Military history of Burma
Encyclopedia
The military history of Burma (Myanmar) spans over a millennium, and is one of the main factors that have shaped the history of the country, and to a lesser degree the histories of the country's neighbors. At various times in history, successive Burmese kingdoms were also involved in warfare against their neighboring states in the surrounding regions of modern Burmese borders—from Bengal
, Manipur
and Assam
in the west to the Chinese Shan States in southern Yunnan
to Laos
and Siam in the east and southeast.
The Royal Burmese Army
was a major Southeast Asian armed force between the 11th and 13th centuries and between 16th and 19th centuries. It was the premier military force in the 16th century when Toungoo kings
built the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia
. The centuries-long warfare between Burma and Siam (1548–1855) shaped not only the history of both countries but also that of mainland Southeast Asia. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, highly militaristic Konbaung kings
had built the largest empire in mainland Southeast Asia until they ran into the British
in present-day northeast India. Prior to the three Anglo-Burmese wars (1824–1885), previous existential threats to the country had come from China
in the form of Mongol invasions
(1277–1301) and Manchu invasions (1765–1769).
The country was a major battle front
in the Southeast Asian theater
of World War II
. Since independence in 1948, the country's various political and ethnic factions have been locked in one of the longest civil wars
today, with myriad insurgencies receiving implicit and explicit help from various external states.
-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of the Irrawaddy valley in recorded history, founded several city states that thrived between the 1st century BCE and the early 9th century CE. Eighth century Chinese records identify 18 Pyu states throughout the Irrawadddy valley, and describe the Pyu as a humane and peaceful people to whom war was virtually unknown and who wore silk cotton instead of actually silk so that they would not have to kill silk worms. To be sure, this peaceful description by the Chinese was a snapshot of the Pyu realm, and may not represent the life in the city-states in general.
The earliest extant record of warfare in the Pyu realm is the early 9th century when the Pyu states came under constant attacks by the armies of the Kingdom of Nanzhao (from present-day Yunnan
). Nanzhao had just become a major military power in the region by defeating the Tibetan Empire
in 801. The Nanzhao warriors then pressed down southward into the present-day Shan Hills
and into the Irrawaddy valley. Ancient city-states one by one surrendered or were overrun by the "powerful mounted archers from the north". In 832, Nanzhao destroyed the city-state of Halin
, close to old Tagaung, returning again in 835 to carry off many captives. The Nanzhao cavalry is said to have swept down all the way to the Bay of Bengal despite stiff resistance.
(Burmans or Bamar), who had come down with the Nanzhao raids, began to settle the central Irrawaddy valley, near the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin
rivers, en masse. The Burmans founded a small fortified city of Pagan
(Bagan) c. 849, probably to help the Nanzhao pacify the surrounding country side. The early Pagan army consisted mainly of conscripts raised just prior to or during the times of war. The main weaponry of the infantry
largely consisted of swords, spears and bow and arrows. The infantry units were supported by cavalry
and elephantry
corps. The Pagan army would later be known to the world for their war elephants as reported by Marco Polo
.
By King Anawrahta
's accession in 1044, the small principality had gradually grown to include its immediate surrounding area—to about 200 miles north to south and 80 miles from east to west. Over the next 30 years, Anawrahta went on to unify for the first time the regions that would later constitute the modern-day Burma. Anawrahta began his campaigns in the nearer Shan Hills
, and extended conquests to Lower Burma
down to the Tenasserim coast to Phuket
and North Arakan
. Anawrahta's conquest of Tenasserim checked the Khmer Empire
's encroachment in the Tenasserim coast, and secured control of the peninsula ports, which were transit points between the Indian Ocean and China.
After a flurry of military campaigns by Anawrahta, Pagan entered a gilded age that would last for the next two centuries. Aside from a few occasional rebellions, the kingdom was largely peaceful during the period. The most serious was the 1084 rebellion by Pegu (Bago), which nearly toppled the Pagan regime. In the 1110s, Pagan sent two separate expeditions to Arakan to place its claimant Letya Min Nan on the Arakanese throne. The first expedition failed but the second in 1118 succeeded. Sinhalese Mahavamsa Chronicles
mention a dispute over trade in elephants between Burma and Sri Lanka that prompted the Ceylonese forces to raid Lower Burma in 1180.
The authority of Pagan continued to grow, peaking in the reign of King Narapatisithu
(r. 1173–1210). The king formally founded the Royal Palace Guards
in 1173, the first extant record of a standing army. Pagan's influence reached further south into the upper Malay peninsula
, at least to the Salween river
in the east, below the current China border in the farther north, and to the west, northern Arakan
and the Chin Hills. Up to the first half of the 13th century, much of mainland Southeast Asia
was under some degree of control of either the Pagan Empire or the Khmer Empire.
, Mongols and Shans.
The first signs of disorder appeared soon after Narathihapate
's accession in 1254. The inexperienced king faced revolts in Arakanese state of Macchagiri (present-day Kyaukpyu District
) in the west, and Martaban
(Mottama) in the south. The Martaban rebellion was easily put down but Macchagiri required a second expedition before it too was put down. The calm did not last long. Martaban again revolted in 1281.
demanded tribute, in 1271 and again in 1273. When Narathihapate refused both times, the Mongols systematically invaded the country. The first invasion in 1277 defeated the Burmese at the battle of Ngasaunggyan
, and secured their hold of Kanngai
(modern-day Yingjiang, Yunnan, 112 km north of Bhamo
). In 1283, their forces moved south and occupied Bhamo
. In 1287, Mongol armies invaded farther south once again. Instead of defending the country, the king fled Pagan for Lower Burma where he was promptly assassinated by one of his sons.
Recent research indicates that Mongol armies may not have reached Pagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. But the damage was already done. All the vassal states of Pagan revolted right after the king's death, and went their own way. In the south, Wareru
, the man who had seized the governorship of Martaban in 1281, consolidated Mon
-speaking regions of Lower Burma, and declared Ramannadesa
(Land of the Mon) independent. In the west too, Arakan stopped paying tribute. The 250-year-old Pagan Empire had ceased to exist.
never sanctioned an actual occupation of Pagan. His real aim appeared to have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented."
controlled just a small area outside the capital. Instead, the real power rested with three former Pagan commanders of nearby Myinsaing. It was the brothers, not the nominal sovereign Kyawswa, that sent a force to retake Lower Burma in 1294 when Wareru decided to become a vassal of the Sukhothai Kingdom
. Wareru drove back the Myinsaing forces.
Concerned by the increasing power of the three brothers, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognized by the Mongol emperor Temür Khan as viceroy of Pagan in March 1298. In December 1298, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom
. In response, the Mongols launched another invasion in January 1301 but could not break through. The besiegers took the bribes by the three brothers to retreat. But the commanders were executed by the Yunnan government when they got back. The Mongols sent no more invasions, and withdrew entirely from Upper Burma in 1303.
in the entire northwestern to eastern arc of central Burma, thoroughly surrounding the valley. They continued to raid the Irrawaddy valley throughout the 14th century, taking advantage of the split of Myinsaing into Pinya
and Sagaing
kingdoms in 1315. Starting in 1359, then the most powerful Shan state of Mogaung
(in present-day Kachin State
) began a series of sustained assaults on central Burma. In 1364, its forces sacked both Sagaing and Pinya in succession, and left off with the loot.
The power vacuum did not last long. In the same year, Thadominbya
, a Sagaing prince, emerged to reunify Upper Burma and founded the Ava Kingdom
. Nonetheless, Shan raids into Upper Burma continued off-and-on in spurts. The raids were led by different Shan states at different times. Mogaung's devastating raids (1359–1368) were replaced in 1370s and 1390s by Mohnyin
's raids that reached as far south as Sagaing
. After Ava conquered Mohnyin in 1406, the mantle was picked up by Theinni
(Hsweni) which raided Avan territory from 1408 to 1413.
The intensity and frequency of the raids lessened in the 15th century due to both the rise of Ava and indeed the arrival of the Ming Chinese
in Yunnan in the 1380–1388.
Attempts to impose order in the unruly Shan states proved difficult even for the Chinese. The Ming government's four campaigns (1438–1449) failed to achieve any lasting order. The Chinese troops fruitlessly chased Shan rebels, who simply returned when the Chinese troops left. The Chinese even chased the Shan rebels into Burmese territory, and left only after the Burmese gave up the dead body of the chief. (The event took place in either 1445–1446 according to the Burmese chronicles or 1448–1449, according to the Chinese records.) Faced with more pressing rebellions elsewhere, the Ming government gave up trying to impose imperial order in the Yunnan borderlands, and had to be content with receiving nominal tribute. The Shan states would maintain their space until the mid-16th century.
-speaking kingdom based out of Martaban had slowly come into its own. It formally broke away from its overlord Sukhothai in 1331. The southern kingdom's relationship with Sukhothai had always been an opportunistic arrangement from the beginning, designed to secure its rear in case of invasions from Upper Burma. In 1298, just four years after he became a vassal of Sukhothai, when the Upper Burma ceased to be a threat, Wareru conveniently asked for and received recognition directly from the Mongol emperor as governor even though Sukhothai itself was already a vassal of the Mongols. Indeed, when Sukhothai grew weaker, Martaban seized the Tenasserim coast from Sukhothai in 1319. A decade later, Sukhothai tried to reassert control, reoccupying Tenasserim, and attacking Martaban in 1331. Martaban's defenses held. It threw off any formal ties with Sukhothai.
Nonetheless, the kingdom remained fragmented into three power centers: the Irrawaddy delta in the west, Pegu in the middle and Martaban in the southeast, each with its own chief, who pledged nominal allegiance to the high king. In 1363, Martaban revolted, and outlasted Pegu's armies. After six years, Pegu gave up. Martaban would be independent for another 20 years until 1389.
Razadarit proved quite able, however, to meet Ava's challenge. By 1391, he had not only repelled Ava's invasions but also recaptured Martaban which had been in revolt since 1363. Ava and Pegu entered into a truce in 1391. But in the early 1400s when Ava's new king Minkhaung I
was facing multiple rebellions, Razadarit invaded the upcountry with a large naval force. But Ava's defenses held, and the two sides reached another truce in early 1406.
After the second truce with Pegu, Ava resumed its acquisition spree elsewhere. By late 1406, its armies had taken Arakan in the west and Mohnyin in the north. It proved too much for Pegu as it could not get Ava to get too strong. Razadarit again broke the truce in late 1407 by driving out Ava's garrison in Arakan. He also got the Shan state of Theinni
(Hswenwi) to attack Ava from the north. Ava fought off attacks from both sides, and by 1410, under the leadership of Crown Price Minyekyawswa
, began to gain an upper hand. Minyekyawswa decisively defeated Theinni and its Chinese troops in 1413. With the rear secure, the prince invaded the Hanthawaddy country in full force in 1414. He was on the cusp of victory when he was killed in action in 1417. The war lost steam after Minyekyawswa's death, and ended soon after both Minkhaung and Razadarit died in 1422.
The restoration came in 1430 when the last king of Arakan, Narameikhla, in exile since 1406, came back with an army provided by Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah
of Bengal
. Narameikhla again became king, though as a vassal of Bengal. The vassalage was brief. In 1437, Narameikhla's son Min Khayi annexed Sandoway and Ramu, his overlord's territory, unifying the Arakan littoral for the first time in history. An ascendant Arakan seized Chittagong
in 1459, and received tribute from the Ganges delta.
The beginning of the end of Ava came in 1481. The new king Minkhaung II
was greeted with a multitude of rebellions but it proved to be different this time. The most serious rebellion was by his younger brother, lord of Yamethin
. With a serious rebellion so close to Ava, vassal states broke away one by one. The Yamethin rebellion went on until 1501. In 1482, Minkhaung's uncle at Prome successfully revolted, the Prome Kingdom
sprang into existence. Ava's vassal Shan states of Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik and Kale also broke away in the 1490s. Surprisingly, Ava's steadfast ally during this period was the usually restive vassal of Toungoo which remained loyal to Ava until Minkhaung's death in 1502.
's reign (1502–1527). Three of the king's own brothers openly raised a rebellion in 1502. Mohnyin, Ava's former vassal, now began to raid its territory. In 1507, Ava ceded to Mohnyin all northern Avan territory down to present-day Shwebo
in the vain hope that the raids would stop. It did not. Ava desperately tried to retain Toungoo's loyalty by ceding the key Kyaukse granary to Toungoo but it too failed. Toungoo took the region but formally broke away in 1510.
Ava's only ally was the Shan state of Thibaw
(Hsipaw), which too was fighting Mohnyin's raids on its territory. Mohnyin was attacking other Shan states when it was not raiding Ava. It seized Bhamo
from Thibaw in 1512 in the east, and raiding Kale in the west. The Ava-Thibaw alliance was able to retake Shwebo for a time but Mohnyin proved too strong. By the early 1520s, Chief Sawlon
of Mohnyin had assembled a confederation of Shan states (Mogaung, Bhamo, Momeik, and Kale) under his leadership. Prome had also joined the confederation. The confederation wiped out Ava's defenses in Shwebo in 1524. Finally in 1527, the forces of the confederation and Prome took Ava.
The Confederation later sacked Prome in 1533 because Sawlon felt that Prome had not given sufficient help.
, viceroy of Toungoo, would not make war against the larger neighbor for the remainder of his life. Mingyinyo declared independence from Ava in 1510, and largely stayed out of the fighting raging between Ava and the Confederation of Shan States. When Ava fell to the combined forces of the Confederation and Prome in 1527, many people fled to Toungoo, the only region in Upper Burma at peace.
came to power in 1530, Toungoo was now the only ethnic Burman-led kingdom, and one surrounded by much larger kingdoms. Fortunately for Toungoo, the Confederation was distracted by internal leadership disputes, and Hanthawaddy, then the most powerful kingdom of all post-Pagan kingdoms, was weakly led.
Tabinshwehti decided not to wait until the larger kingdoms' attention turned to him. Tabinshwehti and his deputy Bayinnaung
selected a weakly led Hanthawaddy as their first target. Their initial dry-season raids in 1535, 1535–1536, 1536–1537 and 1537–1538 all failed against Pegu's fortified defenses aided by foreign mercenaries and Portuguese
firearms. Toungoo armies had only 6000 to 7000 men, and did not yet have access to firearms. Finally, Toungoo used a stratagem to create a split in the Hanthawaddy camp, and took Pegu without firing a shot in January 1539. After the Battle of Naungyo
, much of Lower Burma came under Tougnoo rule. Toungoo forces then sacked the last Hanthawaddy holdout, Martaban in May 1541, after a siege of seven months. After the mass execution at Martaban, southern territories (present-day Mon State
) to the Siamese frontier submitted.
The conquest of Martaban now gave the upstart regime of Tabinshwehti complete control of the maritime trade and ports of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom. More importantly, Toungoo now had access to Portuguese firearms, which would prove crucial in its future campaigns.
Toungoo forces next attacked the Prome Kingdom
, and drove back Prome's overlord Confederation and ally Arakan. After a five months' siege, Prome was mercilessly sacked in May 1542. In retaliation, the Confederation, consisted of seven Shan states, launched a major land and naval invasion in November 1543. But the invasion force was driven back, and was followed up by Toungoo forces which took as far north as the old imperial capital of Pagan. Tabinshwehti was crowned king at Pagan in July 1544.
. The casus belli
have been stated as a Burmese attempt to expand their territory eastwards after a political crisis in Ayutthaya as well as an attempt to stop Siamese incursions into the upper Tenasserim coast. In early 1548, Toungoo forces invaded Siam through the Three Pagodas Pass
. The 12,000-strong Burmese forces penetrated up to the capital city of Ayutthaya
but could not take the heavily fortified city. One month into the siege, Siamese counterattacks broke the siege, and drove back the invasion force. But the Burmese negotiated a safe retreat in exchange for the return of two important Siamese nobles (the heir apparent Prince Ramesuan, and Prince Thammaracha
of Phitsanulok
) whom they had captured.
Bayinnaung then set out to reclaim the kingdom. Starting with a small army of 2500 loyal followers, Bayinnaung first attacked native city of Toungoo where his brother Minkhaung had proclaimed himself king. After a siege of four months, Minkhaung surrendered, and was pardoned by his brother. On 11 January 1551, Bayinnaung was formally proclaimed king. Bayinnaung then received tribute from fiefs throughout central Burma, and Martaban in the south. Only Prome and Pegu in Lower Burma remained defiant. Bayinnaung captured Prome on 30 August 1551 after a five months' siege. On 12 March 1552, Bayinnaung defeated Pegu's ruler Smim Htaw
in single combat on elephants, and the victor's forces brutally sacked the city.
Bayinnaung then planned to follow up to the Confederation's home states in order to prevent future Shan raids into Upper Burma. With the entire Irrawaddy valley under his control, he was able to raise a large army of 24,000 men, 1200 horses and 60 elephants, and invaded the Shan states in January 1557. The massive show of force worked. Shan states one after another submitted with minimal resistance. By March 1557, Bayinnaung in one stroke controlled all cis-Salween (Thanlwin) Shan states from the Patkai
range at the Assamese border in the northwest to Mohnyin (Mong Yang), Mogaung (Mong Kawng) in present-day Kachin State
to Momeik (Mong Mit) Thibaw
(Hsipaw), and Mone
(Mong Nai) in the east.
