Makuleke
Encyclopedia
The Makuleke Contractual Park or Pafuri Triangle constitutes the northernmost section of the Kruger National Park
, South Africa
, and comprises approximately 240 square kilometres of land. The “triangle” is a wedge of land created by the confluence of the Limpopo
and Luvuvhu River
s at the tripoint
Crook's Corner, which forms a border with Zimbabwe
along the Limpopo River. It is a natural choke point for wildlife crossing from North to South and back, and forms a distinct ecological region.
Pafuri (Shangaan
) is named after Venda chieftains, the Mphaphuli, and the Luvuvhu River is named after a Combretum
tree (Venda
: muvuvhu) growing on its banks.
are rocks that appear to be of Permian
age, which indicate that the then interior of Pangea was harsh and arid.
The rocks above the Permian
ones are from the Triassic
and date to between 248 million and 206 million years. Rocks of this age are found in the lower walls of Lanner Gorge and in these can be found fragments of bone and probably wood representing both holdovers from the Permian–Triassic extinction event event like glossopetrids (a type of tree) and dicynodonts (a form of mammal-like reptile), and new forms that would dominate the Mesozoic, including modern conifers, cycads and of course dinosaur
s, such as Euskelosaurus
.
Most of the sandstones in the Pafuri region however probably represent the great age of dinosaurs – the Jurassic
and Cretaceous
Periods. During the early parts of the Jurassic, which lasted from approximately 210 million years ago until about 144 million years ago, the area was almost certainly extremely arid as is evidenced by the great sandstones of the region and the many dune and desert structures – such as desert roses – that are found preserved within the rocks of the region. In these sediments have been found the remains of early dinosaurs - possibly those of a species known as Massospondylus
. It was also clearly a period of intense volcanism
– with intrusive igneous rocks representing the ejected and intrusive molten matter from the interior of the Earth scattered about the region. The Jurassic was the age of great plant eating sauropods
and smaller, carnivorous
dinosaurs. This was the age of the origin of vertebrate
flight with pterosaurs – flying dinosaurs - and the first birds appearing. The oceans themselves were full of a wide variety of life including many different types of fish
, squids and ammonite
s – fossil
s of which are plentiful in the slightly younger rocks of the coastal regions to the southeast of the area. This was also a time of global upheaval as the World-continent of Pangea began to break up.
The Jurassic gives way to the Cretaceous Period in the upper rocks of the Makuleke area, and these are particularly evident in the North and East of the Pafuri. In these upper-most rocks - the region still seems to be dominated by deserts but these seem to give way to water born gravels that may indicate the emergence of the ancient Limpopo in the region. This is particularly evident in areas like Matule hill, where abundant gravels contain large and small bone fragments that appear to be those of medium-sized and small dinosaurs. Fossil wood typical of the Cretaceous flora
have also been found in the rocks of the region. The Cretaceous Period lasted from about 144 million years ago until 65 million years when the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event occurred. While the Cretaceous is often referred to as the end of the age of dinosaurs, many new lifeforms appeared. This is the age of Tyrannosaurus rex
and the ceratopsian dinosaurs (armoured and horned dinosaurs like Triceratops
). The abundant marine
deposits of the North East coast of South Africa are of this age. There is also the hope of finding the rarest forms of vertebrates alive in this time period – the tiny mammals which would eventually dominate the planet after the Cretaceous extinction event.
The Cretaceous is followed by the Palaeogene Epoch
– but this is apparently not well recorded in this region. The next sedimentary sequence is apparently just under two million years old – and comprises the Limpopo and Luvuvhu sands and gravels covering the lower parts of the region. The landscape today in the Makuleke has been largely carved out by the meanderings and erosion
al activities of the two rivers. The sandy soils are sediment
s that have been brought from hundreds if not thousands of kilometers away by the Luvuvhu and the Limpopo.
