviedo
Oviedo
Oviedo is the capital city of the Principality of Asturias in northern Spain. It is also the name of the municipality that contains the city....
and finally in the city of León. In this medieval reign of León the romances Galician
Galician language
Galician is a language of the Western Ibero-Romance branch, spoken in Galicia, an autonomous community located in northwestern Spain, where it is co-official with Castilian Spanish, as well as in border zones of the neighbouring territories of Asturias and Castile and León.Modern Galician and...
, Asturianleonese and Castilian
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
were being created spreading to the south as the reign consolidated its domain to the southern territories.
The first text known to have appeared in the Asturian-Leonese Romance language is the document,
Nodizia de Kesos
Nodicia de Kesos
In the early twentieth century, Zacarías García Villada discovered the Nodicia de kesos on the backside of a tenth-century parchment recording a gift to the monastery of San Justo y Pastor, which was located in either Chozas de Abajo or Ardón del Esla in the Kingdom of León. It is a list of the...
, between 974 and 980 BC. This is a list of cheeses written in the margin on the back of a document in Latin.
Between the 12th and 13th centuries Leonese reached its maximum territorial expansion and a quite normal situation as the language of the reign obtained a series of formal uses acquiring Latin as its usage in literature (Poema de Elena y María, El Libro de Alexandre…), in the Leonese court, in justice (with the translation of the Liber Iudicum o Liber Iudiciorum Visigoth to leonés), in the administration and organization of the territory (as stated in the jurisdiction of Zamora, Salamanca, Leon, Oviedo
Oviedo
Oviedo is the capital city of the Principality of Asturias in northern Spain. It is also the name of the municipality that contains the city....
, Aviles
Avilés
Avilés is a city in Asturias, Spain. Avilés is with Oviedo and Gijón, one of the main towns in the Principality of Asturias.The town occupies the flattest land in the municipality, in a land that belonged to the sea, surrounded by small promontories, all of them having an altitude of less than...
, etc. which were written in Leonese from Latin). After the union of the reigns of Leon and Castile in the year 1230 Leonese reached a greater level of written and even institutional usage, although from the end of the 13th century the Spanish started to replace the leonés in writing in a slow process not finally adopted until the 15th century. The previous circumstances, together with the fact that the Leonese was not used in institutional and formal affairs, led Leonese to suffer a territorial withdrawal. From this moment Leonese in the ancient kingdom of Leon was reduced to the condition of oral and rural language with very little literary development.
At the beginning of the 20th century Leonese survived with relative firmness in the north and mid-west of the province of Leon and in the west of Zamora. 1906 was the beginning of the scientific study of Leonese and a timid cultural movement of protest in the province of Leon. But from the 50s and 60s, the number of Leonese speakers drastically decreased and the areas where it was spoken were also outstandingly reduced. This social and territorial withdrawal has not stopped yet although the 80s were the beginning of a cultural movement of recovery and revalorization of the Leonese linguistic patrimony, linguistic protest and promotion of the native language.
Geographical distribution
The geographical area of Leonese exceeds the administrative framework of the Autonomous Community of Castile and Leon so that the language known as Asturian or Bable in the Autonomous Community in the Principality of Asturias is, basically, the same as the one known as Leonese in Castile and Leon. The fact that the geographical area is divided in two Spanish autonomous communities makes the recognition and promotion of this language in Asturias, although clearly insufficient, not to be regarded in Castile and Leon where the language in completely non-existent in the official educative system, and lack measures of promotion by the autonomous Administration.The Asturian-Leonese linguistic domain covers nowadays approximately most part of the Principality of Asturias, the north and west of the province of Leon, the northeast of Zamora, both provinces in Castile and Leon, the region of Miranda do Douro, in the East of the Portuguese district of Bragança. However, the main objective of this article is the autonomous community of Castile and Leon.
Julio Borrego Nieto in the article about Leonese in his work Manual de dialectología española. El español de España (1996), points out the area where Leonese is best kept, defined as area 1, "includes the west part of Leon and Zamora if we exclude those before mentioned areas in which the Galician features either dominate or mix with the Leonese ones. Area 1 consists of the regions of Babia and Laciana
Laciana
Laciana, Tsaciana in Leonese language, is a comarca in the province of León, Spain. It had 11,904 inhabitants in 2005. The rivers of this comarca flow towards the Atlantic Ocean. Local people speak a certain variant of the Leonese language known as Patsuezo.Many areas in Laciana were degraded in...