Bayinnaung pursued the fugitive sawbwa, and arrived at the gates of Chiang Mai after 45 days of arduous march. The king of Lan Na surrendered without a fight on 2 April 1558. By having acquired Mone and Lan Na, Bayinnaung had unknowingly become involved in the dynastic politics of middle Tai country. The ruler of Lan Xang
Setthathirath
was of Lan Na royalty, and wanted to regain his home kingdom. He attacked Chiang Mai in early 1559 but was repulsed. Setthathirath would prove a thorn to Bayinnaung in years to come.
was next. A three-pronged invasion (10,000 men, 300 horses, 30 elephants) led by Gen. Binnya Dala faced minimal resistance, and achieved formal surrender circa January 1560.
, and southern Yunnan
) into his fold, ostensibly to prevent attacks on his territories. Again, he assembled a massive army (24000 men, 1000 horses, 80 elephants). Prior to the invasion, on 16 December 1562, Kengtung submitted. By March 1563, a two-pronged invasion of the Taping valley had secured the allegiance of the farther Shan states. (Note that these states at the Chinese border continued to pay dual tribute to both Burma and China down to the 19th century.)
Four Burmese armies invaded northern Siam in November 1563, and had overcome Siamese stands at Kamphaeng Phet
, Sukhothai
and Phitsanulok
by January 1564. Armies then came down on Ayutthaya
but were kept at bay for days by Portuguese warships and batteries at the harbor. Siamese defenses collapsed after the Burmese captured the Portuguese ships on 7 February 1564. King Maha Chakkraphat of Siam surrendered on 19 February 1564. The king and crown prince Ramesuan
were brought back to Pegu as hostages. Bayinnaung left Mahinthrathirat
, one of Maha Chakkraphat's sons as vassal king, along with a garrison of 3000 men.
in early 1765. Burmese troops fruitlessly chased Setthathirath's men, and many died of starvation and disease. By 1567, Setthathirath had retaken the capital.
A month into the siege, Maha Chakkraphat died, and was succeeded by Mahin in January 1564. Setthathirath tried to break the siege but his army was severely defeated northeast of the city on 23 April 1569. Mahin finally offered to surrender but the offer was not accepted. The city finally fell on 8 August 1569. Bayinnaung appointed Maha Thammaracha, the viceroy of Phitsanulok, as vassal king on 30 September 1569. The Burmese rule would not be challenged for another 15 years, until after Bayinnaung's death.
but did not proceed, awaiting the king's orders. The royal orders never came. The invasion forces withdrew in November 1581 after Bayinnaung's death.
, not to the Kingdom of Toungoo. Bayinnaung's eldest son Nanda
succeeded but faced an impossible task of keeping the ties together. The problems began close to home. Bayinnaung's three brothers, viceroys of Ava, Prome and Toungoo, only nominally acknowledged their nephew. In October 1583, Nanda discovered a plot by Thado Minsaw of Ava to overthrow him, and after an extensive preparation, marched to Ava in March 1584. On 25 April 1584, Nanda defeated Thado Minsaw in their elephant duel, and took Ava.
Just eight days after the Ava rebellion was put down, on 3 May 1584, Siam also revolted. A few weeks earlier, the crown prince of Siam Naresuan
's 6000-strong army was hovering around Pegu instead of marching to Ava, as ordered. When Nanda retook Ava, Naresuan withdrew and at Martaban, declared independence. A hastily planned expedition followed Naresuan in the midst of the rainy season. The 12,000-strong Burmese army was caught unprepared by the flooded countryside by the Chao Phaya, and was nearly wiped out by Siamese on their war canoes.
Another expedition was launched from Lan Na in March 1586. Mingyi Swa's 12,000-strong army could not take a heavily fortified Lampang
, and had to withdraw in June. In November, Nanda himself led an army of 25,000, and invaded again. After several futile attacks on the heavily fortified Ayutthaya, the Burmese retreated in March 1587 after having suffered heavy casualties. The failures at Siam began to affect Pegu's ability to hold on to other regions. Pegu faced other rebellions in Shan states, at Inya (1587–1588) and at Mogaung (1590–1592). In December 1590, Mingyi Swa's 20,000-strong army invaded again. Like in 1586, he could not get past the Siamese fort at Lampang, and was driven back in March 1591.
In December 1592, another invasion army of 24,000 tried again. The army penetrated to Suphan Buri. On 18 January 1593, Mingyi Swa and Naresuan fought a duel on their elephants, in which Mingyi Swa was slain. The Burmese forces retreated. It was the last of Pegu's Siamese campaigns. The main reason for Nanda's failure was that unlike his father who raised armies of 60,000 and 70,000, Nanda could never muster a force larger than 25,000 at any one time. Worse yet, he had frittered away Pegu's manpower. About 50,000 of the total of 93,000 men that marched in the five Siamese campaigns had perished.
During the Siamese siege of Pegu, the viceroy of Prome, Mingyi Hnaung, revolted against his father. Nanda was powerless to take any action. Others soon followed. In 1596, vassal kings of Toungoo and Chiang Mai also revolted. Another key viceroy, Nyaungyan
of Ava nominally stayed loyal but offered no support. Instead, Nyaungyan consolidated his position in Upper Burma throughout 1597.
More chaos ensued. In September 1597, the rebellious Mingyi Hnaung of Prome was assassinated. Toungoo tried to pick off Prome but failed. Toungoo then formed an alliance with Arakan to attack Pegu. Combined Arakan and Toungoo forces laid siege to Pegu in April 1599. Nanda surrendered on 19 December 1599. The victors looted all the gold, silver and valuables that had been collected in the last 60 years by Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung. Before they left in late February 1600, the Arakanese burned down the city, including Bayinnaung's once-glittering Grand Palace
.
When Naresuan and his Siamese army showed up at Pegu to join the free-for-all, they found a smoldering city with the loot already taken away. Naresuan hastily followed up to Toungoo, laying siege to the city in April 1600. But his supply lines were cut by the Arakanese from the rear, forcing the Siamese king to withdraw on 6 May 1600. The Siamese forces suffered heavy losses in retreat. Only a small portion finally got back to Martaban. It was the last time the Siamese ever invaded mainland Burma.
After the 1600 debacle, Naresuan turned north to Lan Na. In early 1602, King Nawrahta Minsaw of Lan Na who was facing attacks from Lan Xang agreed to become a Siamese tributary.
to Syriam. In the previous century, the Arakanese with the help of Portuguese mercenaries had extended their grip of the trade through the Arakanese littoral up to Chittagong. It had grown wealthy from trade, including trade in slaves, which it actively raided from the Ganges delta.
But its success depended greatly on the use of Portuguese mercenaries who proved unreliable and troublesome. Arakan lost the port city of Syriam in Lower Burma in 1603 when its Portuguese governor Filipe de Brito e Nicote declared that he was now loyal to the Portuguese viceroy of Goa. After two failed expeditions by the Arakanese navy to retake the port in 1604 and 1605, Arakan gave up its claims on the Lower Burma coastline.
Arakan's Portuguese troubles were not yet over. In 1609, its northern territories at the edge of Ganges delta and off Chittagong came under threat by the Portuguese mercenaries and the Mughal
government in Bengal. In March 1609, 400 hundred Portuguese mercenaries, led by Sebastian Gonzales Tibao, seized the Sandwip
island. Meanwhile, the Mughal governor of Bengal tried to take over Noakhali District
. Min Yazagyi was forced to enter into an alliance with the Portuguese to drive out the Mughals. After the Mughals were driven out, Gonzales promptly seized the Arakanese navy, and began raiding as far south as Lemro river. Later, the Portuguese viceroy at Goa sanctioned an attack on Mrauk-U itself. In November 1615, a fleet of 14 Portuguese galliots and 50 smaller war boats led by Francis de Meneses sailed up the Lemro. Alas, the fleet was driven back by Arakanese defenses, which included broadsides of a few Dutch ships. Two years later, King Min Khamaung finally captured Sandwip, and put most of its inhabitants to death.
delta to Calcutta to the west and Murshidabad
in the north. Tripura
became a tributary. The Arakanese sacked Dhaka in 1625, after which the Mughal government withdrew to safer ground inland. Until 1666, when the Mughals came back with a vengeance, the Arakanese terrorized the entire delta, rounding up slaves whom they sold to the Europeans for a handsome profit.
decided to take action on the Arakanese marauders. He also wanted to avenge for his brother Shah Shuja
who was killed in exile by the Arakanese king. The Mughal viceroy of Bengal first lured the Portuguese mercenaries in the service of King Sanda Thudhamma guarding the Chittagong region to defect by giving them fiefs. Then the Mughal fleet took Sandwip in late 1665. In January 1666, a Mughal force of 6500 men and 288 boats took Chittagong after a 36-hours' siege. They subsequently took as far south as Ramu. Arakan had lost the Chittagong province which it had held since 1459.
Arakan would not recover from the loss of Chittagong, and went into rapid decline. Central authority collapsed in the late 17th century. Sanda Wizaya (r. 1710–1731) briefly revived the kingdom. He went to war with Tripura, and raided Sandwip, Prome and Malun
. But after his death, Arakan reverted back to chaos where king after king was murdered and central authority barely existed. It was easily overrun by the Konbaung armies in 1784.
Nyaungyan then systematically reacquired nearer Shan states. He captured Nyaungshwe in February 1601, and the large strategic Shan state of Mone in July 1603, bringing his realm to the border of Siamese Lan Na. In response, Naresuan of Siam marched in early 1605 to attack Mone but died at the border in April after which Siam ceased to be a military concern to Burma. In early 1606, his 7000-strong forces took Theinni, Thibaw and Momeik but the king died during the campaign on 3 March 1606.
In response, Anaukpetlun's army of 13,000 (700 horses, 60 elephants) left Ava for Syriam on 26 December 1612. A flotilla of 80 war boats and 30 cargo boats (3000 men) was also sent down the Irrawaddy to blockade the port. The Burmese forces overcame Portuguese outer defenses, and finally blockaded the port on 24 February 1613. But Portuguese gunners and musketeers kept the Burmese at bay for 34 days while waiting for reinforcements from Goa to arrive. On 29 March 1613, however, the Burmese successfully brought down a section of the walls, from their tunnels below. The city was sacked. On 7 April 1613, de Brito his son and Natshinnaung were all executed by impalement.
A month later, on 14 May 1613, Binnya Dala of Martaban, submitted. The ruler was nominally tributary to Siam but had ruled the region like a sovereign since the death of Naresuan in 1605. Alarmed, the Siamese sent an army to Ye
, south of Martaban, to prevent the Burmese from marching down the coast. But the Siamese did not try to retake Martaban.
Anaukpetlun then switched theaters to Lan Na, which like Martaban before was only a nominal vassal of Siam. His armies of 17,000 invaded Lan Na on 30 April 1614 from Martaban in the south and Mone in the north. Lan Na's ruler, Thado Kyaw, desperately sought help. Help came from Lan Xang, not his overlord Siam. Despite the logistical troubles and the rainy season conditions, the Burmese armies finally achieved encirclement of Lan Na and Lan Xang forces in the Chiang Mai and Lanphun pocket in August 1614. After nearly five months, on 22 December 1614, the city surrendered.
Siam would not make any attempts to recover Lan Na until 1663.
and Minyekyawswa II invaded the Chinese Shan states in present-day southern Yunnan in May 1622. For the next 20 months, Burmese forces chased Kenghung troops. Finally in January 1624, Kenghung and Kengyun both surrendered. Kengyun promptly rebelled the following year but it was put down in December 1626 by the king's brothers.
By then, Nyaungyan and Anaukpetlun had restored much of Bayinnaung's empire. Only Siam and Lan Xang remained outside the Restored Toungoo Empire. But the Burmese would not overstretch again. They would not launch major invasions against these neighbors until the 1760s.
armies fleeing from the Qing
forces entered Kengyun (east of Bhamo), which had paid tribute to both China and Burma. King Pindale sent five regiments to the front in October 1651. But the armies were driven back by the Ming in December 1651. Pindale would not contest again.
In 1658, Zhu Youlang
, one of the sons of the last Ming emperor, and his 700 followers were given permission to stay at Sagaing
. In early 1659, other fleeing Ming armies entered the Shan states, and occupied Nyaungshwe and Mone with the intention to set up a kingdom for their emperor. For the next two years, the Ming forces proved a menace to Upper Burma. Not only Pindale could not drive out the Ming but it was the Ming that continually threatened the Burmese capital itself, and ransacked Upper Burma districts. On 4 June 1661, Pye Min
overthrew his ineffectual brother, and took over the command. He finally drove out the Ming by November 1661.
The problems were not yet over for the Burmese. On 21 December 1661, a Qing army of 20,000 under Gen. Wu Sangui
showed up at Ava, demanding the surrender of the Ming emperor. The emperor was handed over on 15 January 1662, and the Qing forces left a week later.
attempted to pick off the upper Tenasserim coast and Lan Na. He got Martaban to switch sides in March 1662, and occupied the coast. Fortunately for the Burmese, their troubles with the Ming were over. Their land and naval units recaptured Martaban and Tavoy by December 1662. They followed up on the retreating Siamese but were driven back near Kanchanaburi
with heavy losses.
Meanwhile, a much larger Siamese army invaded Lan Na, catching the Burmese command completely off guard. The Siamese captured Chiang Mai on 10 February 1663, and drove back Burmese forces that arrived belatedly. In November 1663, Siam launched a two-pronged invasion of the Tenasserim coast: Martaban and Moulmein in the north and Tavoy in the south. Burmese defenses withstood several Siamese onslaughts until May 1664 when the invaders retreated before the rainy season arrived. Meanwhile, the Siamese garrison at Chiang Mai was holed up in a deserted city, and its troops were constantly ambushed by resistance forces whenever they ventured out of the city. In late November 1664, the Siamese evacuated Chiang Mai, and returned.
This was the last major war between the two kingdoms until 1760 although they traded small raids in 1675–1676, and in 1700–1701.
(Gharib Nawaz) became a thorn to Upper Burma. In early 1724, the Manipuris raided Upper Burma. In response, an expedition force of 3000 men marched to Manipur in November 1724. The army was ambushed in the swamps at Heirok, and retreated in haste.
The Manipuris then returned ten years later. From 1735 to 1741, Manipuris raided the Upper Chindwin regions, increasingly deeper with each raid. Burmese defenses were simply bypassed the Manipuris on their horseback. In December 1739, they reached as far as Sagaing, and looted and burned everything insight. The Burmese defenses finally stopped them at Myedu in early 1741, with each side agreeing to an uneasy truce. But the Manipuris had annexed the Kabaw valley
.
The truce did not last. Another raid came all the way down to Ava in 1744. The last raid came in 1749. Upon arrival at Ava, the Manipuri chief found a large Burmese army, and presented his 12-year-old daughter instead, and left.
, a cousin of the king at Ava, as their king. The court at Pegu consolidated its hold in Lower Burma. Starting in 1742, Pegu, with renegade Dutch and Portuguese musketeers, began its annual raids of the upcountry. Because of the Manipuri threat, Ava could only send small armies to the south in 1743 and 1744, neither of which made any mark. The war "carried on languidly", with neither side achieving any lasting advantage until 1747.
In December 1747, Binnya Dala
came to power in Pegu, and the new king was determined to finish the war. He was not satisfied to gain independence for Lower Burma itself but determined to make Upper Burma its tributary. He stopped the annual raids and began planning for a decisive invasion. He sought and received French East India Company
's support in firearms. Alarmed, Ava too sought support from China but no help materialized.
In November 1751, Pegu launched a full scale invasion by land and by river with a total strength of 30,000. Ava had prepared an extensive defensive line around Ava—a riverside fort at Sinbyukyun
on the Irrawaddy, and a series of forts at Sintgaing
, Tada-U
and Pinya
en route to Ava. By mid-January, the invasion forces had overcome Ava's defenses, and laid siege to the city. On 21 March 1752, the invaders broke through the city's outer walls. Two days later, they breached the inner walls and took the city. The 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty had fallen.
, who founded the Konbaung Dynasty
, quickly emerged as the main resistance leader, and by taking advantage of Hanthawaddy's low troop levels, went on to conquer all of Upper Burma by the end of 1753. Hanthawaddy belatedly launched a full invasion in 1754 but it faltered. Konbaung forces invaded Lower Burma in January 1755, capturing the Irrawaddy delta
and Dagon
(Yangon) by May. The French
defended Syriam held out for another 14 months but eventually fell in July 1756, ending French involvement in the war. The fall of the 17-year-old southern kingdom soon followed in May 1757 when Pegu was sacked.
Lan Na, Martaban, Tavoy and Sandoway all submitted after Pegu's fall.