, were attracted to the area as a source of raw material for making early stone age tools
. The raw materials they were seeking are still visible today in the form of rocks and cobbles of non-native materials brought from the West and in abundance in channel lag deposits left by the ancient Limpopo. Homo erectus clearly found this raw material provided by the rivers of great importance and used these abundant gravel deposits as quarry sites – there are quite literally hundreds of thousands if not millions of stone tools, and the byproducts of their manufacturing process, which can be seen throughout the area. Beautifully crafted hand axe
s – which are common – are evidence that this early stone tool culture represents the Acheulean
industry and lasted from around 1.7 million years ago until around 250,000 years ago when it gave way to a slightly more advanced stone tool culture known as the Middle Stone Age
. The vast numbers of Acheulean aged stone tools in the region are not only testimony of the large numbers of human ancestor
s that occupied the area, but also the vast amount of time in which this occupation occurred – more than 1.4 million years of continuous occupation.
Tools of the Middle Stone Age are also in abundance in the area, particularly on top of hills and mountain
s in the region where these humans were apparently using overlooks and high spots to scout for game
. On top of many hills, at particularly good outlooks, can be found quite literally thousands of Middle Stone age knives, scrapers and spear
-points. The Middle Stone Age begins around 250,000 years ago and ends around 25 – 35 thousand years ago. It holds within this temporal period not only the origins of a new and more complex toolkit used by humans, but the origin in Africa of modernity
itself – it is during the middle part of this period that we see not only the emergence of the modern human brain and physical features but modern human culture
– our infinite
toolkit, art
work and burial
of the dead.
The Middle Stone age is followed in this region by the Latest Stone Age
and most places have evidence of the micro-lithic cultures that characterize this hunter-gather
lifestyle of modern humans. The Latest Stone Age merges with the culture of Iron-aged Bantu
speaking pastoralists who moved into the region around 1500 to 2000 years ago. Rock art
from this period is abundant in the region, particularly South of the Luvuvhu, but good examples have recently been discovered in the Pafuri region itself.
and trade network began to emerge just to the North as is evidenced at such sites as Mapungubwe
. Additionally, the idea of sacred leadership emerged – concept that transcends English terms such as “Kings”
or “Queens”
. Sacred
leaders were elite
members of the community, types of prophet
s, people with supernatural
powers and the ability to predict the future. These early civilizations represented the rise of one of the greatest ancient trade networks the world has ever seen.
Through interactions and trade with Muslim
traders plying the Indian ocean
as far south as present day Mozambique – the region emerged as a trade center producing gold
and ivory
and trading for glass beads
and porcelain
from as far away as China
.
The end of Mapungubwe occurred at the same time as the rise of an even greater trading and architectural civilization – that of Great Zimbabwe
– which flourished for more than one hundred years. The centre of power then shifted to the south at a site known as Khami near present day Bulawayo
. It was then, around 1550, that groups crossed the Limpopo and founded numerous flourishing settlements in the Pafuri region including that of Thulamela on the southern bank of the Luvuvhu. Thulamela was one of many walled
cities that existed in the Pafuri triangle – almost every hill and overlook in the area has evidence of significant occupation during this period. Thulamela and the other walled cities of the region were occupied at about the same time Portuguese
trade began on the eastern coast of southern Africa
. The wealth and sophistication of these people is evident by the beautifully crafted gold jewelry, Arab
glass beads and Chinese porcelain
found in the sites and accompanying burials of sacred leaders. The Thulamela culture ended around 1650.
by the Apartheid South Africa government in 1969 and about 1500 of them were relocated to land to the South so that their original tribal
areas could be integrated into the greater Kruger National Park. In 1996 the Makuleke tribe submitted a land claim for 19842 hectares (198.4 km²) in the northern park of the Kruger National Park
. The land was given back to the Makuleke people, however, they chose not to resettle on the land but to engage with the Private Sector
to invest in tourism
, thus resulting in the building of several game lodges.
by the time the Makuleke people received the land back. Recent anti-poaching efforts and re-introduction of game including white rhino, have resulted in significant increases in the number of animals.