, perhaps part of Luna and part of Los Argüellos, East Bierzo and the Cabrera; in Zamora, the no Galician Sanabria
Senabria
Sanabria is a comarca in the northeast of the province of Zamora, western Spain, situated between Galicia, Portugal and the province of León. It belongs to the Autonomous Community of Castilla y León...
. It is the most dialectal area and it is, therefore, where the traditional features of the Leonese people offer a greater extent (that is, affect to a greater number of words) and vitality (that is, those used by a greater number of inhabitants), to the extent that the dialect is perceived as a different code, capable of alternating with Spanish in a kind of bilingual game". Besides Borrego Nieto points out at last other geographical circle, which he calls area 2, where the Leonese keeps a more eroding presence and that: “In Leon it is extended to the regions between the interior area and the Ribera del Órbigo
Órbigo
The Órbigo River is a river in the provinces of León and Zamora, Spain. It begins at the convergence of the Luna River and the Omaña River in the town of Santiago del Molinillo. It flows from north to south through the province of León and ultimately flows into the Esla River below Benavente.How...
(Maragatería
Maragatería
La Maragatería or País de los Maragatos, Tierra de Maragatos in Leonese language, is an ancient historical region or traditional comarca in the landlocked Province of León, Spain...
, Cepeda
La Cepeda
La Cepeda is an ancient historical region in the landlocked Province of León, Spain. It borders with La Maragatería, El Bierzo, Omaña and La Vega del Órbigo. It is a traditional comarca without administrative recognition.- Municipal terms :...
, Omaña…). In Zamora, the region of La Carballeda
La Carballeda
La Carballeda is a comarca located in the northwest of the province of Zamora, Castilla y León, western Spain. Its area is 1,216.54 km².Despite of the strong identity of its inhabitants, this historical region has not been able to achieve the necessary legal recognition for its administrative...
–with the subregion La Requejada- and Aliste
Aliste
Aliste may refer to several municipalities in comarca of Aliste, in the Zamora province of northern Spain:*Mahide de Aliste*Rábano de Aliste*Riofrío de AlisteAlternately, it may refer to a comarca within Zamora:*Aliste...
, with at least a part of its adjacent lands (Alba
Alba
Alba is the Scottish Gaelic name for Scotland. It is cognate to Alba in Irish and Nalbin in Manx, the two other Goidelic Insular Celtic languages, as well as similar words in the Brythonic Insular Celtic languages of Cornish and Welsh also meaning Scotland.- Etymology :The term first appears in...
and Tábara
Tábara
Tábara is a municipality located in the province of Zamora, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census , the municipality has a population of 950 inhabitants...
). This area is characterized by a blur and progressive disappearance, greater as we move to the East, of the features still clearly seen in the previous area. The gradual and negative character of this characteristic explains how vague the limits are”.
Use and status
Number of speakersA speaker of Leonese is a person who knows and can speak any variety of Leonese.
There is not any linguistic census which accurately provides with the real number of speakers of the Leonese in the provinces of Leon and Zamora. The different estimations based on the current number of speakers of the Leonese establish a number of inhabitants between 5,000 and 50,000 people.
| Sociolinguistic study | Number of speakers |
|---|---|
| II Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón (Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques de la población lleonesa). | 50,000 |
| Boletín de Facendera pola Llengua's newsletter]. | 25,000 |
| El asturiano-leonés: aspectos lingüísticos, sociolingüísticos y legislación. | 20,000 to 25,000 |
| Linguas en contacto na bisbarra do Bierzo: castelán, astur-leonés e galego. | 2,500 to 4,000* |
Perceptions of speakers
In two recent sociolinguistic studies respectively made in the north of Leon and in all the province (Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón. Uviéu, ALLA, 2006, and II Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón. Uviéu, ALLA, 2008) and centred in the analysis of the prevalence of the Leonese, conscience of use and linguistic attitudes on the part of the traditional speakers of the Leonese, states that:
“People from Leon appreciate their traditional language and are aware that this is a part of what we could refer to as “Leonese culture”. In this sense, they completely reject the connection between its usage and linguistic incorrection. Although the traditional language is disappearing, fact most of the people in Leon are aware of, there is still a minimum number of users necessary to be able to initiate with guarantee a process of linguistic recuperation. To fight against this possibility of loss, most of the people in Leon are bound to the legal recognition of the traditional language, by collaborating with Asturias in linguistic politics, its presence at school and its institutional promotion.”