, on their march to Imphal
, the Manipuri capital. After Palel, the Burmese entered Imphal without firing a shot. The Konbaung armies, according to the Manipuris, then inflicted "one of the worst disasters in its history". He brought back many Manipuri cavalry, who became elite calvary corps (known as Cassay Horse) in the Burmese army.
The Manipuri raja Ching-Thang Khomba
(Jai Singh) fled into English Bengal, and would attempt to regain his kingdom for the next 24 years. With English East India Company's arms support, he invaded Manipur in 1763 but was driven back by Hsinbyushin in early 1764.
(Haigyi Island) at the southwestern tip of the Irrawaddy delta since April 1753 because they were concerned about the French influence over Pegu, and wanted their own foothold in Lower Burma. During the war with Hanthawaddy, Alaungpaya even offered to cede the island to England in return for military help. But no military help materialized. The English claimed they could not spare any arms because they too were engaged in their own bitter Seven Years' War
against the French. Yet the Company's agents sold ammunition and muskets to the Mon rebels in 1758. On 6 October 1759, a 2000-strong Konbaung battalion overran the English fort, ending the first English colonial establishment in Burma for the time being.
The 1760 war was inconclusive. Although Burma had regained the upper Tenasserim coast to Tavoy, they still had to deal with Siamese supported rebellions in Lan Na (1761–1763) and at Tavoy (1764). The warfare resumed in August 1765, when two Burmese armies invaded again in a pincer movement on the Siamese capital. The Burmese armies took Ayutthaya in April 1767 after a 14-months' siege. The Burmese armies sacked the city and committed atrocities that mar the Burmese-Thai relations to the present. The Burmese were forced to withdraw a few months later due to the Chinese invasions of their homeland. Burma however had annexed the lower Tenasserim coast.
and Luang Prabang
. Vientiane was acquired without a fight in January 1765. Luang Prabang put up a fight but was defeated in March 1765. The move was to outflank Siam in their upcoming invasion. The Laotian states remained Burmese tributaries until 1778.
envisaged an easy war, and sent in only the Green Standard troops
stationed in Yunnan
. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their latest invasion of Siam. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–1766 and 1766–1767 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite Manchu Bannermen
nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from Ava. But the Bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close-call, Hsinbyushin redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769.
The Qing kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of Yunnan for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. When Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790, the Qing unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory. The war, which claimed the lives of over 70,000 Chinese soldiers and four commanders is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing Dynasty had ever waged", and one that "assured Burmese independence and probably the independence of other states in Southeast Asia". It has also been called the "greatest" of Burmese military victories.
Nonetheless, the war took a heavy toll on the Burmese war capabilities. While Burmese losses were light compared to Chinese losses, when considered in proportion to the population, they were heavy.
Hsinbyushin's successor Singu
stopped the war with Siam, and demobilized much of the army. The decision was well received by the war-torn country. The people had grown tired of constant conscriptions to fight in "ever-lasting wars" in remote regions they had never heard of. But the king had unwittingly given up Chiang Mai, which proved to be the end of two centuries of Burmese rule there. Likewise, Singu took no action in 1778 when Vientiane and Luang Prabang stopped paying tribute, and came under Siam's sphere of influence.
stopped the invasions. Manipur was again independent.
By the 1770s, Arakan was a shadow of her former self. Central authority had not existed since 1731. Desperate Arakanese nobles asked King Singu to intervene but Singu refused. In 1784, the Arakanese nobles again asked the new king Bodawpaya, who agreed. An invasion force of over 20,000 men (2500 horses and 200 elephants) consisted of land and naval units invaded on 2 December 1784. The combined forces faced little opposition en route to Mrauk-U, and took the capital on 28 December 1784, ending five centuries of Arakanese independence.
The army was originally welcomed by the populace who actually greeted them with music along the invasion route. But they soon discovered to their horror, the invasion army's wanton destruction, killings, and especially, the unconscionable removal of their national symbol, the Mahamuni Buddha
. They soon organized a resistance movement that would eventually lead the Burmese to the first war with the British in 1824.
(Phuket) to prevent foreign arms shipment to Siam but the invasion force was driven back. In mid-October 1785, he launched a four-pronged invasion towards Chiang Mai, Tak
, Kanchanaburi
and Junkceylon. The combined strength was about 50,000 men. The hastily planned invasion had not made proper arrangements for transportation or supplies, and was a total disaster. Aside from the northern army which took Chiang Mai and swept down to Lampang, the southern armies were driven back, or in one case, nearly annihilated. The invasion armies withdrew in disarray in late January 1786. So severe was the defeat that the invasion turned out to be the last full-scale invasion of Siam by Burma.
Siam was now on the offensive, and tried to regain the Tenasserim coast they had lost since 1765. In 1787, its forces laid siege to Tavoy but were unsuccessful. In March 1792, they got the governor of Tavoy to switch sides, and sent in a large army to retake Tenasserim. But the Siamese could not take Mergui and had to lay siege to the city. Initial Burmese efforts to retake Tavoy failed. The Burmese sent in another force after the rainy season and in December, recovered Tavoy and relieved Mergui which had held on for nine months.
Having failed in the south, Siam then tried north. After the 1786 war, Siam consolidated its control of Lan Na, and in 1794, took over the Laotian state of Luang Prabang, its erstwhile ally against the Burmese. In response, Burma sent in a small expedition in 1797 to Chiang Mai and Luang Prabang to check the Siamese but it failed to make any impression. Undeterred, the Siamese army invaded Burmese territories of Kengtung and Kenghung (Sipsongpanna) in November 1803, laying siege to both towns. They withdrew in early 1804, taking back many conscripts with them. Burmese forces followed up on the retreating Siamese into Lan Na but were driven back at Chiang Saen
at the border. Siam did not give up. In 1807–1808, Siamese troops based out of their vassal Luang Prabang tried to take over Sipsongpanna but were driven back. (In 1822, they again encouraged the ruler of Sipsongpanna to revolt. Burmese troops from Kengtung arrested the rebel sawbwa.)
While Siam was focused on extending its northern border, Burma was focused on extending its southern border. Burma sent four expeditions between 1809 and 1812 to take Junkceylon. Aside from a few temporary victories, the army was driven back each time. It was the last invasion of Siam by Burma.
to the Manipuri throne. The Manipuri army was defeated after heavy fighting in early 1813, and its raja Chourjit Singh
fled into Cachar.
However, Marjit Singh revolted after Bodawpaya died in June 1819. The new king Bagyidaw
sent an expedition force of 25,000 (3000 horses) in October 1819. Gen. Maha Bandula reconquered Manipur but the raja escaped to neighboring Cachar. In November 1820, the fallen raja's forces laid siege to the Burmese garrison at Imphal, and withdrew only when Burmese reinforcements were approaching. Nonetheless, the raja continued to raid Manipur with British support using his bases from Cachar and Jaintia, which had been declared as British protectorates, to the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1824.
in present-day northern Kachin State, the Burmese army crossed the 9000-foot high Himalayan Patkai range, and finally entered Assam in early 1817. The army decisively defeated the Assamese army at the battle of Kathalguri, near the Assamese capital Jorhat
. A pro-Burmese minister Badan Chandra was installed, with Singh as the nominal king. The army left in April 1817 but instabilities resumed soon after, and Singh had to flee Jorhat. The army had to return in February 1819, and reinstated Singh. A large portion of the army remained in Assam to hunt down the rebels in Upper Assam. The authority rested with the Burmese commanders, not the nominal king.
Unhappy with the arrangement, Singh switched his allegiance to the British in April 1821, and tried to drive out the Burmese. His first attack on the Burmese garrison at Gauhati in September 1821 failed. But reinforced by British arms and personnel, Singh took Gauhati in January 1822, and marched to Jorhat. But the capital had been reinforced by a 20,000-strong army led by Bandula, who had just arrived. Bandula defeated Singh on 17 April 1822 at Mahgarh near Jorhat. Singh fell back to Gauhati but was defeated by Gen. Maha Thilawa on 3 June 1822. The fallen king fled to the British territory, and continued to make raids in the years leading to the First Anglo-Burmese War.
By 1822, the conquests of Manipur and Assam had brought a long border between British India and Burma. The British at Calcutta
had their own designs on the region, and actively supported rebellions in Manipur, Assam and Arakan. Calcutta unilaterally declared Cachar and Jaintia British protectorates, and sent in troops. Cross border raids into Arakan, Manipur and from British territories vexed the Burmese. In January 1824, Bandula allowed Burmese troops into Cachar and Jaintia in pursuit of the rebels. The British sent in their own force to meet the Burmese in Cachar, resulting in the first clashes between the two. The war formally broke out on 5 March 1824, following border clashes in Arakan.
At first, battle hardened Burmese forces were able to push back the British forces in Cachar, Jaintia and East Bengal. Instead of fighting in the difficult terrain, which represented "a formidable obstacle to the march of a European force", the British took the fight to the Burmese mainland. On 11 May 1824, a British naval force of 11,000 took Rangoon
(Yangon), taking the Burmese by surprise. The Burmese forces tried multiple times to retake the city but failed. In April 1825, Bandula fell at the battle of Danubyu, and the British took up to Prome. The Burmese tried to retake Prome in a last-ditch attempt but were driven back in December. On 24 February 1826, the Burmese had to agree to British terms without discussion. Per the Treaty of Yandabo
, Burma was forced to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds sterling.
The war was the longest and most expensive war in British Indian history. Fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties. The campaign cost the British five million pounds sterling to 13 million pounds sterling (roughly 18.5 billion to 48 billion in 2006 US dollars) that led to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833. For the Burmese, it was the beginning of the end of their independence. The Third Burmese Empire, for a brief moment the terror of British India, was crippled and no longer a threat to the eastern frontier of British India. The Burmese would be crushed for years to come by repaying the large indemnity.
, blockaded the port of Rangoon anyway. On 18 February 1852, Dalhousie increased the demand a hundredfold to one hundred thousand pounds sterling. On 12 April 1852, the British navy invaded Rangoon.
King Pagan
sent four armies to meet the enemy. The Burmese put up tough resistance at Bassein
(Pathein) and Pegu but by June, much of Lower Burma belonged to the invaders. After the end of the rainy season, in November, the British took Prome, and pushed up to Myede on the Irrawaddy, and took Toungoo on the Sittaung, facing minimal Burmese resistance. In December, Prince of Mindon
raised a rebellion against his brother the king. On 20 December 1852, the British issued a proclamation of annexation, taking Lower Burma, up to the latitude running directly east-west across the country to the borders of Karenni states
, 6 miles (9.65 km) north of Myede (and Toungoo). It took three years to "pacify" the province. Burmese resistance leader Myat Tun, with 4000 followers, waged guerrilla warfare
, repulsing three British attacks before succumbing to a fourth one led by a brigadier general. In 1857, an ethnic Karen leader began another round of guerrilla warfare in the Irrawaddy delta, and was put down only after 8 years.
respond only after the new king Mindon had seized power in February 1853. Because he was still concerned about the British threat, Mindon could only send several thousand infantry troops from the Mone (Mong Nai) garrison to relieve the Siamese siege of Kengtung. With the troops by Kenghung sawbwa, the Burmese eventually drove out the Siamese but only after heavy loss of life. In 1854, the largest Siamese invasion force, consisted of Laotian levies, tried once more. But this time, with the British front quiet, the Burmese were ready. Mindon had deployed a larger, well-equipped army (with artillery corps and 3000 cavalry). The Siamese forces again reached Kengtung but could not break through. The Siamese forces withdrew to the border in May 1855.
In 1885, the British sought to annex the rest of the kingdom. They had been concerned by the Burmese efforts to form an alliance with the French, who were consolidating their holdings in nearby French Indochina
. Burma was trying to pursue the same strategy as Siam, as a buffer between the British and the French. But the British viewed Burma as their sphere of influence, and sent in an invasion force on 7 November 1885. The invaders easily overcame minimal Burmese resistance, and took Mandalay on 29 November 1885. The Burmese king Thibaw
and the royal family were taken away to India. Burma was formally annexed by the British on 1 January 1886. The millennium old Burmese monarchy had ended.
Although it took less than a month to occupy Mandalay, the British spent another 10 years to pacify the rest of the country. Over a year into the annexation, the country was still in chaos. In 1887, a 32,000-strong army led by two major generals and six brigadier generals was dispatched to quell the instabilities, and to annex the hill regions. The Burmese resistance in the low country was hammered down by 1890 but the hill regions proved particularly troublesome for the colonizers. A five-month expedition in 1887–1888 brought cis-Salween Shan states under control as British protectorates. The army was then forced to put down insurgencies all over the region. It finally brought Kengtung into the fold in March 1890, completing the annexation of Shan states. But rebellions broke out again in northern Shan states at Hsenwi, Lashio and Bhamo in 1892. In 1894, the British also had to chase down rebels in the Karenni states, which they had formally annexed since 1892. In the west, it took the British forces 15 months to overcome the Chin
resistance before taking Falam in March 1891. But the British had to spend another five difficult years in the unfamiliar hill country to finish off the Chin resistance. Finally, in 1896, the British proclaimed the Chin Hills
to be a part of Burma.
, the only indigenous military regiment in the British India army, the 70th Burma Rifles, consisted of three battalion
s, made up of Karens, Kachins and Chins. During the war, the British needed manpower, and relaxed the ban, raising a Burman battalion in the 70th Burma Rifles, a Burman company
in the 85th Burma Rifles, and seven Burman Mechanical Transport companies. In addition, three companies of Burma Sappers and Miners, made up of mostly Burmans, and a company of Labour Corps
, made up of Chins and Burmans, were also raised. All these units began their overseas assignment in 1917. The 70th Burma Rifles served in Egypt for garrison duties while the Burmese Labour Corps served in France. One company of Burma Sappers and Miners distinguished themselves in Mesopotamia
at the crossing the Tigris.
After the war, the 70th Burma Rifles was reorganized as the 20th Burma Rifles, and the three companies of Burma Sappers and Miners was reduced to one. The British stopped recruiting Burmans, and gradually discharged most of its Burman troops between 1923 and 1925. In 1929, the last Burman company of Burma Sappers and Miners too was disbanded. On 1 April 1937, when Burma was made a separate colony, the ethnic makeup of the 20th Burma Rifles, now the British Burma Army, was approximately 50% Karen, 25% Kachin and 25% Karen. A fourth battalion was added for Burmans but few Burmans bothered to join at any rate. Before World War II
began, the British Burma Army consisted of Karen (27.8%), Chin (22.6%), Kachin (22.9%), and Burman 12.3%, without counting their British officer corps.
The British used Indian and ethnic minority dominated troops to ruthlessly put down ethnic majority dominated rebellions such as Saya San
's peasant rebellion in 1930–1931. These policies would lead to long-term negative tensions among the country's ethnic groups.
On 28 December 1942, a group of young Burmese independence activists, called the Thirty Comrades
, who had received military training by the Japanese, founded the Burma Independence Army (BIA) in Bangkok
. The army led by Aung San
fought in the Burma Campaign
on the side of the Imperial Japanese Army
. It saw a significant engagement at Shwedaung near Prome against the British in March 1942. Thousands of young men joined its ranks—reliable estimates range from 15,000 to 23,000. The great majority of the recruits were Burman, with little ethnic minority representation. Many of the fresh recruits lacked discipline. At Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy delta, an ethnic war broke out between Burman BIA men and Karens, with both sides responsible for massacres. The BIA was soon replaced with the Burma Defense Army, founded on 26 August 1942 with three thousand BIA veterans. The army became Burma National Army
with Ne Win
as its commander on 1 August 1943 when Burma received nominal independence. In late 1944, it had a strength of approximately 15,000.
Disillusioned by the Japanese occupation, the BNA switched sides, and joined the allied forces on 27 March 1945.
, with the permission of the Japanese. The Thai Phayap Army
remained there until the end of World War II.
faced several armed rebellions. The most serious was the Chinese Nationalist KMT
invasion of Shan State in 1950. Driven out by the Chinese Communist forces, Nationalist KMT troops (about 16,000 at the peak) planned to use the region east of the Salween river as a base from which to regain their homeland. In March 1953, the KMT forces with US assistance were on the verge of taking the entire Shan State, and within a day's march of the state capital Taunggyi. The Burmese army drove back the invaders east across the Salween. The KMT units remained there until 1961 when some 20,000 troops of the People's Liberation Army
and 5000 troops of the Burmese Army defeated them in a joint operation.
(KNU). The KNU fought to carve out an independent Karen state out of large swaths of Lower Burma. Other ethnic rebellions broke out only in the early 1960s after the central government had refused to consider a federal style government. Since the early 1980s however, politically oriented armed insurgencies have largely withered away. But ethnic-based insurgencies have remained alive and well.