The introduction of significant species which have been absent for many years (more than 120 years in the case of the white rhino), the protection of all animal and plant life, and partnering with the Makuleke people in sustainable ecotourism mark the beginning of the restoration of ecological integrity to the area.
The Pafuri region is famous for its bird watching and more than 250 bird species have been recorded in a year. While comprising only about 1% of the Kruger National Park's actual area, the area contains plants and animals representing almost 75% of the Parks total diversity.
The area has both semi-arid vegetation including numerous large baobabs as well as rich riverine forests with large Nyala trees
. While game is plentiful, one is most likely to encounter Nyala
, buffalo
and Bushbuck
in the riverine areas and drier adapted game, including white rhino, in the uplands. The area is famous for its elephant herds in winter, which come to drink from the Luvuvhu river.
” of Kipling
fame and yet seeing a great sand filled body instead. This is, however, a recent phenomenon, probably due to a great extent to the over utilization by agriculture of the water resources of the river. As recently as 1950, a Zambezi shark was caught at the confluence of the Luvuvhu and Limpopo rivers.
Kruger National Park
Kruger National Park is one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers and extends from north to south and from east to west.To the west and south of the Kruger National Park are the two South African provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. In the north is Zimbabwe, and to the east is...
, South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
, and comprises approximately 240 square kilometres of land. The “triangle” is a wedge of land created by the confluence of the Limpopo
Limpopo River
The Limpopo River rises in central southern Africa, and flows generally eastwards to the Indian Ocean. It is around long, with a drainage basin in size. Its mean annual discharge is 170 m³/s at its mouth...
and Luvuvhu River
Levubu River
The Levubu River is located in the northern Limpopo province of South Africa. Some of its tributaries, such as the Mutshindudi River and Mutale River rise in the Soutpansberg Mountains...
s at the tripoint
Tripoint
A tripoint, or trijunction , is a geographical point at which the borders of three countries or subnational entities meet....
Crook's Corner, which forms a border with Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
along the Limpopo River. It is a natural choke point for wildlife crossing from North to South and back, and forms a distinct ecological region.
Pafuri (Shangaan
Tsonga language
The Tsonga or Xitsonga language is spoken in southern Africa by the Tsonga people, also known as the Shangaan.- Classification :Tsonga belongs to the Bantu branch of the Niger–Congo languages...
) is named after Venda chieftains, the Mphaphuli, and the Luvuvhu River is named after a Combretum
Combretum
The bushwillows or combretums, Combretum, make up the type genus of the family Combretaceae. The genus comprises about 370 species of trees and shrubs, roughly 300 of which are native to tropical and southern Africa, about 5 to Madagascar, some 25 to tropical Asia and approximately 40 to tropical...
tree (Venda
Venda language
Venda, also known as or , is a Bantu language and an official language of South Africa. The majority of Venda speakers live in the northern part of South Africa's Limpopo Province, but about 10% of speakers live in Zimbabwe. The Venda language is related to Kalanga which is spoken in Botswana...
: muvuvhu) growing on its banks.
Geological history
The Makuleke region carries a remarkable geological and natural heritage that makes this region of interest to geographers and historians. Some rocks in the area have been dated to over 250 million years old. In the bottom of Lanner GorgeLanner Gorge
The Lanner Gorge is located in the far North of the Kruger National Park. It forms the boundary between the Kruger National Park to the South and the Makuleke Concession to the North...
are rocks that appear to be of Permian
Permian
The PermianThe term "Permian" was introduced into geology in 1841 by Sir Sir R. I. Murchison, president of the Geological Society of London, who identified typical strata in extensive Russian explorations undertaken with Edouard de Verneuil; Murchison asserted in 1841 that he named his "Permian...
age, which indicate that the then interior of Pangea was harsh and arid.