About the needs and wishes expressed by the society in the province of León about the leonés some data form the II Estudiu Sociollingüísticu de Lleón (2008) are revealing:.
The maintenance of the traditional language is the main wish among people, even though with different options. Thus, almost a 37% thinks that the language should be kept for non official uses and about a 30% states that it should be used as Spanish. On the other hand, the wish that it disappears is expressed just by a 22% of the population.
Most part of the people support the traditional language to have a legal recognition in the autonomous statute of the community, almost a 50% of the population.
The convenience to establish forms of collaboration to develop proceedings of linguistic politics in a coordinated way between León and Asturias reaches a high percentage among population, so that about 7 out of 10 people are in favour of this idea, whereas only a 20% of the people from Leon reject this option.
The scholar study of the traditional language is demanded by more than a 63% of the population. The resistance towards this possibility affect about a 34% of the population, or, which is the same, 1 out of 3 people from Leon do not accept the school option.
The positions in favour of the institutional promotion of the traditional language (especially by the town councils) get a percentage of more than 83% of the people’s opinions. In fact, the questioning to the promotional labour hardly reaches the 13% of the people from Leon.
Political recognition
The Autonomous Statute of Castile and Leon (The Organic Law 4/1983, 25 February), in the writing given by the Organic Law 14/2007, 30 November) deals in its article 5 with the Spanish languages and the linguistic patrimony of the Community. The first section of this precept is dedicated to the Spanish language, the second one to the Leonese and the third one to the Galician language. More specifically article 5.2 establishes the following:
“The Leonese will be specifically protected by the institutions for its particular value within the linguistic patrimony of the Community. Its protection, usage and promotion will be regulated.”
In the first paragraph it is stipulated that Leonese will be specifically protected by the institutions before referring to its particular value within the linguistic patrimony of the Community. It is of utmost importance that the composition of this paragraph provides Leonese and its treatment with the features of a living and valuable reality which must be preserved. About the rest of the previsions in this article, the protection of Leonese implies the obligation of the public power to adopt measures for keeping and protecting it, the usage of Leonese refers to the institutional usage of the Leonese, the promotion of Leonese refers to those activities and initiatives, in different aspects, beginning with education which would mean the establishment of Leonese as an optative subject in the non-universitary centres in those areas where the Leonese is kept.
However, Castile and Leon have not developed any activity to promote the Leonese following these rules.
In this point it is necessary to point out that in Portugal the Mirandese language, which has some institutional recognition by the Portuguese Administration, belongs to the same linguistic domain as Leonese, even though no form of transactional interchange in the domain of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages is a European treaty adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe...
has been established by Castile and Leon.
The Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon has not developed any politics, or materialized any actuation in favour of the Leonese corresponding to the objectives followed in the Charter for the minority languages. However, civic associations from Leon and Zamora, autonomic institutions such as the Ombudsman of Castile and Leon have encouraged the adoption of urgent measures to defend and promote the Leonese, even though these measures have always received as an answer evasive answers by the Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon which, in fact, constitute a repetitive and categorical “no” to the protection of promotion of the Leonese.
The 21st of November 2008 the Cultural Association of Zamora Furmientu promoted before the Cultural and Tourism Department of the Autonomous Government of Castle and Leon, with the appropriate expedient, the declaration of the Leonese as a Well of Cultural Interest and asked for the application of the European Charter of the Regional or Minority Languages to the Leonese, even though it has not received an answer yet.
In February 2009 the Cultural Association of Zamora Furmientu complained to the Ombudsman of Castile and Leon because of the lack of measures for the protection and promotion of the Leonese. In the expedient about this complaint (number 20090528) due to the lack of development of article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute in Castile and Leon, the Ombudsman pronounced a resolution to remind that:
- “Article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute binds to dictate a specific regulation for the protection, use and promotion of the Leonese, so, according to this mandate and considering the time passed from the coming into effect of the reform of the Autonomous Statute of Castile and Leon, passed by the Organic Law 14/2007, of 30th November, it is necessary to encourage the corresponding legal initiative by means of the pertinent project".
After continuous requirements to the Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon the Ombudsman answered the 19th of November 2009, even though only giving a rhetorical answer without any content offered by the Counselor of the Presidency of the Autonomous Government of Castile and Leon by which “the Resolution of the Institution of the Ombudsman is accepted and shared in the strict terms of the current Autonomous Statute of Castile and Leon”, and which does not specify either initiatives or protective measures of the use or promotion of the Leonese, and the legal development of article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute is not foreseen.