These insurgencies were (have been) supported or used by foreign states, exacerbating the isolation, suspicion and concern among Burmans over both their minorities and foreign powers. Some British had supported the Karen; East Pakistan (and then Bangladesh) backed the Muslim Rohingyas on their border with Middle Eastern backing. The Indians were said to be involved with the Kachin and the Karen. The Chinese assisted the CPB
(later the Wa), the Naga and Kachin rebels. The United States supported the Kuomintang, and the Thai a wide variety of rebel groups, essentially creating buffer states or zones. Prior to the ceasefires, the largely Burman-dominated armed forces made futile annual dry season campaigns, only to see the rebels return after they left.
The Burman dominated central governments (civilian or military-alike) have not been able to reach a political agreement even though the stated goal of most, if not all, major ethnic insurgencies (including the KNU) is autonomy, not secession. Today, the government has signed uneasy ceasefire agreements with most insurgent groups but the army has not gained the trust of the local populace. The army has been widely accused of mistreating the local population with impunity, and is viewed as an occupying force in the ethnic regions.
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
, Manipur
Manipur
Manipur is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. Manipur is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west; it also borders Burma to the east. It covers an area of...
and Assam
Assam
Assam , also, rarely, Assam Valley and formerly the Assam Province , is a northeastern state of India and is one of the most culturally and geographically distinct regions of the country...
in the west to the Chinese Shan States in southern Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
to Laos
Lan Xang
The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Kao was established in 1354 by Fa Ngum.Exiled as an infant to Cambodia, Prince Fa Ngum of Xieng Dong Xieng Thong married a daughter of the Khmer king. In 1349 he set out from Angkor at the head of a 10,000-man army to establish his own country...
and Siam in the east and southeast.
The Royal Burmese Army
Royal Burmese Army
The Royal Burmese Army was the armed forces of the Burmese monarchy from the 9th to 19th centuries. It refers to the military forces of the Pagan Dynasty, the Ava Kingdom, the Toungoo Dynasty and the Konbaung Dynasty in chronological order...
was a major Southeast Asian armed force between the 11th and 13th centuries and between 16th and 19th centuries. It was the premier military force in the 16th century when Toungoo kings
Toungoo Dynasty
The Toungoo Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of Burma from the mid-16th century to 1752. Its early kings Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung succeeded in reunifying the Pagan Empire for the first time since 1287, and in incorporating the Shan States for the first time...
built the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
. The centuries-long warfare between Burma and Siam (1548–1855) shaped not only the history of both countries but also that of mainland Southeast Asia. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, highly militaristic Konbaung kings
Konbaung dynasty
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma...
had built the largest empire in mainland Southeast Asia until they ran into the British
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
in present-day northeast India. Prior to the three Anglo-Burmese wars (1824–1885), previous existential threats to the country had come from China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
in the form of Mongol invasions
Mongol invasion of Burma
After the conquest of China, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty and the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, invaded the Pagan Kingdom of Burma in 1277 and 1283. However, the Yuan armies later again invaded Burma several times in order to assert supremacy over the territory.- Initial...
(1277–1301) and Manchu invasions (1765–1769).
The country was a major battle front
Burma Campaign
The Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II was fought primarily between British Commonwealth, Chinese and United States forces against the forces of the Empire of Japan, Thailand, and the Indian National Army. British Commonwealth land forces were drawn primarily from...
in the Southeast Asian theater
South-East Asian theatre of World War II
The South-East Asian Theatre of World War II was the name given to the campaigns of the Pacific War in Burma , Ceylon, India, Thailand, Indochina, Malaya and Singapore. Conflict in the theatre began when the Empire of Japan invaded Thailand and Malaya from bases located in Indochina on December 8,...
of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Since independence in 1948, the country's various political and ethnic factions have been locked in one of the longest civil wars
Internal conflict in Burma
The internal conflict in Burma is a term that is employed to refer to the current violence in Burma that has existed since approximately April 1948 between the Burmese government and the various ethnic groups in the country. More recently, the conflict has been against the military regime that has...
today, with myriad insurgencies receiving implicit and explicit help from various external states.
Early history
The military history in the early era is sketchy. The Tibeto-BurmanTibeto-Burman languages
The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non-Chinese members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken thoughout the highlands of southeast Asia, as well as lowland areas in Burma ....
-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of the Irrawaddy valley in recorded history, founded several city states that thrived between the 1st century BCE and the early 9th century CE. Eighth century Chinese records identify 18 Pyu states throughout the Irrawadddy valley, and describe the Pyu as a humane and peaceful people to whom war was virtually unknown and who wore silk cotton instead of actually silk so that they would not have to kill silk worms. To be sure, this peaceful description by the Chinese was a snapshot of the Pyu realm, and may not represent the life in the city-states in general.
The earliest extant record of warfare in the Pyu realm is the early 9th century when the Pyu states came under constant attacks by the armies of the Kingdom of Nanzhao (from present-day Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
). Nanzhao had just become a major military power in the region by defeating the Tibetan Empire
Tibetan Empire
The historic name for the Tibetan Empire is different from Tibet's present name.Traditional Tibetan history preserves a lengthy list of rulers, whose exploits become subject to external verification in the Chinese histories by the seventh century. From the 7th to the 11th century a series of...
in 801. The Nanzhao warriors then pressed down southward into the present-day Shan Hills
Shan Hills
The Shan Hills , also known as Shan Highland, are part of the range of hills that extends through Yunnan to Burma and Thailand, linking to the Himalayas, of which they may be considered foothills.-Etymology:...
and into the Irrawaddy valley. Ancient city-states one by one surrendered or were overrun by the "powerful mounted archers from the north". In 832, Nanzhao destroyed the city-state of Halin
Halin
Halin is a settlement in the administrative district of Gmina Pakosław, within Rawicz County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland.-References:...
, close to old Tagaung, returning again in 835 to carry off many captives. The Nanzhao cavalry is said to have swept down all the way to the Bay of Bengal despite stiff resistance.
Pagan period
Following the Nanzhao raids, another Tibeto-Burman-speaking people called the MranmaBamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
(Burmans or Bamar), who had come down with the Nanzhao raids, began to settle the central Irrawaddy valley, near the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin
Chindwin River
The Chindwin River is a river in Burma , and the largest tributary of the country's chief river the Ayeyarwady . It flows entirely within Burma and is known as Ning-thi to the Manipuris.-Source:...
rivers, en masse. The Burmans founded a small fortified city of Pagan
Bagan
Bagan , formerly Pagan, is an ancient city in the Mandalay Region of Burma. Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana and also known as Tambadipa or Tassadessa , it was the capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma...
(Bagan) c. 849, probably to help the Nanzhao pacify the surrounding country side. The early Pagan army consisted mainly of conscripts raised just prior to or during the times of war. The main weaponry of the infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
largely consisted of swords, spears and bow and arrows. The infantry units were supported by cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
and elephantry
War elephant
A war elephant was an elephant trained and guided by humans for combat. Their main use was to charge the enemy, trampling them and breaking their ranks. A division of war elephants is known as elephantry....
corps. The Pagan army would later be known to the world for their war elephants as reported by Marco Polo
Marco Polo
Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant traveler from the Venetian Republic whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and apparently...
.
Pagan Empire
Anawrahta
Anawrahta Minsaw was the founder of the Pagan Empire. Considered the father of the Burmese nation, Anawrahta turned a small principality in the dry zone of Upper Burma into the first Burmese Empire that formed the basis of modern-day Burma...
's accession in 1044, the small principality had gradually grown to include its immediate surrounding area—to about 200 miles north to south and 80 miles from east to west. Over the next 30 years, Anawrahta went on to unify for the first time the regions that would later constitute the modern-day Burma. Anawrahta began his campaigns in the nearer Shan Hills
Shan Hills
The Shan Hills , also known as Shan Highland, are part of the range of hills that extends through Yunnan to Burma and Thailand, linking to the Himalayas, of which they may be considered foothills.-Etymology:...
, and extended conquests to Lower Burma
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
down to the Tenasserim coast to Phuket
Phuket Province
Phuket , formerly known as Thalang and, in Western sources, Junk Ceylon , is one of the southern provinces of Thailand...
and North Arakan
Rakhine State
Rakhine State is a Burmese state. Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State in the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region in the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest. It is located approximately between...
. Anawrahta's conquest of Tenasserim checked the Khmer Empire
Khmer Empire
The Khmer Empire was one of the most powerful empires in Southeast Asia. The empire, which grew out of the former kingdom of Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalized parts of modern-day Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma, and Malaysia. Its greatest legacy is Angkor, the site of the capital city...
's encroachment in the Tenasserim coast, and secured control of the peninsula ports, which were transit points between the Indian Ocean and China.
After a flurry of military campaigns by Anawrahta, Pagan entered a gilded age that would last for the next two centuries. Aside from a few occasional rebellions, the kingdom was largely peaceful during the period. The most serious was the 1084 rebellion by Pegu (Bago), which nearly toppled the Pagan regime. In the 1110s, Pagan sent two separate expeditions to Arakan to place its claimant Letya Min Nan on the Arakanese throne. The first expedition failed but the second in 1118 succeeded. Sinhalese Mahavamsa Chronicles
Mahavamsa
The Mahavamsa is a historical poem written in the Pali language, of the kings of Sri Lanka...
mention a dispute over trade in elephants between Burma and Sri Lanka that prompted the Ceylonese forces to raid Lower Burma in 1180.
The authority of Pagan continued to grow, peaking in the reign of King Narapatisithu
Narapatisithu
Narapatisithu was king of Pagan dynasty of Burma from 1173 to 1210. He is considered the last important king of Pagan. His peaceful and prosperous reign gave rise to Burmese culture which finally emerged out of the shadows of Mon and Pyu cultures. The Burman leadership of the kingdom was now...
(r. 1173–1210). The king formally founded the Royal Palace Guards
Royal Burmese Army
The Royal Burmese Army was the armed forces of the Burmese monarchy from the 9th to 19th centuries. It refers to the military forces of the Pagan Dynasty, the Ava Kingdom, the Toungoo Dynasty and the Konbaung Dynasty in chronological order...
in 1173, the first extant record of a standing army. Pagan's influence reached further south into the upper Malay peninsula
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula or Thai-Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southern-most point of the Asian mainland...
, at least to the Salween river
Salween River
The Salween is a river, about long, that flows from the Tibetan Plateau into the Andaman Sea in Southeast Asia. It drains a narrow and mountainous watershed of that extends into the countries China, Burma and Thailand. Steep canyon walls line the swift, powerful and undammed Salween, one of the...
in the east, below the current China border in the farther north, and to the west, northern Arakan
Rakhine State
Rakhine State is a Burmese state. Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State in the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region in the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest. It is located approximately between...
and the Chin Hills. Up to the first half of the 13th century, much of mainland Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
was under some degree of control of either the Pagan Empire or the Khmer Empire.
Late 13th century rebellions
The Pagan military power was closely intertwined with the kingdom's economic prowess. The kingdom went into decline in the 13th century as the continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth—by the 1280s, two-thirds of Upper Burma's cultivable land had been alienated to the religion—affected the crown's ability to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen. This ushered in a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by MonsMon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
, Mongols and Shans.
The first signs of disorder appeared soon after Narathihapate
Narathihapate
Narathihapate was the last king of Pagan dynasty of Burma from 1254 to 1287. The king is unkindly remembered for two things: his gluttonous appetite which supposedly required all his dinners to have 300 varieties of dishes; and his panic flight from Mongol invasions. He is forever remembered as ...
's accession in 1254. The inexperienced king faced revolts in Arakanese state of Macchagiri (present-day Kyaukpyu District
Kyaukpyu District
Kyaukpyu District is a district of the Rakhine State in western Myanmar. The capital lies at Kyaukpyu-Townships:The district contains the following townships:*Kyaukpyu Township*Manaung Township*Ramree Township*Ann Township...
) in the west, and Martaban
Mottama
Mottama, formerly Martaban, is a small town in the Thaton district of Mon State, Myanmar. Located on the north bank of the Thanlwin river, on the opposite side of Mawlamyaing, Mottama was the first capital of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom in the 13th and 14th centuries, and an entrepôt of international...
(Mottama) in the south. The Martaban rebellion was easily put down but Macchagiri required a second expedition before it too was put down. The calm did not last long. Martaban again revolted in 1281.
Mongol invasions
This time, Pagan could not do anything to retake Martaban because it was facing an existential threat from the north. The MongolsYuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
demanded tribute, in 1271 and again in 1273. When Narathihapate refused both times, the Mongols systematically invaded the country. The first invasion in 1277 defeated the Burmese at the battle of Ngasaunggyan
Battle of Ngasaunggyan
The Battle of Ngasaunggyan was fought in 1277 between Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty of Mongol Empire, and their neighbors to the south, the Pagan Empire led by Narathihapate. The battle was initiated by Narathihapate, who invaded the Yunnan, a province of Yuan Dynasty of Mongol Empire...
, and secured their hold of Kanngai
Yingjiang County
Yingjiang County is a county in Dehong Prefecture, Yunnan Province, southwestern China.- Geography :Yingjiang county has a border of 214.6 km with Kachin State, Myanmar in the west. Danzha River and Binglangjiang River meet each other near Jiucheng and change the name to Dayingjiang...
(modern-day Yingjiang, Yunnan, 112 km north of Bhamo
Bhamo
Bhamo is a city of Kachin State in northernmost part of Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital city of Myitkyina. It is on the Ayeyarwady River. It lies within 65 km of the border with Yunnan Province, China. The population consists of Chinese and Shan, with Kachin peoples in...
). In 1283, their forces moved south and occupied Bhamo
Battle of Bhamo
Battle of Bhamo is one of the major battles took between the Yuan Mongols and the Pagan Kingdom in 1283. After Nasir al-Din's victory over the Pagans, the Mongols attempted to try again their success....
. In 1287, Mongol armies invaded farther south once again. Instead of defending the country, the king fled Pagan for Lower Burma where he was promptly assassinated by one of his sons.
Recent research indicates that Mongol armies may not have reached Pagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. But the damage was already done. All the vassal states of Pagan revolted right after the king's death, and went their own way. In the south, Wareru
Wareru
Wareru was the founder of the Ramanya Kingdom located in today's Lower Burma . The kingdom is more commonly known as Kingdom of Hanthawady Pegu , or simply Pegu although the kingdom's first capital was Martaban...
, the man who had seized the governorship of Martaban in 1281, consolidated Mon
Mon language
The Mon language is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Mon, who live in Burma and Thailand. Mon, like the related language Cambodian—but unlike most languages in Mainland Southeast Asia—is not tonal. Mon is spoken by more than a million people today. In recent years, usage of Mon has...
-speaking regions of Lower Burma, and declared Ramannadesa
Hanthawaddy Kingdom
The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the dominant kingdom that ruled lower Burma from 1287 to 1539. The Mon-speaking kingdom was founded as Ramannadesa by King Wareru following the collapse of the Pagan Empire in 1287 as a nominal vassal state of Sukhothai Kingdom, and of the Mongol Yuan dynasty...
(Land of the Mon) independent. In the west too, Arakan stopped paying tribute. The 250-year-old Pagan Empire had ceased to exist.
Warring states period
The political vacuum created by the sudden collapse of Pagan triggered constant warfare that would engulf the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery for the next 350 years. In retrospect, the two centuries of peace and order maintained by the Pagan Empire turned out to be rather remarkable. The main cause for warfare was that no strong polity emerged to reunite the kingdom. After their 1287 invasion, the Mongols moved farther south to Tagaung but refused to fill in the power vacuum they had created. Indeed, Emperor Kublai KhanKublai Khan
Kublai Khan , born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu , was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China...
never sanctioned an actual occupation of Pagan. His real aim appeared to have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented."
Last Mongol invasion
At Pagan, the new king KyawswaKyawswa of Pagan
Kyawswa was a king of Pagan dynasty of Burma from 1287 to 1298. Son of the last sovereign king of Pagan Narathihapate, Kyawswa was one of many "kings" that proliferated after the collapse of the Pagan Empire. Though still styled as King of Pagan, Kyawswa's effective rule amounted to just the area...
controlled just a small area outside the capital. Instead, the real power rested with three former Pagan commanders of nearby Myinsaing. It was the brothers, not the nominal sovereign Kyawswa, that sent a force to retake Lower Burma in 1294 when Wareru decided to become a vassal of the Sukhothai Kingdom
Sukhothai kingdom
The Sukhothai Kingdom ) was an early kingdom in the area around the city Sukhothai, in north central Thailand. The Kingdom existed from 1238 till 1438...
. Wareru drove back the Myinsaing forces.
Concerned by the increasing power of the three brothers, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognized by the Mongol emperor Temür Khan as viceroy of Pagan in March 1298. In December 1298, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom
Myinsaing Kingdom
The Myinsaing Kingdom was a kingdom that ruled central Burma from 1298 to 1313. Founded by three brothers of Shan and Burman descent, it was one of many petty kingdoms that emerged following the collapse of Pagan Empire in 1287....
. In response, the Mongols launched another invasion in January 1301 but could not break through. The besiegers took the bribes by the three brothers to retreat. But the commanders were executed by the Yunnan government when they got back. The Mongols sent no more invasions, and withdrew entirely from Upper Burma in 1303.