Permian
The PermianThe term "Permian" was introduced into geology in 1841 by Sir Sir R. I. Murchison, president of the Geological Society of London, who identified typical strata in extensive Russian explorations undertaken with Edouard de Verneuil; Murchison asserted in 1841 that he named his "Permian...
ones are from the Triassic
Triassic
The Triassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about 250 to 200 Mya . As the first period of the Mesozoic Era, the Triassic follows the Permian and is followed by the Jurassic. Both the start and end of the Triassic are marked by major extinction events...
and date to between 248 million and 206 million years. Rocks of this age are found in the lower walls of Lanner Gorge and in these can be found fragments of bone and probably wood representing both holdovers from the Permian–Triassic extinction event event like glossopetrids (a type of tree) and dicynodonts (a form of mammal-like reptile), and new forms that would dominate the Mesozoic, including modern conifers, cycads and of course dinosaur
Dinosaur
Dinosaurs are a diverse group of animals of the clade and superorder Dinosauria. They were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates for over 160 million years, from the late Triassic period until the end of the Cretaceous , when the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of...
s, such as Euskelosaurus
Euskelosaurus
Euskelosaurus was a semi-bipedal dinosaur from the Late Triassic. It was a prosauropod that lived in the Late Triassic Period, in present-day South Africa, Lesotho, and Zimbabwe. It was first described by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1866 as Euskelesaurus brownii based on holotype BMNH R1625, limb and...
.
Most of the sandstones in the Pafuri region however probably represent the great age of dinosaurs – the Jurassic
Jurassic
The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about Mya to Mya, that is, from the end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic era, also known as the age of reptiles. The start of the period is marked by...
and Cretaceous
Cretaceous
The Cretaceous , derived from the Latin "creta" , usually abbreviated K for its German translation Kreide , is a geologic period and system from circa to million years ago. In the geologic timescale, the Cretaceous follows the Jurassic period and is followed by the Paleogene period of the...
Periods. During the early parts of the Jurassic, which lasted from approximately 210 million years ago until about 144 million years ago, the area was almost certainly extremely arid as is evidenced by the great sandstones of the region and the many dune and desert structures – such as desert roses – that are found preserved within the rocks of the region. In these sediments have been found the remains of early dinosaurs - possibly those of a species known as Massospondylus
Massospondylus
Massospondylus and ) is a genus of prosauropod dinosaur from the early Jurassic Period . It was described by Sir Richard Owen in 1854 from remains found in South Africa, and is thus one of the first dinosaurs to have been named...
. It was also clearly a period of intense volcanism
Volcano
2. Bedrock3. Conduit 4. Base5. Sill6. Dike7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano8. Flank| 9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano10. Throat11. Parasitic cone12. Lava flow13. Vent14. Crater15...
– with intrusive igneous rocks representing the ejected and intrusive molten matter from the interior of the Earth scattered about the region. The Jurassic was the age of great plant eating sauropods
Sauropoda
Sauropoda , or the sauropods , are an infraorder of saurischian dinosaurs. They had long necks, long tails, small heads , and thick, pillar-like legs. They are notable for the enormous sizes attained by some species, and the group includes the largest animals to have ever lived on land...
and smaller, carnivorous
Carnivore
A carnivore meaning 'meat eater' is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging...
dinosaurs. This was the age of the origin of vertebrate
Vertebrate
Vertebrates are animals that are members of the subphylum Vertebrata . Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with currently about 58,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fishes, bony fishes, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds...
flight with pterosaurs – flying dinosaurs - and the first birds appearing. The oceans themselves were full of a wide variety of life including many different types of fish
Fish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
, squids and ammonite
Ammonite
Ammonite, as a zoological or paleontological term, refers to any member of the Ammonoidea an extinct subclass within the Molluscan class Cephalopoda which are more closely related to living coleoids Ammonite, as a zoological or paleontological term, refers to any member of the Ammonoidea an extinct...
s – fossil
Fossil
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals , plants, and other organisms from the remote past...
s of which are plentiful in the slightly younger rocks of the coastal regions to the southeast of the area. This was also a time of global upheaval as the World-continent of Pangea began to break up.