On 24 February 2010 the parliamentary group in the Courts of Castile and Leon of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party is a social-democratic political party in Spain. Its political position is Centre-left. The PSOE is the former ruling party of Spain, until beaten in the elections of November 2011 and the second oldest, exceeded only by the Partido Carlista, founded in...
presented a Non-Legal Proposition in the Courts of Castile and Leon to:
- Recognise the value of Leonese within the linguistic patrimony of the Community and start a plan of measures aimed to its specific protection in coordination with the rest of the public administrations.
- Fulfil the mandate established in article 5.2 of the Autonomous Statute and, according to it, dictate the Regulations about the protection, use and promotion of the Leonese.
This proposition was approved unanimously by the Plenary session of the Parliament of Castile and Leon on May 26, 2010. Nevertheless, the position of the Government of Castile and Leon in relation with the promotion of the Leonese language one has not changed, and, this way, no measure or plan has promised to be in order to give fulfillment to the article 5.2 of the Statute of Autonomy.
Endangered language
The UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
in its Atlas of Languages in Danger in the World, places the Leonese between the languages in danger.
Leonese is classified in the worst of the possible situations whose characteristics are:
- Non-official language.
- No presence in the means of communication.
- Low level of knowledge and use.
- Low social consideration of the language.
- Absence of the language in schools.
- Toponymy without normalizing.
Language standardization
There is not in Castile and Leon an institutional organ to promote the minority languages in the community, or an entity in charge of advising the Administration about the questions referring to the minority languages in the community.
In this sense, one must point out that the University of Leon celebrated two congresses about Leonese, and these congresses offered a continuity. It is also essential to bear in mind the labour to the Academy of the Asturian Language which has led linguistic and sociolinguistic investigations about the linguistic reality in Leon, publishing many research books and works about this topic and in the annual congresses it celebrates (Xornaes d’Estudiu) it uses to invite investigators from Leon and Zamora to deal with the language in these provinces.
In these congresses posed the following measures to be taken to move towards language standardization:
- Development by means of a law of articles 5.2 and 5.3 of the Statute so that the Leonese and the Galician have identical treatment both legal and practical, always taking into account the peculiar sociolinguistic situations of both languages in Leon and Zamora.
- Create an autonomic administrative organ dependent on the Departament of Culture and Tourism in charge of the tasks of protecting and promoting both languages, all of them with the aim of dealing with a defensive politics of both languages that should be coordinated, coherent, useful and with continuity.
- Promote the Leonese from the respect towards the constitutive varieties of the language and involving the patrimonial speakers and the inhabitants of the areas where Leonese is kept in the task of linguistic recovery with campaigns of spreading, revalorization and awareness of the linguistic patrimony.
- Introduce the learning of Leonese in teaching (primary, secondary and adults), with a priority character in the areas where this language has been recently used, and with a secondary character in the areas with social demand. In this sense the establishment of pilot experiences in areas such as Senabria, Cabreira, Altu Bierciu, L.laciana would be interesting
- Recover the native toponymy by making an inventory of the traditional toponymies, so as to proceed to its bilingual signalling
- In cultural politics: support the cultural and literary creation of Leonese and the Publications and editorials that use Leonese. Collaborate with the associations which base their work in the recovery of Leonese. Stimulate the presence of the Leonese in the social means of communication. Promote literary contests in Leonese.
- Promote the investigation about Leonese through the Universities of the Community and centres of study and investigation such as the Institute of Studies in Zamora, Cultural Institute in Leon, Institute of Studies of El Bierzo or the Institute of Studies of Astorga “Marcelo Macías”
- Coordinate the tasks of recovery in coordination and cooperation with linguistic institutions, centres of studies and administrations in the rest of the Asturialeonese linguistic area..
- Make the local organizations involved with the recovery of the Leonese: that is: Provincial Councils, Town Halls, and Comarcal Council of El Bierzo
| Traditional Place Names | Castilian Toponymic |
|---|---|
| Los Argüechos / Argüeyos | Los Arguellos |
| Ponteo | Pontedo |
| Gordón | Gordón |
| Foyyeo | Folledo |
| Sayambre | Sajambre |
| Valdión | Valdeón |
| El Bierzu | El Bierzo |
| Cabreira | Cabrera |
| Maragatos | Maragatería |
| Cepeda | Cepeda |
| Oumaña | Omaña |
| Babia | Babia |
| Ḷḷaciana | Laciana |
| Palacios del Sil | Palacios del Sil |
| Furniella | Fornela |
| Senabria | Sanabria |
| Aliste | Aliste |
| La Carbayeda | La Carballeda |
Promotion of language
For approximately fifteen years some cultural associations have offered courses to learn the Leonese, sometimes with the support or collaboration of local Administrations in the provinces of Leon and Zamora. The autonomous community of Castile and Leon has never collaborated in these courses which in most occasions have taken place in precarious conditions, without continuity or by non qualified teachers and very often, far from the area where Leonese is spoken.