First Shan raids
The Mongols left but the Shan people, who had come down with the Mongols did not—just as the Burmans who came down with the Nanzhao invasions stayed behind four centuries earlier. The Shans built an array of small statesShan States
The Shan States were the princely states that ruled large areas of today's Burma , Yunnan Province in China, Laos and Thailand from the late 13th century until mid-20th century...
in the entire northwestern to eastern arc of central Burma, thoroughly surrounding the valley. They continued to raid the Irrawaddy valley throughout the 14th century, taking advantage of the split of Myinsaing into Pinya
Pinya Kingdom
The Pinya Kingdom was a kingdom that ruled part of central Burma from 1313 to 1364. It was the successor state to the Myinsaing Kingdom, one of many petty kingdoms that emerged after the fall of the Pagan Empire in 1287...
and Sagaing
Sagaing Kingdom
The Sagaing Kingdom was a kingdom that ruled a part of central Burma from 1315 to 1364. The kingdom was the western half of the old Myinsaing Kingdom, which itself was one of many petty kingdoms that emerged after the fall of the Pagan Empire in 1287...
kingdoms in 1315. Starting in 1359, then the most powerful Shan state of Mogaung
Mogaung
Mogaung is a town in Kachin State, Myanmar. It is situated on the Mandalay-Myitkyina railway line.-External links:* Falling Rain Genomics, Inc.* Maplandia.com...
(in present-day Kachin State
Kachin State
Kachin State , is the northernmost state of Burma. It is bordered by China to the north and east; Shan State to the south; and Sagaing Division and India to the west. It lies between north latitude 23° 27' and 28° 25' longitude 96° 0' and 98° 44'. The area of Kachin State is . The capital of the...
) began a series of sustained assaults on central Burma. In 1364, its forces sacked both Sagaing and Pinya in succession, and left off with the loot.
The power vacuum did not last long. In the same year, Thadominbya
Thadominbya
Thadominbya was the founder of the Kingdom of Ava who reunified central Burma in 1364 under a single kingdom. In his short reign of three plus years, the ethnically Shan king achieved accomplishments that would have a long lasting impact in Burmese history...
, a Sagaing prince, emerged to reunify Upper Burma and founded the Ava Kingdom
Ava Kingdom
The Ava Kingdom was the dominant kingdom that ruled upper Burma from 1364 to 1555. Founded in 1364, the kingdom was the successor state to the petty kingdoms that had ruled central Burma since the collapse of Pagan Empire in the late 13th century...
. Nonetheless, Shan raids into Upper Burma continued off-and-on in spurts. The raids were led by different Shan states at different times. Mogaung's devastating raids (1359–1368) were replaced in 1370s and 1390s by Mohnyin
Mohnyin
Mohnyin is a town in Kachin State, Myanmar. It is the administrative center for both Mohnyin Township and Mohnyin District.Shells of different sizes were found in mass on 19 September. Those were found in apple-pie order while rooting up a tree between MohnyinDistrict Court and the Township...
's raids that reached as far south as Sagaing
Sagaing
Sagaing is the capital of Sagaing Region in Myanmar. Located on the Ayeyarwady River, 20 km to the southwest of Mandalay on the opposite bank of the river, Sagaing with numerous Buddhist monasteries is an important religious and monastic center. The pagodas and monasteries crowd the numerous...
. After Ava conquered Mohnyin in 1406, the mantle was picked up by Theinni
Theinni
Theinni or Hsenwi is a town in northern Shan State of Burma, situated near the north bank of the Nam Tu River and now the centre of Hsenwi Township in Lashio District. It is 28 miles north of Lashio. It is 2,100 feet above sea level...
(Hsweni) which raided Avan territory from 1408 to 1413.
The intensity and frequency of the raids lessened in the 15th century due to both the rise of Ava and indeed the arrival of the Ming Chinese
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
in Yunnan in the 1380–1388.
Chinese expeditions against Shan states
Though hemmed in by two powerful kingdoms, the Shan states were able to create a space for themselves for another century and a half, ironically by using state-of-the-art Chinese military technology. Chinese firearms reached northern mainland Southeast Asia by way of Chinese traders and renegade soldiers, who despite the Ming government's prohibition, actively smuggled primitive handguns, gunpowder, cannon and rockets. True metal barreled handguns, first developed in 1288, and metal barreled artillery from the first half of 14th century had also spread. The Shans soon learned to replicate Chinese arms and military techniques, and were able to strengthen their position not only against Ava but also against Ming China itself.Attempts to impose order in the unruly Shan states proved difficult even for the Chinese. The Ming government's four campaigns (1438–1449) failed to achieve any lasting order. The Chinese troops fruitlessly chased Shan rebels, who simply returned when the Chinese troops left. The Chinese even chased the Shan rebels into Burmese territory, and left only after the Burmese gave up the dead body of the chief. (The event took place in either 1445–1446 according to the Burmese chronicles or 1448–1449, according to the Chinese records.) Faced with more pressing rebellions elsewhere, the Ming government gave up trying to impose imperial order in the Yunnan borderlands, and had to be content with receiving nominal tribute. The Shan states would maintain their space until the mid-16th century.
Hanthawaddy–Sukhothai
In the south too, the MonMon language
The Mon language is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Mon, who live in Burma and Thailand. Mon, like the related language Cambodian—but unlike most languages in Mainland Southeast Asia—is not tonal. Mon is spoken by more than a million people today. In recent years, usage of Mon has...
-speaking kingdom based out of Martaban had slowly come into its own. It formally broke away from its overlord Sukhothai in 1331. The southern kingdom's relationship with Sukhothai had always been an opportunistic arrangement from the beginning, designed to secure its rear in case of invasions from Upper Burma. In 1298, just four years after he became a vassal of Sukhothai, when the Upper Burma ceased to be a threat, Wareru conveniently asked for and received recognition directly from the Mongol emperor as governor even though Sukhothai itself was already a vassal of the Mongols. Indeed, when Sukhothai grew weaker, Martaban seized the Tenasserim coast from Sukhothai in 1319. A decade later, Sukhothai tried to reassert control, reoccupying Tenasserim, and attacking Martaban in 1331. Martaban's defenses held. It threw off any formal ties with Sukhothai.
Nonetheless, the kingdom remained fragmented into three power centers: the Irrawaddy delta in the west, Pegu in the middle and Martaban in the southeast, each with its own chief, who pledged nominal allegiance to the high king. In 1363, Martaban revolted, and outlasted Pegu's armies. After six years, Pegu gave up. Martaban would be independent for another 20 years until 1389.
Forty Years' War
Ava's first kings believed that Ava was the rightful successor to Pagan, and would try to restore the empire. In the south, in 1366, it defeated Toungoo, which had been independent (from Pinya) since 1347. In the northwest, the Shan state of Kale (Kalay) became a tributary in 1371. In the west, Ava's candidate to Arakan's throne became king in 1374. In 1385, Ava looked south where the throne of Hanthawaddy Pegu had just been filled by a 16-year-old Razadarit, and launched a war that would go on for another 40 years.Razadarit proved quite able, however, to meet Ava's challenge. By 1391, he had not only repelled Ava's invasions but also recaptured Martaban which had been in revolt since 1363. Ava and Pegu entered into a truce in 1391. But in the early 1400s when Ava's new king Minkhaung I
Minkhaung I
Minkhaung I of Ava was the fourth king of Ava from 1401 to 1422. Minkhaung is best remembered in Burmese history for his epic struggles against King Razadarit of Hanthawaddy Pegu in the Forty Years' War , and for being the father of Crown Prince Minyekyawswa, who did most of the fighting.Minkhaung...
was facing multiple rebellions, Razadarit invaded the upcountry with a large naval force. But Ava's defenses held, and the two sides reached another truce in early 1406.
After the second truce with Pegu, Ava resumed its acquisition spree elsewhere. By late 1406, its armies had taken Arakan in the west and Mohnyin in the north. It proved too much for Pegu as it could not get Ava to get too strong. Razadarit again broke the truce in late 1407 by driving out Ava's garrison in Arakan. He also got the Shan state of Theinni
Theinni
Theinni or Hsenwi is a town in northern Shan State of Burma, situated near the north bank of the Nam Tu River and now the centre of Hsenwi Township in Lashio District. It is 28 miles north of Lashio. It is 2,100 feet above sea level...
(Hswenwi) to attack Ava from the north. Ava fought off attacks from both sides, and by 1410, under the leadership of Crown Price Minyekyawswa
Minyekyawswa
Minyekyawswa was crown prince of Ava from 1407 to 1417, and commander-in-chief of Ava's military from 1410 to 1417. He is best remembered in Burmese history as the courageous general who waged the most fierce battles of Forty Years' War against King Razadarit of Hanthawaddy Pegu.The prince, who...
, began to gain an upper hand. Minyekyawswa decisively defeated Theinni and its Chinese troops in 1413. With the rear secure, the prince invaded the Hanthawaddy country in full force in 1414. He was on the cusp of victory when he was killed in action in 1417. The war lost steam after Minyekyawswa's death, and ended soon after both Minkhaung and Razadarit died in 1422.
Rise of Mrauk-U
Another key development in the wake of the Forty Years' War was the emergence of a unified and powerful Arakan. The western littoral between the Arakan Yoma and the Bay of Bengal remained politically fragmented even after Pagan's fall. The coast was divided between at least two power centers at Launggyet in the north and Sandoway (Thandwe) in the south. The weakness became exposed between 1374 and 1430 when the region was first subject first to Avan and then to Peguan interference. Arakan was Pegu's vassal from 1413 at least until Razadarit's death in 1422.The restoration came in 1430 when the last king of Arakan, Narameikhla, in exile since 1406, came back with an army provided by Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah was the son and successor of Raja Ganesha. He ruled Bengal in two phases first 1415 to 1416 and then 1418 to 1433. He was converted to Islam by Qutb al Alam and was named Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah...
of Bengal
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
. Narameikhla again became king, though as a vassal of Bengal. The vassalage was brief. In 1437, Narameikhla's son Min Khayi annexed Sandoway and Ramu, his overlord's territory, unifying the Arakan littoral for the first time in history. An ascendant Arakan seized Chittagong
Chittagong
Chittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
in 1459, and received tribute from the Ganges delta.
Ava's internal rebellions
After the end of Forty Years' War in 1424, Ava gave up its dream of rebuilding the Pagan Empire. Instead, for the next 60 years, it would struggle to maintain its vassal states. Rebellions arose every time a new king came to power. The new king would have to reestablish his power all over again by gaining the fealty of all the vassal states, usually by show of force. Of these, the remote vassal state of Toungoo (Taungoo), tucked away in the southeastern corner across the Pegu Yoma range, proved most troublesome to successive kings at Ava. Toungoo lords rebelled against Ava in 1427–1428, 1437–1442, 1451–1458 and 1468–1470, usually with Pegu's implicit or explicit support. Ava also faced rebellions at Mohnyin (1450) and Prome (1469).The beginning of the end of Ava came in 1481. The new king Minkhaung II
Minkhaung II
Minkhaung II was the twelfth king of Ava who reigned from 1481 to 1502. His 20-year reign was the beginning of the decline of Ava's hold on Upper Burma. Yamethin, a region to the east of Ava, revolted upon Minkhaung's ascension to the Ava throne and stayed independent throughout Minkhaung's reign...
was greeted with a multitude of rebellions but it proved to be different this time. The most serious rebellion was by his younger brother, lord of Yamethin
Yamethin
Yamethin is a town in central Burma in Yamethin District, Mandalay Region. Yamethin provides a market and processing for local agriculture production of rice and beans, as well having a small textile industry, and serving as a railroad shipping point on the Rangoon – Mandalay...
. With a serious rebellion so close to Ava, vassal states broke away one by one. The Yamethin rebellion went on until 1501. In 1482, Minkhaung's uncle at Prome successfully revolted, the Prome Kingdom
Prome Kingdom
The Prome Kingdom was a kingdom that existed for six decades between 1482 and 1542 in the present-day central Burma . Based out of the city of Prome , the minor kingdom was one of the several statelets that broke away from the dominant Ava Kingdom in the late 15th century...
sprang into existence. Ava's vassal Shan states of Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik and Kale also broke away in the 1490s. Surprisingly, Ava's steadfast ally during this period was the usually restive vassal of Toungoo which remained loyal to Ava until Minkhaung's death in 1502.
Second Shan raids
Ava's authority deteriorated further in ShwenankyawshinShwenankyawshin
Shwenankyawshin Narapati was the last sovereign king of Ava who reigned 25 tumultuous years between 1502 and 1527. A confederation of Shan states led by Mohnyin continued their relentless attacks, and gradually absorbed Avan territory from the north, while their ally Prome took Avan territory in...
's reign (1502–1527). Three of the king's own brothers openly raised a rebellion in 1502. Mohnyin, Ava's former vassal, now began to raid its territory. In 1507, Ava ceded to Mohnyin all northern Avan territory down to present-day Shwebo
Shwebo
Shwebo is a city in Sagaing Division, Myanmar, located 113 km northwest of Mandalay between the Irrawaddy and the Mu rivers. The city, also called Ratanasingha , was the capital of Myanmar from 1752 to 1760 during the Konbaung period....
in the vain hope that the raids would stop. It did not. Ava desperately tried to retain Toungoo's loyalty by ceding the key Kyaukse granary to Toungoo but it too failed. Toungoo took the region but formally broke away in 1510.
Ava's only ally was the Shan state of Thibaw
Hsipaw
Hsipaw , is a town in Shan State, Myanmar on the riverbank of Myitnge River. It is 200 km northeast of Mandalay.-Shan Saopha:Hsipaw is perhaps one of the most well known and powerful saopha states of Shan State...
(Hsipaw), which too was fighting Mohnyin's raids on its territory. Mohnyin was attacking other Shan states when it was not raiding Ava. It seized Bhamo
Bhamo
Bhamo is a city of Kachin State in northernmost part of Myanmar, located 186 km south from the capital city of Myitkyina. It is on the Ayeyarwady River. It lies within 65 km of the border with Yunnan Province, China. The population consists of Chinese and Shan, with Kachin peoples in...
from Thibaw in 1512 in the east, and raiding Kale in the west. The Ava-Thibaw alliance was able to retake Shwebo for a time but Mohnyin proved too strong. By the early 1520s, Chief Sawlon
Sawlon
Sawlon of Mohnyin was saopha of the Shan state of Mohnyin from 1482? to 1533. He is best remembered in Burmese history as the conqueror of Ava Kingdom....
of Mohnyin had assembled a confederation of Shan states (Mogaung, Bhamo, Momeik, and Kale) under his leadership. Prome had also joined the confederation. The confederation wiped out Ava's defenses in Shwebo in 1524. Finally in 1527, the forces of the confederation and Prome took Ava.
The Confederation later sacked Prome in 1533 because Sawlon felt that Prome had not given sufficient help.
Beginnings
Located in a remote, hard-to-reach corner east of the Pegu Yoma range, Toungoo had always been a troublesome province. It raised repeated rebellions throughout the 14th and 15th centuries against its overlords at Pinya and Ava, usually with Hanthawaddy Pegu's help. In 1492, Toungoo raided Pegu's territory without its overlord Ava's permission, and barely survived a strong counter attack by Pegu. MingyinyoMingyinyo
Mingyinyo was the founder of Toungoo dynasty of Burma . Under his 44-year leadership , Toungoo , grew from a remote backwater vassal state of Ava Kingdom to a small but stable independent kingdom. In 1510, he declared Toungoo's independence from its nominal overlord Ava. He skillfully kept his...
, viceroy of Toungoo, would not make war against the larger neighbor for the remainder of his life. Mingyinyo declared independence from Ava in 1510, and largely stayed out of the fighting raging between Ava and the Confederation of Shan States. When Ava fell to the combined forces of the Confederation and Prome in 1527, many people fled to Toungoo, the only region in Upper Burma at peace.
Lower Burma (1535–1544)
When TabinshwehtiTabinshwehti
Tabinshwehti was a king who unified Burma in 1539 and known as the founder of the Second Burmese Empire.Tabinshwehti succeeded his father Mingyinyo as ruler of the Toungoo dynasty in 1530...
came to power in 1530, Toungoo was now the only ethnic Burman-led kingdom, and one surrounded by much larger kingdoms. Fortunately for Toungoo, the Confederation was distracted by internal leadership disputes, and Hanthawaddy, then the most powerful kingdom of all post-Pagan kingdoms, was weakly led.
Tabinshwehti decided not to wait until the larger kingdoms' attention turned to him. Tabinshwehti and his deputy Bayinnaung
Bayinnaung
Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was the third king of the Toungoo dynasty of Burma . During his 30-year reign, which has been called the "greatest explosion of human energy ever seen in Burma", Bayinnaung assembled the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia, which included much of modern day...
selected a weakly led Hanthawaddy as their first target. Their initial dry-season raids in 1535, 1535–1536, 1536–1537 and 1537–1538 all failed against Pegu's fortified defenses aided by foreign mercenaries and Portuguese
Portuguese people
The Portuguese are a nation and ethnic group native to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian peninsula of south-west Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion....
firearms. Toungoo armies had only 6000 to 7000 men, and did not yet have access to firearms. Finally, Toungoo used a stratagem to create a split in the Hanthawaddy camp, and took Pegu without firing a shot in January 1539. After the Battle of Naungyo
Battle of Naungyo
The Battle of Naungyo was a land battle fought between the armies of the Toungoo Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom during the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War . The battle was the most decisive Toungoo victory of the war. Toungoo armies led by Gen. Kyawhtin Nawrahta decisively defeated a numerically far...