Flora
Flora is the plant life occurring in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring or indigenous—native plant life. The corresponding term for animals is fauna.-Etymology:...
have also been found in the rocks of the region. The Cretaceous Period lasted from about 144 million years ago until 65 million years when the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event occurred. While the Cretaceous is often referred to as the end of the age of dinosaurs, many new lifeforms appeared. This is the age of Tyrannosaurus rex
Tyrannosaurus
Tyrannosaurus meaning "tyrant," and sauros meaning "lizard") is a genus of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaur. The species Tyrannosaurus rex , commonly abbreviated to T. rex, is a fixture in popular culture. It lived throughout what is now western North America, with a much wider range than other...
and the ceratopsian dinosaurs (armoured and horned dinosaurs like Triceratops
Triceratops
Triceratops is a genus of herbivorous ceratopsid dinosaur which lived during the late Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period, around 68 to 65 million years ago in what is now North America. It was one of the last dinosaur genera to appear before the great Cretaceous–Paleogene...
). The abundant marine
Marine (ocean)
Marine is an umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the sea or ocean, such as marine biology, marine ecology and marine geology...
deposits of the North East coast of South Africa are of this age. There is also the hope of finding the rarest forms of vertebrates alive in this time period – the tiny mammals which would eventually dominate the planet after the Cretaceous extinction event.
The Cretaceous is followed by the Palaeogene Epoch
Epoch (geology)
An epoch is a subdivision of the geologic timescale based on rock layering. In order, the higher subdivisions are periods, eras and eons. We are currently living in the Holocene epoch...
– but this is apparently not well recorded in this region. The next sedimentary sequence is apparently just under two million years old – and comprises the Limpopo and Luvuvhu sands and gravels covering the lower parts of the region. The landscape today in the Makuleke has been largely carved out by the meanderings and erosion
Erosion
Erosion is when materials are removed from the surface and changed into something else. It only works by hydraulic actions and transport of solids in the natural environment, and leads to the deposition of these materials elsewhere...
al activities of the two rivers. The sandy soils are sediment
Sediment
Sediment is naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of fluids such as wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity acting on the particle itself....
s that have been brought from hundreds if not thousands of kilometers away by the Luvuvhu and the Limpopo.
Early human history
From about 1.5 million years ago, human ancestors, who were probably members of the species Homo erectusHomo erectus
Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the end of the Pliocene epoch to the later Pleistocene, about . The species originated in Africa and spread as far as India, China and Java. There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H...
, were attracted to the area as a source of raw material for making early stone age tools
Stone tool
A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric, particularly Stone Age cultures that have become extinct...
. The raw materials they were seeking are still visible today in the form of rocks and cobbles of non-native materials brought from the West and in abundance in channel lag deposits left by the ancient Limpopo. Homo erectus clearly found this raw material provided by the rivers of great importance and used these abundant gravel deposits as quarry sites – there are quite literally hundreds of thousands if not millions of stone tools, and the byproducts of their manufacturing process, which can be seen throughout the area. Beautifully crafted hand axe
Hand axe
A hand axe is a bifacial Stone tool typical of the lower and middle Palaeolithic , and is the longest-used tool of human history.-Distribution:...
s – which are common – are evidence that this early stone tool culture represents the Acheulean
Acheulean
Acheulean is the name given to an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture associated with early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic era across Africa and much of West Asia, South Asia and Europe. Acheulean tools are typically found with Homo erectus remains...
industry and lasted from around 1.7 million years ago until around 250,000 years ago when it gave way to a slightly more advanced stone tool culture known as the Middle Stone Age
Middle Stone Age
The Middle Stone Age was a period of African Prehistory between Early Stone Age and Late Stone Age. It is generally considered to have begun around 280,000 years ago and ended around 50-25,000 years ago. The beginnings of particular MSA stone tools have their origins as far back as 550-500,000...