At the end of the 1990s, several associations unofficially promoted Leonese language courses. In 2001, the Universidad de León
Universidad de León
The University of León is a Spanish public university with campus in León and Ponferrada.The germ of the university is found in 1843, when you create the Normal School for Teachers or Masters Seminar of Public Instruction and the subaltern school of Veterinary Medicine, founded in 1852, laying the...
(University of León) created a course for teachers of Leonese, and local and provincial governments developed Leonese language courses for adults. Nowadays, Leonese can be studied in the most important villages of León
León (province)
León is a province of northwestern Spain, in the northwestern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.About one quarter of its population of 500,200 lives in the capital, León. The weather is cold and dry during the winter....
, Zamora and Salamanca
Salamanca (province)
Salamanca is a province of western Spain, in the western part of the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is bordered by the provinces of Zamora, Valladolid, Ávila, and Cáceres; and by Portugal....
provinces in El Fueyu Courses, after the signing of an agreement between the Leonese Provincial Government and this organization. The Leonese Language Teachers and Monitors Association (Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa
Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa
The Asociación de Profesores y Monitores en Llingua Llïonesa or APMLL is a Leonese language association where are integrated the teachers and monitors that teach this language...
) was created in 2008 for the promotion of Leonese language activities.
Leonese language lessons started in 2008 with two schools, and are currently taught in sixteen schools in León city in 2008-2009, promoted by the Leonese Local Government's Department for Education. This Leonese language course is for pupils in their 5th and 6th year of Primary School (children 11 and 12 years old), where Leonese is taught along with Leonese culture.
Leonese Language Day (Día de la Llingua Llïonesa, in Leonese), is a celebration for promoting the Leonese language and the advances in its field and was the result of a protocol signed between the Leonese Provincial Government and the Cultural Association for Leonese Language El Fueyu
Asociación Cultural de la Llingua Llïonesa El Fueyu
The Asociación Cultural de la Llingua Llïonesa El Fueyu is a Leonese language association whose main effort is promoting the knowledge of Leonese language and the defense of the rights of Leonese language speakers.-History:Leonese language association El Fueyu was born in Llión in 2005, an...
.
Literature
Some examples of written literature:- Benigno Suárez Ramos, El tío perruca, 1976. ISBN 978-84-400-1451-1.
- Cayetano Álvarez Bardón, Cuentos en dialecto leonés, 1981. ISBN 978-84-391-4102-0.
- Xuan Bello, Nel cuartu mariellu, 1982. ISBN 978-84-300-6521-9.
- Miguel Rojo, Telva ya los osos, 1994. ISBN 978-84-8053-040-8.
- Manuel García Menéndez, Corcuspin el Rozcayeiru, 1984. ISBN 978-84-600-3676-0.
- Manuel García Menéndez, Delina nel valle'l Faloupu, 1985. ISBN 978-84-600-4133-7.
- Eva González Fernández, Poesía completa : 1980-1991, 1991. ISBN 978-84-86936-58-7.
- VV.AA., Cuentos de Lleón - Antoloxía d’escritores lleoneses de güei, 1996. ISBN 84-87562-12-4.
- Roberto González-Quevedo, L.lume de l.luz, 2002. ISBN 978-84-8168-323-3.
- Roberto González-Quevedo, Pol sendeiru la nueite, 2002. ISBN 978-84-95640-37-6.
- Roberto González-Quevedo, Pan d'amore : antoloxía poética 1980-2003, 2004. ISBN 978-84-95640-95-6.
- Roberto González-Quevedo, El Sil que baxaba de la nieve, 2007. ISBN 978-84-96413-31-3.
- Emilce Núñez Álvarez, Atsegrías ya tristuras, 2005. ISBN 978-84-8177-093-3.
- Luis Cortés Vázquez, Leyendas, cuentos y romances de Sanabria, 2003. ISBN 978-84-95195-55-5.
- Ramón Menéndez Pidal, El dialecto leonés (Commemorative edition with stories and poems in Leonese), 2006. ISBN 978-84-933781-6-5.