, much of Lower Burma came under Tougnoo rule. Toungoo forces then sacked the last Hanthawaddy holdout, Martaban in May 1541, after a siege of seven months. After the mass execution at Martaban, southern territories (present-day Mon State
Mon State
Mon State is an administrative division of Myanmar. It is sandwiched between Kayin State on the east, the Andaman Sea on the west, Bago Region on the north and Tanintharyi Region on the south, and has a short border with Thailand's Kanchanaburi Province at its south-eastern tip. The land area is...
) to the Siamese frontier submitted.
The conquest of Martaban now gave the upstart regime of Tabinshwehti complete control of the maritime trade and ports of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom. More importantly, Toungoo now had access to Portuguese firearms, which would prove crucial in its future campaigns.
Toungoo forces next attacked the Prome Kingdom
Prome Kingdom
The Prome Kingdom was a kingdom that existed for six decades between 1482 and 1542 in the present-day central Burma . Based out of the city of Prome , the minor kingdom was one of the several statelets that broke away from the dominant Ava Kingdom in the late 15th century...
, and drove back Prome's overlord Confederation and ally Arakan. After a five months' siege, Prome was mercilessly sacked in May 1542. In retaliation, the Confederation, consisted of seven Shan states, launched a major land and naval invasion in November 1543. But the invasion force was driven back, and was followed up by Toungoo forces which took as far north as the old imperial capital of Pagan. Tabinshwehti was crowned king at Pagan in July 1544.
Arakan (1546–1547)
Tabinshwehti then turned to Arakan, ally of Prome, invading the western kingdom by sea and land in October 1546. The combined forces quickly advanced to Mrauk-U but could not make any headway against the heavily fortified capital for the next three months. Hearing that the Siamese forces were raiding the frontier, Tabinshwehti agreed to a truce, and withdrew in February 1547.Siam (1548)
Back from Arakan, Tabinshwehti looked east to SiamAyutthaya kingdom
Ayutthaya was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767. Ayutthaya was friendly towards foreign traders, including the Chinese, Vietnamese , Indians, Japanese and Persians, and later the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and French, permitting them to set up villages outside the walls of the...
. The casus belli
Casus belli
is a Latin expression meaning the justification for acts of war. means "incident", "rupture" or indeed "case", while means bellic...
have been stated as a Burmese attempt to expand their territory eastwards after a political crisis in Ayutthaya as well as an attempt to stop Siamese incursions into the upper Tenasserim coast. In early 1548, Toungoo forces invaded Siam through the Three Pagodas Pass
Three Pagodas Pass
The Three Pagodas Pass is a pass in the Tenasserim Hills on the border between Thailand and Burma , at an altitude of above sea level....
. The 12,000-strong Burmese forces penetrated up to the capital city of Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya (city)
Ayutthaya city is the capital of Ayutthaya province in Thailand. Located in the valley of the Chao Phraya River. The city was founded in 1350 by King U Thong, who went there to escape a smallpox outbreak in Lop Buri and proclaimed it the capital of his kingdom, often referred to as the Ayutthaya...
but could not take the heavily fortified city. One month into the siege, Siamese counterattacks broke the siege, and drove back the invasion force. But the Burmese negotiated a safe retreat in exchange for the return of two important Siamese nobles (the heir apparent Prince Ramesuan, and Prince Thammaracha
Maha Thammarachathirat
Phra Maha Thammarachathirat or Somdet Phra Sanphet I or formerly known as Khun Phiren Thorathep was the first King of Ayutthaya kingdom of the Sukhothai dynasty ruling from 1569 to 1590. As a powerful Sukhothai noble, Pirenthorathep gradually rose to power...
of Phitsanulok
Phitsanulok
Phitsanulok is an important and historic city in lower northern Thailand and is the capital of Phitsanulok Province, which stretches all the way to the Laotian border. Phitsanulok is one of the oldest cities in Thailand, founded over 600 years ago...
) whom they had captured.
Lower Burma (1550–1552)
After Tabinshwehti was assassinated on 30 April 1550, the kingdom he and Bayinnaung had built up in the last 15 years instantly unraveled. Instead of acknowledging Bayinnaung as the next king, all the governors of the kingdom, including Bayinnaung's own kinsmen, set up their own fiefdoms.Bayinnaung then set out to reclaim the kingdom. Starting with a small army of 2500 loyal followers, Bayinnaung first attacked native city of Toungoo where his brother Minkhaung had proclaimed himself king. After a siege of four months, Minkhaung surrendered, and was pardoned by his brother. On 11 January 1551, Bayinnaung was formally proclaimed king. Bayinnaung then received tribute from fiefs throughout central Burma, and Martaban in the south. Only Prome and Pegu in Lower Burma remained defiant. Bayinnaung captured Prome on 30 August 1551 after a five months' siege. On 12 March 1552, Bayinnaung defeated Pegu's ruler Smim Htaw
Smim Htaw
Smim Htaw was a pretender to the Hanthawaddy throne, and the last king in the line of the Hanthawaddy dynasty. An ex-Buddhist monk, and a son of King Binnya Ran II by a minor queen, Htaw first raised a rebellion in 1549 during the reign of King Tabinshwehti of Toungoo, who had conquered the...
in single combat on elephants, and the victor's forces brutally sacked the city.
Confederation of Shan states (1554–1557)
The Confederation-controlled Ava was next. Bayinnaung made extensive preparations, assembling a large invasion force (18,000 men, 900 horses, 80 elephants, 140 war boats). In December 1554, the Toungoo land and naval forces invaded. Within a month, the invasion forces held complete command of the river and the country. On 22 January 1555, the southern forces took the city.Bayinnaung then planned to follow up to the Confederation's home states in order to prevent future Shan raids into Upper Burma. With the entire Irrawaddy valley under his control, he was able to raise a large army of 24,000 men, 1200 horses and 60 elephants, and invaded the Shan states in January 1557. The massive show of force worked. Shan states one after another submitted with minimal resistance. By March 1557, Bayinnaung in one stroke controlled all cis-Salween (Thanlwin) Shan states from the Patkai
Patkai
The Pat-kai meaning to Cut Chicken in Tai Ahom language are the hills on India's North Eastern border with Burma. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalayain the Mesozoic . They are not as rugged as the Himalayas and its peaks are much lower...
range at the Assamese border in the northwest to Mohnyin (Mong Yang), Mogaung (Mong Kawng) in present-day Kachin State
Kachin State
Kachin State , is the northernmost state of Burma. It is bordered by China to the north and east; Shan State to the south; and Sagaing Division and India to the west. It lies between north latitude 23° 27' and 28° 25' longitude 96° 0' and 98° 44'. The area of Kachin State is . The capital of the...
to Momeik (Mong Mit) Thibaw
Hsipaw
Hsipaw , is a town in Shan State, Myanmar on the riverbank of Myitnge River. It is 200 km northeast of Mandalay.-Shan Saopha:Hsipaw is perhaps one of the most well known and powerful saopha states of Shan State...
(Hsipaw), and Mone
Mong Nai
Mong Nai is a town in Mong Nai Township in the Shan State of Burma.-References:...
(Mong Nai) in the east.
Lan Na (1558)
Mone, one of the largest Shan states controlling Nyaungshwe (Yawnghwe) and Mobye (Mong Pai), revolted soon after the army left. Its sawbwa was a brother of the king of Lan Na (Chiang Mai). In November 1557, Bayinnaung's 23,000-strong forces reinvaded, and easily defeated Mone's forces. The sawbwa fled to Chiang Mai.Bayinnaung pursued the fugitive sawbwa, and arrived at the gates of Chiang Mai after 45 days of arduous march. The king of Lan Na surrendered without a fight on 2 April 1558. By having acquired Mone and Lan Na, Bayinnaung had unknowingly become involved in the dynastic politics of middle Tai country. The ruler of Lan Xang
Lan Xang
The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Kao was established in 1354 by Fa Ngum.Exiled as an infant to Cambodia, Prince Fa Ngum of Xieng Dong Xieng Thong married a daughter of the Khmer king. In 1349 he set out from Angkor at the head of a 10,000-man army to establish his own country...
Setthathirath
Setthathirath
Setthathirath is considered one of the great leaders in Lao history. Throughout 1560s up until his death, he successfully defended his kingdom of Lan Xang against military campaigns of Burmese conqueror Bayinnaung, who had already subdued Xieng Mai in 1558 and Ayutthaya in 1564...
was of Lan Na royalty, and wanted to regain his home kingdom. He attacked Chiang Mai in early 1559 but was repulsed. Setthathirath would prove a thorn to Bayinnaung in years to come.
Manipur (1560)
The small kingdom of ManipurManipur
Manipur is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. Manipur is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west; it also borders Burma to the east. It covers an area of...
was next. A three-pronged invasion (10,000 men, 300 horses, 30 elephants) led by Gen. Binnya Dala faced minimal resistance, and achieved formal surrender circa January 1560.
Farther Shan states (1562–1563)
In 1562, Bayinnaung looked to bring farther (trans-Salween) Shan states (present-day Kengtung in Shan StateShan State
Shan State is a state of Burma . Shan State borders China to the north, Laos to the east, and Thailand to the south, and five administrative divisions of Burma in the west. Largest of the 14 administrative divisions by land area, Shan State covers 155,800 km², almost a quarter of the total...
, and southern Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
) into his fold, ostensibly to prevent attacks on his territories. Again, he assembled a massive army (24000 men, 1000 horses, 80 elephants). Prior to the invasion, on 16 December 1562, Kengtung submitted. By March 1563, a two-pronged invasion of the Taping valley had secured the allegiance of the farther Shan states. (Note that these states at the Chinese border continued to pay dual tribute to both Burma and China down to the 19th century.)
Siam (1563–1564)
Bayinnaung now looked to Siam, which successfully fought off the first Burmese invasion in 1548. However, Bayinnaung now had a far larger empire at his disposal. Knowing that Siam be much more difficult than Shan states and Lan Na campaigns, Bayinnaung assembled the largest army yet—60,000 men, 2400 horses and 360 elephants, two and a half times larger than his previous high. The army would have been larger but the ruler of Chiang Mai, Mekuti, did not send in his share of the levy.Four Burmese armies invaded northern Siam in November 1563, and had overcome Siamese stands at Kamphaeng Phet
Kamphaeng Phet
Kamphaeng Phet is a town in northern Thailand, capital of the Kamphaeng Phet Province. It covers the complete tambon Nai Mueang of the Mueang Kamphaeng Phet district. As of 2005 it has a population of 30,114.-External links:...
, Sukhothai
Sukhothai
Sukhothai may refer to:* Sukhothai , the historic city* Sukhothai Historical Park* Sukhothai Kingdom, the historic Thai kingdom* Sukhothai Province, one of the northern provinces of ThailandSukhothai may also refer to:...
and Phitsanulok
Phitsanulok
Phitsanulok is an important and historic city in lower northern Thailand and is the capital of Phitsanulok Province, which stretches all the way to the Laotian border. Phitsanulok is one of the oldest cities in Thailand, founded over 600 years ago...
by January 1564. Armies then came down on Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya (city)
Ayutthaya city is the capital of Ayutthaya province in Thailand. Located in the valley of the Chao Phraya River. The city was founded in 1350 by King U Thong, who went there to escape a smallpox outbreak in Lop Buri and proclaimed it the capital of his kingdom, often referred to as the Ayutthaya...
but were kept at bay for days by Portuguese warships and batteries at the harbor. Siamese defenses collapsed after the Burmese captured the Portuguese ships on 7 February 1564. King Maha Chakkraphat of Siam surrendered on 19 February 1564. The king and crown prince Ramesuan
Prince Ramesuan
Phra Ramesuan was a Siamese prince and military commander during the Ayutthaya period in the 16th century. He was a son of Prince Thianracha and Suriyothai, thus he was a member of the Suphannaphum Dynasty...
were brought back to Pegu as hostages. Bayinnaung left Mahinthrathirat
Mahinthrathirat
Somdet Phra Mahinthrathirat was the King of Ayutthaya kingdom in 1568 and again from 1568 to 1569. Mahinthrathirat was the last monarch of the Suphannabhum dynasty as the kingdom fell to the Burmese in 1569...
, one of Maha Chakkraphat's sons as vassal king, along with a garrison of 3000 men.
Lan Na and Lan Xang (1564–1565)
Bayinnaung still needed to settle the affairs at Lan Na which was in revolt, as well as with Lan Xang which had encouraged Lan Na. His 36,000-strong armies recaptured Chiang Mai without a fight in November 1564. Bayinnaung installed Mahadewi as queen regnant of Lan Na. The army then attacked Lan Xang, capturing VientianeVientiane
-Geography:Vientiane is situated on a bend of the Mekong river, which forms the border with Thailand at this point.-Climate:Vientiane features a tropical wet and dry climate with a distinct monsoon season and a dry season. Vientiane’s dry season spans from November through March. April marks the...
in early 1765. Burmese troops fruitlessly chased Setthathirath's men, and many died of starvation and disease. By 1567, Setthathirath had retaken the capital.
Siam (1568–1569)
In early 1568, the captive Siamese king, Maha Chakkraphat, who had become a monk, successfully convinced Bayinnaung to allow him to go back to Ayutthaya on pilgrimage. Upon his arrival, in May 1568, he disrobed and revolted. He also entered into an alliance with Setthathirath of Lan Xang. On 30 May 1568, a dismayed Bayinnaung sent an army of 6000 to reinforce the defenses at Phitsanulok, whose ruler had remained loyal to him. Phitsanulok withstood the siege by joint Siamese and Lan Xang forces till October when the besiegers withdrew to avoid what was to come. On 27 November 1568, 55,000-strong Burmese armies arrived at Phitsanulok. Reinforced at Phitsanulok, combined armies of 70,000 marched down to Ayutthaya, and laid siege to the city in December 1568.A month into the siege, Maha Chakkraphat died, and was succeeded by Mahin in January 1564. Setthathirath tried to break the siege but his army was severely defeated northeast of the city on 23 April 1569. Mahin finally offered to surrender but the offer was not accepted. The city finally fell on 8 August 1569. Bayinnaung appointed Maha Thammaracha, the viceroy of Phitsanulok, as vassal king on 30 September 1569. The Burmese rule would not be challenged for another 15 years, until after Bayinnaung's death.
Lan Xang (1569–1574)
For Bayinnaung, the work was not yet done. On 15 October 1569, Bayinnaung at Ayutthaya led several regiments of his wounded army to invade Lan Xang via Phitsanulok. Setthathirath again fled Vientiane. Bayinnaung's men pursued but could not find him. Tired by long marches in a mountainous country, the Burmese army gave up and left Vientiane in May 1570. Another expedition in 1572 after Setthathirath's death also failed to bring order. Finally, the king himself led another expedition, and put his nominee on the Lan Xang throne in November 1574. Aside from a minor rebellion in 1579, Lan Xang gave no trouble for the rest of Bayinnaung's reign.Arakan (1580–1581)
On 9 September 1580, Bayinnaung sent a large land and naval invasion force to bring Arakan, which was not yet part of his realm, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. The combined forces (24000 men, 1200 horses, 120 elephants, 1300 vessels) easily took SandowayThandwe
-Ngapali Beach:Ngapali Beach is a beach located 7 kilometres from the town of Thandwe , in Rakhine State, Myanmar. It is the most famous beach in Myanmar and is a popular tourist destination...
but did not proceed, awaiting the king's orders. The royal orders never came. The invasion forces withdrew in November 1581 after Bayinnaung's death.
Ava (1583–1584)
Bayinnaung's massive empire began to unravel soon after his death. He had controlled his vast empire not only by exercising his massive military power but also by establishing personal connections with the vassal kings. The vassal kings were loyal to him as the universal ruler, CakkavattiChakravartin
Chakravartin , is a term used in Indian religions for an ideal universal ruler, who rules ethically and benevolently over the entire world. Such a ruler's reign is called sarvabhauma. It is a bahuvrīhi, literally meaning "whose wheels are moving", in the sense of "whose chariot is rolling...
, not to the Kingdom of Toungoo. Bayinnaung's eldest son Nanda
Nanda Bayin
Nanda Bayin , was the king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Myanmar from 1581 to 1599. Nanda was the first son of King Bayinnaung. He was made the crown prince upon the ascension of his father in January 1551. As the crown prince, he led subjugation of Lanna and the sack of Vientiene in 1565...
succeeded but faced an impossible task of keeping the ties together. The problems began close to home. Bayinnaung's three brothers, viceroys of Ava, Prome and Toungoo, only nominally acknowledged their nephew. In October 1583, Nanda discovered a plot by Thado Minsaw of Ava to overthrow him, and after an extensive preparation, marched to Ava in March 1584. On 25 April 1584, Nanda defeated Thado Minsaw in their elephant duel, and took Ava.