. The vast numbers of Acheulean aged stone tools in the region are not only testimony of the large numbers of human ancestor
Ancestor
An ancestor is a parent or the parent of an ancestor ....
s that occupied the area, but also the vast amount of time in which this occupation occurred – more than 1.4 million years of continuous occupation.
Tools of the Middle Stone Age are also in abundance in the area, particularly on top of hills and mountain
Mountain
Image:Himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan mountain range with Mount Everestrect 58 14 160 49 Chomo Lonzorect 200 28 335 52 Makalurect 378 24 566 45 Mount Everestrect 188 581 920 656 Tibetan Plateaurect 250 406 340 427 Rong River...
s in the region where these humans were apparently using overlooks and high spots to scout for game
Game (food)
Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated. Game animals are also hunted for sport.The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world. This will be influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted view about what can or...
. On top of many hills, at particularly good outlooks, can be found quite literally thousands of Middle Stone age knives, scrapers and spear
Spear
A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head.The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with bamboo spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastened to the shaft, such as flint, obsidian, iron, steel or...
-points. The Middle Stone Age begins around 250,000 years ago and ends around 25 – 35 thousand years ago. It holds within this temporal period not only the origins of a new and more complex toolkit used by humans, but the origin in Africa of modernity
Modernity
Modernity typically refers to a post-traditional, post-medieval historical period, one marked by the move from feudalism toward capitalism, industrialization, secularization, rationalization, the nation-state and its constituent institutions and forms of surveillance...
itself – it is during the middle part of this period that we see not only the emergence of the modern human brain and physical features but modern human culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
– our infinite
Infinity
Infinity is a concept in many fields, most predominantly mathematics and physics, that refers to a quantity without bound or end. People have developed various ideas throughout history about the nature of infinity...
toolkit, art
Art
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect....
work and burial
Burial
Burial is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing an object in it, and covering it over.-History:...
of the dead.
The Middle Stone age is followed in this region by the Latest Stone Age
Upper Paleolithic
The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates to between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of...
and most places have evidence of the micro-lithic cultures that characterize this hunter-gather
Hunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forage society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were...
lifestyle of modern humans. The Latest Stone Age merges with the culture of Iron-aged Bantu
Bantu languages
The Bantu languages constitute a traditional sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, though the distinction between language and dialect is often unclear, and Ethnologue counts 535 languages...
speaking pastoralists who moved into the region around 1500 to 2000 years ago. Rock art
Rock art
Rock art is a term used in archaeology for any human-made markings made on natural stone. They can be divided into:*Petroglyphs - carvings into stone surfaces*Pictographs - rock and cave paintings...
from this period is abundant in the region, particularly South of the Luvuvhu, but good examples have recently been discovered in the Pafuri region itself.
Mapungubwe and the rise of Thulamela
From around 1200 a large cultural civilizationCivilization
Civilization is a sometimes controversial term that has been used in several related ways. Primarily, the term has been used to refer to the material and instrumental side of human cultures that are complex in terms of technology, science, and division of labor. Such civilizations are generally...
and trade network began to emerge just to the North as is evidenced at such sites as Mapungubwe
Mapungubwe
After Mapungubwe's fall, it was forgotten until 1932. On New Year's Eve 1932, E. S. J. van Graan, a local farmer and prospector, and his son, a former student of the University of Pretoria, discovered the wealth of artifacts on top of the hill. They reported the find to Professor Leo...
. Additionally, the idea of sacred leadership emerged – concept that transcends English terms such as “Kings”
King
- Centers of population :* King, Ontario, CanadaIn USA:* King, Indiana* King, North Carolina* King, Lincoln County, Wisconsin* King, Waupaca County, Wisconsin* King County, Washington- Moving-image works :Television:...
or “Queens”
Queen regnant
A queen regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right, in contrast to a queen consort, who is the wife of a reigning king. An empress regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right over an empire....