- VV.AA., Cuentos populares leoneses (escritos por niños), 2006. ISBN 978-84-611-0795-7.
- Nicolás Bartolomé Pérez, Filandón: lliteratura popular llionesa, 2007. ISBN 978-84-933380-7-7.
- José Aragón y Escacena, Entre brumas, 1921. ISBN 978-84-8012-569-7.
- Francisco Javier Pozuelo Alegre, Poemas pa nun ser lleídos, 2008. ISBN 978-84-612-4484-3.
- Xosepe Vega Rodríguez, Epífora y outros rellatos, 2008. ISBN 978-84-612-5315-9.
- Xosepe Vega Rodríguez, Breve hestoria d'un gamusinu, 2008. ISBN 978-84-612-5316-6.
- VV.AA. (Antoine De Saint-Exupéry), El Prencipicu (Translation of The Little Prince), 2009. ISBN 978-84-96872-03-5.
- Ramón Rei Rodríguez, El ñegru amor, 2009. ISBN 978-84-613-1824-7.
- Juan Andrés Oria de Rueda Salguero, Llogas carbayesas, 2009. ISBN 978-84-613-1822-3.
See also
- Asturian languageAsturian languageAsturian is a Romance language of the West Iberian group, Astur-Leonese Subgroup, spoken in the Spanish Region of Asturias by the Asturian people...
- Mirandese languageMirandese languageThe Mirandese language is a Romance language belonging to the Astur-Leonese linguistic group, sparsely spoken in a small area of northeastern Portugal, in the municipalities of Miranda do Douro, Mogadouro and Vimioso...
- Bercian dialectBercian dialectBercian is the generic name of the linguistic varieties spoken in El Bierzo region, in the province of León, Spain. They belong to the dialect continuum of Romance languages in northern Spain, linking the Galician and Leonese languages...
- Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua LlïonesaAsociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua LlïonesaThe Asociación de Profesores y Monitores en Llingua Llïonesa or APMLL is a Leonese language association where are integrated the teachers and monitors that teach this language...
- Caitano BardónCaitano BardónCaitán Bardón , also rendered Cayetano Álvarez Bardón, was a Leonese language writer. His work "Cuentos en Dialecto Leonés" was one of the first books written in the Leonese language in the 20th century....
- Cuentos del SilCuentos del SilCuentos del Sil is a Leonese language book written by nine leonese language writers. It was sponsored by the Provincial Government of León, and Leonese language associations "El Fueyu" and "El Toralín"...
- Eva GonzálezEva González (Leonese language writer)Eva González was a Leonese language writer; she was born in Palacios del Sil in 1918 and died in León in 2007. She has a dedicated street in León by her contribution to the literature in Leonese.She wrote:...
- Leonese Language DayLeonese Language DayLeonese Language Day is a celebration for promoting the Leonese language developed in the city of Llión, province of Llión, Spain...
Sources
- Menéndez Pidal, R.: "El dialecto Leonés". Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos, 14. 1906.
- Pardo, AbelAbel PardoLaureated in Italian Language and Culture by ICON and Advanced Studies Diplomat in Romance Languages by the Open University of Catalonia, Abel Pardo wrote in Cuentos de Lleón , Cuentos del Sil and "El Dialecto Leonés" when he collaborated with tales about modern and ancient themes and was the...
. "El Llïonés y las TICs". MikroglottikaMikroglottikaMikroglottika - An International Journal of Minority Language Philologies is a linguistic journal about minority languages. Mikroglottika's goal is to promote the study of the philology, phonology, syntax, and lexicon of minority languages, and constructive linguistic studies.-Editors:The journal...
Yearbook 2008. Págs 109-122. Peter Lang. Frankfurt am Main. 2008. - Linguasphere Register. 1999/2000 Edition. pp. 392. 1999.
- López-Morales, H.: “Elementos leoneses en la lengua del teatro pastoril de los siglos XV y XVI”. Actas del II Congreso Internacional de Hispanistas. Instituto Español de la Universidad de Nimega. Holanda. 1967.
- González Riaño, Xosé Antón; García Arias, Xosé Lluis: "II Estudiu Sociollingüísticu De Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques de la población lleonesa". Academia de la Llingua Asturiana, 2008. ISBN 978-84-8168-448-3.
- Staff, E. : "Étude sur l'ancien dialecte léonnais d'après les chartes du XIIIÈ siècle", Uppsala. 1907.