Siam (1584–1593)
Naresuan
Somdet Phra Naresuan Maharat or Somdet Phra Sanphet II was the King of the Ayutthaya kingdom from 1590 until his death in 1605. Naresuan was one of Siam's most revered monarchs as he was known for his campaigns to free Siam from Burmese rule...
's 6000-strong army was hovering around Pegu instead of marching to Ava, as ordered. When Nanda retook Ava, Naresuan withdrew and at Martaban, declared independence. A hastily planned expedition followed Naresuan in the midst of the rainy season. The 12,000-strong Burmese army was caught unprepared by the flooded countryside by the Chao Phaya, and was nearly wiped out by Siamese on their war canoes.
Another expedition was launched from Lan Na in March 1586. Mingyi Swa's 12,000-strong army could not take a heavily fortified Lampang
Lampang
Lampang, also called Nakhon Lampang to differentiate from Lampang Province, is the third largest town in northern Thailand and capital of Lampang Province and the Lampang district. Traditional names for Lampang include Wiang Lakon and Khelang Nakhon. The city is still growing rapidly as trading...
, and had to withdraw in June. In November, Nanda himself led an army of 25,000, and invaded again. After several futile attacks on the heavily fortified Ayutthaya, the Burmese retreated in March 1587 after having suffered heavy casualties. The failures at Siam began to affect Pegu's ability to hold on to other regions. Pegu faced other rebellions in Shan states, at Inya (1587–1588) and at Mogaung (1590–1592). In December 1590, Mingyi Swa's 20,000-strong army invaded again. Like in 1586, he could not get past the Siamese fort at Lampang, and was driven back in March 1591.
In December 1592, another invasion army of 24,000 tried again. The army penetrated to Suphan Buri. On 18 January 1593, Mingyi Swa and Naresuan fought a duel on their elephants, in which Mingyi Swa was slain. The Burmese forces retreated. It was the last of Pegu's Siamese campaigns. The main reason for Nanda's failure was that unlike his father who raised armies of 60,000 and 70,000, Nanda could never muster a force larger than 25,000 at any one time. Worse yet, he had frittered away Pegu's manpower. About 50,000 of the total of 93,000 men that marched in the five Siamese campaigns had perished.
Unraveling of the empire
Pegu was now a completely spent force, vulnerable to internal rebellions and external invasions. In December 1594, Siamese armies invaded, and laid siege to Pegu in January 1595. Burmese armies from Toungoo and Chiang Mai relieved the siege in April 1595. However, the entire Tenasserim coast to Martaban now belonged to Siam.During the Siamese siege of Pegu, the viceroy of Prome, Mingyi Hnaung, revolted against his father. Nanda was powerless to take any action. Others soon followed. In 1596, vassal kings of Toungoo and Chiang Mai also revolted. Another key viceroy, Nyaungyan
Nyaungyan Min
Nyaungyan Min was the fifth king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma who reigned from 1599 to 1606. Nyaungyan is also often referred to as the founder of Restored Toungoo Dynasty or Nyaungyan Dynasty because his successful efforts to reunify main parts of his father Bayinnaung's empire which had famously...
of Ava nominally stayed loyal but offered no support. Instead, Nyaungyan consolidated his position in Upper Burma throughout 1597.
More chaos ensued. In September 1597, the rebellious Mingyi Hnaung of Prome was assassinated. Toungoo tried to pick off Prome but failed. Toungoo then formed an alliance with Arakan to attack Pegu. Combined Arakan and Toungoo forces laid siege to Pegu in April 1599. Nanda surrendered on 19 December 1599. The victors looted all the gold, silver and valuables that had been collected in the last 60 years by Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung. Before they left in late February 1600, the Arakanese burned down the city, including Bayinnaung's once-glittering Grand Palace
Kanbawzathadi Palace
Kanbawzathadi Palace is a palace in Bago, Myanmar. The original palace, built for King Bayinnaung in 1556, consisted of 76 apartments and halls. It was burned down in 1599. It was reconstructed in 1990 and finished in 1992....
.
When Naresuan and his Siamese army showed up at Pegu to join the free-for-all, they found a smoldering city with the loot already taken away. Naresuan hastily followed up to Toungoo, laying siege to the city in April 1600. But his supply lines were cut by the Arakanese from the rear, forcing the Siamese king to withdraw on 6 May 1600. The Siamese forces suffered heavy losses in retreat. Only a small portion finally got back to Martaban. It was the last time the Siamese ever invaded mainland Burma.
After the 1600 debacle, Naresuan turned north to Lan Na. In early 1602, King Nawrahta Minsaw of Lan Na who was facing attacks from Lan Xang agreed to become a Siamese tributary.
Arakan
At the beginning of the 17th century, Arakan was at the height of its powers. Its dominion extended across a thousand miles of coastline from ChittagongChittagong
Chittagong ) is a city in southeastern Bangladesh and the capital of an eponymous district and division. Built on the banks of the Karnaphuli River, the city is home to Bangladesh's busiest seaport and has a population of over 4.5 million, making it the second largest city in the country.A trading...
to Syriam. In the previous century, the Arakanese with the help of Portuguese mercenaries had extended their grip of the trade through the Arakanese littoral up to Chittagong. It had grown wealthy from trade, including trade in slaves, which it actively raided from the Ganges delta.
Portuguese insurrections
Arakan's Portuguese troubles were not yet over. In 1609, its northern territories at the edge of Ganges delta and off Chittagong came under threat by the Portuguese mercenaries and the Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
government in Bengal. In March 1609, 400 hundred Portuguese mercenaries, led by Sebastian Gonzales Tibao, seized the Sandwip
Sandwip
Sandwip is an island along the south eastern coast of Bangladesh.It is also spelled "Sandvip" both are mostly used.It is a sub-division of Chittagong District. It is situated at the estuary of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal and separated from the Chittagong coast by the Sandwip channel. It...
island. Meanwhile, the Mughal governor of Bengal tried to take over Noakhali District
Noakhali District
Noakhali is a district in South-eastern Bangladesh. It is located in the Chittagong Division.-Geography:Noakhali District located in Chittagong Division, Bangladesh...
. Min Yazagyi was forced to enter into an alliance with the Portuguese to drive out the Mughals. After the Mughals were driven out, Gonzales promptly seized the Arakanese navy, and began raiding as far south as Lemro river. Later, the Portuguese viceroy at Goa sanctioned an attack on Mrauk-U itself. In November 1615, a fleet of 14 Portuguese galliots and 50 smaller war boats led by Francis de Meneses sailed up the Lemro. Alas, the fleet was driven back by Arakanese defenses, which included broadsides of a few Dutch ships. Two years later, King Min Khamaung finally captured Sandwip, and put most of its inhabitants to death.
Raids of Ganges Delta
Arakan grew even stronger, raiding the entire SundarbansSundarbans
The Sundarbans [Sundarban Tour Booking-9051115228] is the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world.The name Sundarban can be literally translated as "beautiful jungle" or "beautiful forest" in the Bengali language...
delta to Calcutta to the west and Murshidabad
Murshidabad
Murshidabad is a city in Murshidabad district of West Bengal state in India. The city of Murshidabad is located on the southern bank of the Bhagirathi, a distributary of the Ganges River. It was the capital of undivided Bengal during the Mughal rule. Nawabs of Bengal used to rule Bengal from this...
in the north. Tripura
Tripura
Tripura is a state in North-East India, with an area of . It is the third smallest state of India, according to area. Tripura is surrounded by Bangladesh on the north, south, and west. The Indian states of Assam and Mizoram lie to the east. The capital is Agartala and the main languages spoken are...
became a tributary. The Arakanese sacked Dhaka in 1625, after which the Mughal government withdrew to safer ground inland. Until 1666, when the Mughals came back with a vengeance, the Arakanese terrorized the entire delta, rounding up slaves whom they sold to the Europeans for a handsome profit.
Decline of Arakan
In 1665, the Mughal Emperor AurangzebAurangzeb
Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir , more commonly known as Aurangzeb or by his chosen imperial title Alamgir , was the sixth Mughal Emperor of India, whose reign lasted from 1658 until his death in 1707.Badshah Aurangzeb, having ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for nearly...
decided to take action on the Arakanese marauders. He also wanted to avenge for his brother Shah Shuja
Shah Shuja
Shāh Shujā was the second son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal.-Governor of Bengal:Emperor Shah Jahan appointed Shah Shuja as the Subahdar or governor of Bengal in 1639. In 1642, Shuja was also given the charge of the province of Orissa. He ruled the provinces for more...
who was killed in exile by the Arakanese king. The Mughal viceroy of Bengal first lured the Portuguese mercenaries in the service of King Sanda Thudhamma guarding the Chittagong region to defect by giving them fiefs. Then the Mughal fleet took Sandwip in late 1665. In January 1666, a Mughal force of 6500 men and 288 boats took Chittagong after a 36-hours' siege. They subsequently took as far south as Ramu. Arakan had lost the Chittagong province which it had held since 1459.
Arakan would not recover from the loss of Chittagong, and went into rapid decline. Central authority collapsed in the late 17th century. Sanda Wizaya (r. 1710–1731) briefly revived the kingdom. He went to war with Tripura, and raided Sandwip, Prome and Malun
Thayet District
Thayet District is a district of the Magway Division in central Burma . The administrative centre is the town of Thayetmyo.-History:...
. But after his death, Arakan reverted back to chaos where king after king was murdered and central authority barely existed. It was easily overrun by the Konbaung armies in 1784.
Nyaungyan restoration
While the interregnum that followed the fall of Pagan Empire lasted over 250 years (1287–1555), that following the fall of Pegu was relatively short-lived. One of Bayinnaung's sons, Nyaungyan, immediately began the reunification effort, successfully restoring central authority over Upper Burma and Shan States by 1606. Nyaungyan's successor Anaukpetlun had restored Bayinnaung's empire (except Siam and Lan Xang) by 1624.Upper Burma and nearer Shan states (1597–1606)
After the fall of Pegu in December 1599, Lower Burma was in utter chaos, and politically fragmented among Toungoo, Prome, Arakanese/Portuguese Syriam and Siamese Martaban. In Upper Burma, however, Nyaungyan, viceroy of Ava, had been quietly consolidating his holdings since 1597. Though nominally loyal to Nanda, Nyaungyan provided no support to his overlord. In October 1599, just as Toungoo and Arakanese were laying siege on Pegu, Nyaungyan sent a force to reclaim Mohnyin, Mogaung, and Bhamo. After Pegu fell, Nyaungyan declared himself king on 25 February 1600.Nyaungyan then systematically reacquired nearer Shan states. He captured Nyaungshwe in February 1601, and the large strategic Shan state of Mone in July 1603, bringing his realm to the border of Siamese Lan Na. In response, Naresuan of Siam marched in early 1605 to attack Mone but died at the border in April after which Siam ceased to be a military concern to Burma. In early 1606, his 7000-strong forces took Theinni, Thibaw and Momeik but the king died during the campaign on 3 March 1606.
Lower Burma (1607–1613)
With Upper Burma securely under his control, Nyaungyan's successor Anaukpetlun marched south. His 14,000-strong land and naval forces sacked Prome on 13 July 1608 after a bloody siege of eight months. His 12,000-strong forces then attacked Toungoo, then ruled by his cousin, Natshinnaung, in August 1610. After a siege of 23 days, Natshinnaung agreed to become a vassal on 4 September 1610. But Natshinnaung was deeply unhappy with his reduced status, and secretly invited de Brito of Syriam to attack Toungoo. In July 1612, Syriam and Martaban forces ransacked the city for ten days, and left, taking Natshinnaung to Syriam.In response, Anaukpetlun's army of 13,000 (700 horses, 60 elephants) left Ava for Syriam on 26 December 1612. A flotilla of 80 war boats and 30 cargo boats (3000 men) was also sent down the Irrawaddy to blockade the port. The Burmese forces overcame Portuguese outer defenses, and finally blockaded the port on 24 February 1613. But Portuguese gunners and musketeers kept the Burmese at bay for 34 days while waiting for reinforcements from Goa to arrive. On 29 March 1613, however, the Burmese successfully brought down a section of the walls, from their tunnels below. The city was sacked. On 7 April 1613, de Brito his son and Natshinnaung were all executed by impalement.
A month later, on 14 May 1613, Binnya Dala of Martaban, submitted. The ruler was nominally tributary to Siam but had ruled the region like a sovereign since the death of Naresuan in 1605. Alarmed, the Siamese sent an army to Ye
Ye, Mon State
Ye is a town in the southern end of Mon State, Myanmar . It is the principal town of Ye Township of Mawlamyine District. The town is located by the Ye river as it drains into the Gulf of Martaban, and is surrounded by Tenasserim Hills in the east. It has a warm, moderate weather. The town's...
, south of Martaban, to prevent the Burmese from marching down the coast. But the Siamese did not try to retake Martaban.
Siam (1613–1614)
Anaukpetlun would not spend his scarce resources on subjugating Siam. His strategy was to pick off Siam's peripheral regions rather than launch a full scale invasion. On 30 November 1613, he sent a small army of 4000 (100 horses, 10 elephants) to drive out the Siamese from upper Tenasserim coast. On 26 December 1613, the army defeated the Siamese at Tavoy. The Burmese followed down to Tenasserim port itself. But the Burmese were driven back with heavy losses by the wealthy port's Portuguese broadsides in March 1614. The Siamese tried to retake Tavoy but failed.Anaukpetlun then switched theaters to Lan Na, which like Martaban before was only a nominal vassal of Siam. His armies of 17,000 invaded Lan Na on 30 April 1614 from Martaban in the south and Mone in the north. Lan Na's ruler, Thado Kyaw, desperately sought help. Help came from Lan Xang, not his overlord Siam. Despite the logistical troubles and the rainy season conditions, the Burmese armies finally achieved encirclement of Lan Na and Lan Xang forces in the Chiang Mai and Lanphun pocket in August 1614. After nearly five months, on 22 December 1614, the city surrendered.
Siam would not make any attempts to recover Lan Na until 1663.
Farther Shan States (1622–1626)
Anaukpetlun then brought trans-Salween Shan states under his rule in the 1620s. In February 1622, his forces (4000 men, 150 horses, 15 elephants) took Kengtung, which had been held by an ally of Lan Xang, after a fierce battle. Reinforced Burmese armies led by the king's brothers ThalunThalun
Thalun was the eighth king of Toungoo dynasty of Burma . During his 19-year reign, Thalun successfully rebuilt the war-torn country which had been under constant warfare for nearly a century since the 1530s. Thalun instituted many administrative reforms and rebuilt the economy of the kingdom.In...
and Minyekyawswa II invaded the Chinese Shan states in present-day southern Yunnan in May 1622. For the next 20 months, Burmese forces chased Kenghung troops. Finally in January 1624, Kenghung and Kengyun both surrendered. Kengyun promptly rebelled the following year but it was put down in December 1626 by the king's brothers.
By then, Nyaungyan and Anaukpetlun had restored much of Bayinnaung's empire. Only Siam and Lan Xang remained outside the Restored Toungoo Empire. But the Burmese would not overstretch again. They would not launch major invasions against these neighbors until the 1760s.
Ming incursions (1651–1662)
In the 1650s, Burma became entangled in the dynastic changes in China. In 1651, MingMing Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
armies fleeing from the Qing
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
forces entered Kengyun (east of Bhamo), which had paid tribute to both China and Burma. King Pindale sent five regiments to the front in October 1651. But the armies were driven back by the Ming in December 1651. Pindale would not contest again.
In 1658, Zhu Youlang
Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui
Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui, the Yongli Emperor was the fourth and last emperor of the Southern Ming Dynasty of China. His era name means "Perpetual calendar"....
, one of the sons of the last Ming emperor, and his 700 followers were given permission to stay at Sagaing
Sagaing
Sagaing is the capital of Sagaing Region in Myanmar. Located on the Ayeyarwady River, 20 km to the southwest of Mandalay on the opposite bank of the river, Sagaing with numerous Buddhist monasteries is an important religious and monastic center. The pagodas and monasteries crowd the numerous...
. In early 1659, other fleeing Ming armies entered the Shan states, and occupied Nyaungshwe and Mone with the intention to set up a kingdom for their emperor. For the next two years, the Ming forces proved a menace to Upper Burma. Not only Pindale could not drive out the Ming but it was the Ming that continually threatened the Burmese capital itself, and ransacked Upper Burma districts. On 4 June 1661, Pye Min
Pye Min
Pye Min was the tenth king of Toungoo dynasty from 1661 to 1672. Pye Min was a son of King Thalun. During the reign of his brother Pindale, the Prince of Pyay led the Burmese resistance against Southern Ming and Qing incursions. King Pindale, however, lost his popularity and Pye was urged to take...
overthrew his ineffectual brother, and took over the command. He finally drove out the Ming by November 1661.