. Sacred
Sacred
Holiness, or sanctity, is in general the state of being holy or sacred...
leaders were elite
Elite
Elite refers to an exceptional or privileged group that wields considerable power within its sphere of influence...
members of the community, types of prophet
Prophet
In religion, a prophet, from the Greek word προφήτης profitis meaning "foreteller", is an individual who is claimed to have been contacted by the supernatural or the divine, and serves as an intermediary with humanity, delivering this newfound knowledge from the supernatural entity to other people...
s, people with supernatural
Supernatural
The supernatural or is that which is not subject to the laws of nature, or more figuratively, that which is said to exist above and beyond nature...
powers and the ability to predict the future. These early civilizations represented the rise of one of the greatest ancient trade networks the world has ever seen.
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
traders plying the Indian ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
as far south as present day Mozambique – the region emerged as a trade center producing gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
and ivory
Ivory trade
The ivory trade is the commercial, often illegal trade in the ivory tusks of the hippopotamus, walrus, narwhal, mammoth, and most commonly, Asian and African elephants....
and trading for glass beads
Powder glass beads
The earliest powder glass beads on record were discovered during archaeological excavations at Mapungubwe, in present-day Zimbabwe, and dated to 970-1000 CE. In our time, the main area of powder glass bead manufacture is West Africa, most importantly, Ghana...
and porcelain
Porcelain
Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating raw materials, generally including clay in the form of kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between and...
from as far away as China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
.
The end of Mapungubwe occurred at the same time as the rise of an even greater trading and architectural civilization – that of Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city that was once the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, which existed from 1100 to 1450 C.E. during the country’s Late Iron Age. The monument, which first began to be constructed in the 11th century and which continued to be built until the 14th century, spanned an...
– which flourished for more than one hundred years. The centre of power then shifted to the south at a site known as Khami near present day Bulawayo
Bulawayo
Bulawayo is the second largest city in Zimbabwe after the capital Harare, with an estimated population in 2010 of 2,000,000. It is located in Matabeleland, 439 km southwest of Harare, and is now treated as a separate provincial area from Matabeleland...
. It was then, around 1550, that groups crossed the Limpopo and founded numerous flourishing settlements in the Pafuri region including that of Thulamela on the southern bank of the Luvuvhu. Thulamela was one of many walled
Defensive wall
A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city or settlement from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements...
cities that existed in the Pafuri triangle – almost every hill and overlook in the area has evidence of significant occupation during this period. Thulamela and the other walled cities of the region were occupied at about the same time Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
trade began on the eastern coast of southern Africa
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. Within the region are numerous territories, including the Republic of South Africa ; nowadays, the simpler term South Africa is generally reserved for the country in English.-UN...
. The wealth and sophistication of these people is evident by the beautifully crafted gold jewelry, Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
glass beads and Chinese porcelain
Chinese porcelain
Chinese ceramic ware shows a continuous development since the pre-dynastic periods, and is one of the most significant forms of Chinese art. China is richly endowed with the raw materials needed for making ceramics. The first types of ceramics were made during the Palaeolithic era...
found in the sites and accompanying burials of sacred leaders. The Thulamela culture ended around 1650.
Political history
The Makuleke area was forcibly taken from the Makuleke peopleMakuleke (tribe)
The Makuleke are a Tsonga tribe living in the Pafuri Triangle of South Africa at the conluence of the Luvuhu river and Limpopo river in what is now the Kruger National Park. The Tsonga-speaking agricultural and fishing tribe settled the area in the early nineteenth century with decentralized...
by the Apartheid South Africa government in 1969 and about 1500 of them were relocated to land to the South so that their original tribal
Tribe
A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.Many anthropologists use the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups .Some theorists...
areas could be integrated into the greater Kruger National Park. In 1996 the Makuleke tribe submitted a land claim for 19842 hectares (198.4 km²) in the northern park of the Kruger National Park
Kruger National Park
Kruger National Park is one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers and extends from north to south and from east to west.To the west and south of the Kruger National Park are the two South African provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. In the north is Zimbabwe, and to the east is...
. The land was given back to the Makuleke people, however, they chose not to resettle on the land but to engage with the Private Sector
Private sector
In economics, the private sector is that part of the economy, sometimes referred to as the citizen sector, which is run by private individuals or groups, usually as a means of enterprise for profit, and is not controlled by the state...
to invest in tourism
Tourism
Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes".Tourism has become a...
, thus resulting in the building of several game lodges.
Reintroduction of game
Due to its proximity to Zimbabwe and Mozambique, the area had been heavily poachedPoaching
Poaching is the illegal taking of wild plants or animals contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws. Violations of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law and, collectively, such violations are known as poaching.It may be illegal and in...
by the time the Makuleke people received the land back. Recent anti-poaching efforts and re-introduction of game including white rhino, have resulted in significant increases in the number of animals.
The introduction of significant species which have been absent for many years (more than 120 years in the case of the white rhino), the protection of all animal and plant life, and partnering with the Makuleke people in sustainable ecotourism mark the beginning of the restoration of ecological integrity to the area.
Plants and animals
The area has both semi-arid vegetation including numerous large baobabs as well as rich riverine forests with large Nyala trees
Xanthocercis zambesiaca
Xanthocercis zambesiaca is a species of legume in the Fabaceae family. It is found in Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe....
. While game is plentiful, one is most likely to encounter Nyala
Nyala
The Nyala is a Southern African antelope. It is a spiral-horned dense-forest antelope that is uncomfortable in open spaces and is most often seen at water holes. Nyalas live alone or in small family groups of up to 10 individuals.The male stands up to 110 cm , the female is up to 90 cm ...
, buffalo
African Buffalo
The African buffalo, affalo, nyati, Mbogo or Cape buffalo is a large African bovine. It is not closely related to the slightly larger wild Asian water buffalo, but its ancestry remains unclear...
and Bushbuck
Bushbuck
The bushbuck is the most widespread antelope in Sub-Saharan Africa, and is found in rain forests, montane forests, forest-savanna mosaics and bush savannaforest and woodland. Recently, genetic studies have shown that the bushbuck, is in fact a complex of two geographically and phenotypically...
in the riverine areas and drier adapted game, including white rhino, in the uplands. The area is famous for its elephant herds in winter, which come to drink from the Luvuvhu river.
Desertification
Many people visiting the modern Limpopo expecting the “great grey-green greasy LimpopoLimpopo River
The Limpopo River rises in central southern Africa, and flows generally eastwards to the Indian Ocean. It is around long, with a drainage basin in size. Its mean annual discharge is 170 m³/s at its mouth...
” of Kipling
Rudyard Kipling
Joseph Rudyard Kipling was an English poet, short-story writer, and novelist chiefly remembered for his celebration of British imperialism, tales and poems of British soldiers in India, and his tales for children. Kipling received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Literature...
fame and yet seeing a great sand filled body instead. This is, however, a recent phenomenon, probably due to a great extent to the over utilization by agriculture of the water resources of the river. As recently as 1950, a Zambezi shark was caught at the confluence of the Luvuvhu and Limpopo rivers.
Other interesting facts
- Crook's Corner gained its name in the 19th century as the region was seen as a haven for criminals and poachers who would use the proximity of three countries at the join of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu rivers to escape police by fleeing out of their jurisdiction into an adjoining country.
- The Makuleke area will form the core of the approximately 35,000 km² Transfrontier ParkGreat Limpopo Transfrontier ParkGreat Limpopo Transfrontier Park is a 35,000 km² peace park that is in the process of being formed. It will link the Limpopo National Park in Mozambique, Kruger National Park in South Africa, Gonarezhou National Park, Manjinji Pan Sanctuary and Malipati Safari Area in Zimbabwe, as well as the...
or "Peace Park".