The problems were not yet over for the Burmese. On 21 December 1661, a Qing army of 20,000 under Gen. Wu Sangui
Wu Sangui
Wu Sangui was a Ming Chinese general who was instrumental in the succession of rule to the Qing Dynasty in 1644...
showed up at Ava, demanding the surrender of the Ming emperor. The emperor was handed over on 15 January 1662, and the Qing forces left a week later.
Siamese invasions (1662–1664)
While Burma had its hands full with the Ming Chinese invasions, Siam's King NaraiNarai
Somdet Phra Narai or Somdet Phra Ramathibodi III was the king of Ayutthaya from 1656 to 1688 and arguably the most famous Ayutthayan king. His reign was the most prosperous during the Ayutthaya period and saw the great commercial and diplomatic activities with foreign nations including the...
attempted to pick off the upper Tenasserim coast and Lan Na. He got Martaban to switch sides in March 1662, and occupied the coast. Fortunately for the Burmese, their troubles with the Ming were over. Their land and naval units recaptured Martaban and Tavoy by December 1662. They followed up on the retreating Siamese but were driven back near Kanchanaburi
Kanchanaburi
Kanchanaburi ) is a town in the west of Thailand and the capital of Kanchanaburi province. In 2006 it had a population of 31,327...
with heavy losses.
Meanwhile, a much larger Siamese army invaded Lan Na, catching the Burmese command completely off guard. The Siamese captured Chiang Mai on 10 February 1663, and drove back Burmese forces that arrived belatedly. In November 1663, Siam launched a two-pronged invasion of the Tenasserim coast: Martaban and Moulmein in the north and Tavoy in the south. Burmese defenses withstood several Siamese onslaughts until May 1664 when the invaders retreated before the rainy season arrived. Meanwhile, the Siamese garrison at Chiang Mai was holed up in a deserted city, and its troops were constantly ambushed by resistance forces whenever they ventured out of the city. In late November 1664, the Siamese evacuated Chiang Mai, and returned.
This was the last major war between the two kingdoms until 1760 although they traded small raids in 1675–1676, and in 1700–1701.
Lan Na (1727–1732)
In October 1727, the Burmese governor of Lan Na was assassinated because high taxation. An army was rushed to Chiang Mai via Mone. The army retook the city after a fierce battle. But the army was ambushed by the rebels as the troops left the city in early 1728. Another expedition in 1731–1732 could not overcome the defenses at Chiang Mai. Southern Lan Na (Ping valley) was now independent of Ava.Manipuri raids (1724–1749)
Manipur was a tributary to Burma in the 16th century (1560–1596) but had gone its own way since. It raided Upper Chindwin region in 1647 and 1692. However, in 1704, the raja of Manipur presented his daughter to Ava. Starting in the 1720s, Manipur under the leadership of PamheibaPamheiba
Meidingu Pamheiba was an emperor in Manipur in the early 18th century. After conversion to Hinduism, he made it the official religion of Manipur in 1717...
(Gharib Nawaz) became a thorn to Upper Burma. In early 1724, the Manipuris raided Upper Burma. In response, an expedition force of 3000 men marched to Manipur in November 1724. The army was ambushed in the swamps at Heirok, and retreated in haste.
The Manipuris then returned ten years later. From 1735 to 1741, Manipuris raided the Upper Chindwin regions, increasingly deeper with each raid. Burmese defenses were simply bypassed the Manipuris on their horseback. In December 1739, they reached as far as Sagaing, and looted and burned everything insight. The Burmese defenses finally stopped them at Myedu in early 1741, with each side agreeing to an uneasy truce. But the Manipuris had annexed the Kabaw valley
Kabaw Valley
The Kabaw Valley is a highland valley in northern Burma , western Sagaing division. It is drained by the Mu River. The valley is the home of a number of ethnic minorities including the Zo, the Mizo, the Kadu and the Kanan.-History:...
.
The truce did not last. Another raid came all the way down to Ava in 1744. The last raid came in 1749. Upon arrival at Ava, the Manipuri chief found a large Burmese army, and presented his 12-year-old daughter instead, and left.
Restored Hanthawaddy (1740–1752)
While Ava had its hands full with the Manipuri raids in Upper Burma, a rebellion broke out at Pegu in November 1740. Ethnic Mon officials selected Smim Htaw BuddhaketiSmim Htaw Buddhaketi
Smim Htaw Buddhaketi was the first king of the Restored Kingdom of Hanthawaddy which overthrew Toungoo Dynasty's rule in Lower Burma. From 1740 to 1747, the ethnic Burman king was a nominal figurehead of the ethnic Mon rebellion. He was selected to be king by the leaders of the Mon insurrection...
, a cousin of the king at Ava, as their king. The court at Pegu consolidated its hold in Lower Burma. Starting in 1742, Pegu, with renegade Dutch and Portuguese musketeers, began its annual raids of the upcountry. Because of the Manipuri threat, Ava could only send small armies to the south in 1743 and 1744, neither of which made any mark. The war "carried on languidly", with neither side achieving any lasting advantage until 1747.
In December 1747, Binnya Dala
Binnya Dala
Binnya Dala was the last king of Restored Kingdom of Hanthawaddy, who reigned from 1747 to 1757. He was a key leader in the revival of the Mon-speaking kingdom in 1740, which successfully revolted against the rule of Toungoo dynasty. Though Smim Htaw Buddhaketi was the king, it was Binnya Dala who...
came to power in Pegu, and the new king was determined to finish the war. He was not satisfied to gain independence for Lower Burma itself but determined to make Upper Burma its tributary. He stopped the annual raids and began planning for a decisive invasion. He sought and received French East India Company
French East India Company
The French East India Company was a commercial enterprise, founded in 1664 to compete with the British and Dutch East India companies in colonial India....
's support in firearms. Alarmed, Ava too sought support from China but no help materialized.
In November 1751, Pegu launched a full scale invasion by land and by river with a total strength of 30,000. Ava had prepared an extensive defensive line around Ava—a riverside fort at Sinbyukyun
Chauk
Chauk is a town and river port in Magway Division, north-central Myanmar, on the Irrawaddy River. It is located across the river from Seikpyu and is connected by a bridge. In 1902, the Chauk-Lonywa oil field was discovered near Chauk.-Economy:...
on the Irrawaddy, and a series of forts at Sintgaing
Sintgaing
Sintgaing is a town in the Mandalay Region of central Myanmar....
, Tada-U
Tada-U
Tada-U is a town in central Burma about 10km from the provincial capital of Mandalay.- References :...
and Pinya
Pinya
Pinya was the capital of the Kingdom of Pinya, located near Ava, Mandalay Region, Myanmar. It was the residence of a dynasty of six kings who ruled this part of central Myanmar from 1313 to 1364.-History:...
en route to Ava. By mid-January, the invasion forces had overcome Ava's defenses, and laid siege to the city. On 21 March 1752, the invaders broke through the city's outer walls. Two days later, they breached the inner walls and took the city. The 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty had fallen.
Konbaung Empire
Restored Hanthawaddy (1752–1757)
After the fall of Ava, many independent resistance movements sprang up across a panicked Upper Burma. Yet the Hanthawaddy command left less than 10,000 troops to pacify all of Upper Burma. AlaungpayaAlaungpaya
Alaungpaya was king of Burma from 1752 to 1760, and the founder of the Konbaung Dynasty. By his death in 1760, the former chief of a small village in Upper Burma had reunified all of Burma, subdued Manipur, recovered Lan Na, and driven out the French and the English who had given help to the...
, who founded the Konbaung Dynasty
Konbaung dynasty
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma...
, quickly emerged as the main resistance leader, and by taking advantage of Hanthawaddy's low troop levels, went on to conquer all of Upper Burma by the end of 1753. Hanthawaddy belatedly launched a full invasion in 1754 but it faltered. Konbaung forces invaded Lower Burma in January 1755, capturing the Irrawaddy delta
Irrawaddy Delta
The Irrawaddy Delta or Ayeyarwady Delta lies in the Ayeyarwady Region , the lowest expanse of land in Burma that fans out from the limit of tidal influence at Myan Aung to the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, 290 km to the south at the mouth of the Ayeyarwady River...
and Dagon
Dagon Township
Dagon Township is located immediately north of downtown Yangon. The township comprises five wards, and shares borders with Bahan township in the north, Ahlon township in the west, Mingala Taungnyunt township in the east, and Lanmadaw township, Latha township and Pabedan township in the south.Dagon...
(Yangon) by May. The French
French East India Company
The French East India Company was a commercial enterprise, founded in 1664 to compete with the British and Dutch East India companies in colonial India....
defended Syriam held out for another 14 months but eventually fell in July 1756, ending French involvement in the war. The fall of the 17-year-old southern kingdom soon followed in May 1757 when Pegu was sacked.
Lan Na, Martaban, Tavoy and Sandoway all submitted after Pegu's fall.
Manipur (1756–1758)
Alaungpaya, who grew up watching the Manipuri raids ransacking his home region year after year, was determined to return the favor as soon as he was able. In early 1756, he sent an expedition force to Manipur to "instill respect". The Burmese army defeated the Manipuri army, and ransacked the entire country, which the Manipuris call the First Devastation. After Lower Burma was conquered, Alaungpaya himself led another expedition in November 1758, this time to place the Burmese nominee to the Manipuri throne. His armies invaded by the Khumbat route in the Mainpur valley, and overcame fierce Manipuri resistance at PalelPalel
-Location:National Highway 39 passes through Pallel. It passes through a village called Bijoypur village....
, on their march to Imphal
Imphal
Imphal is the capital of the Indian state of Manipur.In the heart of the town and surrounded by a moat, are ruins of the old Palace of Kangla. Kangla Fort used to be the home of the Assam Rifles, a paramilitary force and on November 2004 it was handed over to state of Manipur by Prime minister Dr....
, the Manipuri capital. After Palel, the Burmese entered Imphal without firing a shot. The Konbaung armies, according to the Manipuris, then inflicted "one of the worst disasters in its history". He brought back many Manipuri cavalry, who became elite calvary corps (known as Cassay Horse) in the Burmese army.
The Manipuri raja Ching-Thang Khomba
Ching-Thang Khomba
Ningthou Ching-Thang Khomba was a Manipuri monarch of the 18th century CE. The inventor of the Ras Lila dance, he is a legendary figure in Manipur, and much of his actions as King had been mythologized...
(Jai Singh) fled into English Bengal, and would attempt to regain his kingdom for the next 24 years. With English East India Company's arms support, he invaded Manipur in 1763 but was driven back by Hsinbyushin in early 1764.
Negrais (1759)
The English East India Company had seized NegraisHaigyi Island
Haigyi Island may refer to:*Haigyi Island , a town located in the Ayeyarwady Division of south west Burma*Haigyi Island , an island located in the Ayeyarwady Division of south west Burma...
(Haigyi Island) at the southwestern tip of the Irrawaddy delta since April 1753 because they were concerned about the French influence over Pegu, and wanted their own foothold in Lower Burma. During the war with Hanthawaddy, Alaungpaya even offered to cede the island to England in return for military help. But no military help materialized. The English claimed they could not spare any arms because they too were engaged in their own bitter Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
against the French. Yet the Company's agents sold ammunition and muskets to the Mon rebels in 1758. On 6 October 1759, a 2000-strong Konbaung battalion overran the English fort, ending the first English colonial establishment in Burma for the time being.
Siam (1759–1767)
By 1759, Alaungpaya had reunified all of Burma plus Manipur and Lan Na. However, his hold on Lan Na and Tenasserim coast was still nominal. The Siamese who originally were concerned about the rising power of Restored Hanthawaddy now actively supported the ethnic Mon rebels operating in the upper Tenasserim coast. In December 1759, Alaungpaya and his 40,000-strong armies invaded the Tenasserim coast. They crossed over the Tenasserim Hills, and finally reached Ayutthaya on 11 April 1760. But only five days into the siege, the Burmese king suddenly fell ill and the Burmese withdrew. The king died three weeks later, ending the war.The 1760 war was inconclusive. Although Burma had regained the upper Tenasserim coast to Tavoy, they still had to deal with Siamese supported rebellions in Lan Na (1761–1763) and at Tavoy (1764). The warfare resumed in August 1765, when two Burmese armies invaded again in a pincer movement on the Siamese capital. The Burmese armies took Ayutthaya in April 1767 after a 14-months' siege. The Burmese armies sacked the city and committed atrocities that mar the Burmese-Thai relations to the present. The Burmese were forced to withdraw a few months later due to the Chinese invasions of their homeland. Burma however had annexed the lower Tenasserim coast.
Laotian states (1765)
Between the two Siamese wars, Burma acquired the Laotian states of VientianeKingdom of Vientiane
Kingdom of Vientiane was formed in 1707 as a result of the split of the Kingdom of Lan Xang. The kingdom was a Burmese vassal . It then became a Siamese vassal until 1828 when it was annexed by Siam.-Kings:*Setthathirath II...
and Luang Prabang
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang
The Kingdom of Luang Phrabang was formed in 1707 as a result of the split of the Kingdom of Lan Xang. The monarchy was so weak that it was forced to pay tribute at various times to the Burmese and the Siamese...
. Vientiane was acquired without a fight in January 1765. Luang Prabang put up a fight but was defeated in March 1765. The move was to outflank Siam in their upcoming invasion. The Laotian states remained Burmese tributaries until 1778.
China (1765–1769)
Concerned by the Burmese consolidation of Shan states and Laotian states, China launched four invasions of Burma between 1765 and 1769. At first, the Qianlong EmperorQianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
envisaged an easy war, and sent in only the Green Standard troops
Green Standard Army
Green Standard Army is the name of a category of military units under the control of the Qing Dynasty in China. It was made up mostly of ethnic Han soldiers and operated concurrently with the Manchu-Mongol-Han Eight Banner armies...
stationed in Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their latest invasion of Siam. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–1766 and 1766–1767 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite Manchu Bannermen
Eight Banners
The Eight Banners were administrative divisions into which all Manchu families were placed. They provided the basic framework for the Manchu military organization...
nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from Ava. But the Bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close-call, Hsinbyushin redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769.
The Qing kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of Yunnan for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. When Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790, the Qing unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory. The war, which claimed the lives of over 70,000 Chinese soldiers and four commanders is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing Dynasty had ever waged", and one that "assured Burmese independence and probably the independence of other states in Southeast Asia". It has also been called the "greatest" of Burmese military victories.
Nonetheless, the war took a heavy toll on the Burmese war capabilities. While Burmese losses were light compared to Chinese losses, when considered in proportion to the population, they were heavy.
Siam (1775–1776)
In December 1774, a Siamese supported rebellion broke out at Lampang in Lan Na, and soon spread. On 15 January 1775, the rebels took Chiang Mai, and overthrew the Burmese installed government. In November 1775, two Burmese armies of 35,000 were to invade Lan Na and Siam. But because of a mutiny by a senior commander, the southern army lost a significant portion of the troops. The remaining Burmese armies fought their way in. The northern army managed to capture Chiang Mai, albeit at a great cost, and the southern army took Sukhothai and Phitsanulok in central Siam. However, the invasion forces were too small to overcome the Siamese defenses, and were bogged down. The armies withdrew in June 1776 after Hsinbyushin died.Hsinbyushin's successor Singu
Singu Min
Singu Min was the fourth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Myanmar. The king, who came to power amid controversy, largely put an end to his father Hsinbyushin's policy of territorial expansion, which had severely depleted the kingdom's manpower and resources. He stopped his father's latest war...
stopped the war with Siam, and demobilized much of the army. The decision was well received by the war-torn country. The people had grown tired of constant conscriptions to fight in "ever-lasting wars" in remote regions they had never heard of. But the king had unwittingly given up Chiang Mai, which proved to be the end of two centuries of Burmese rule there. Likewise, Singu took no action in 1778 when Vientiane and Luang Prabang stopped paying tribute, and came under Siam's sphere of influence.
Manipur (1775–1782)
The only region in which Singu maintained military action was Manipur, where he inherited another war from his father. The former Manipuri king Jai Singh, whom the Burmese last drove out in 1770, made four more attempts to oust the Burmese nominee between 1775 and 1782 from his base in Cachar. The Burmese drove him back each time but were unable to capture him. The army gained "barren victories" in Cachar and Jaintia where the rajas of the two small states agreed to pay a token tribute. But the tribute came at a high cost: the army lost 20,000 men, partly by fever over the years. After Singu's dethronement in 1782, the new king, BodawpayaBodawpaya
Bodawpaya was the sixth king of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Shwe Waing and later Badon Min, he was the fourth son of Alaungpaya, founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire. He was proclaimed king after deposing his nephew Phaungkaza Maung Maung, son of his oldest brother...
stopped the invasions. Manipur was again independent.
Arakan (1784)
The army was originally welcomed by the populace who actually greeted them with music along the invasion route. But they soon discovered to their horror, the invasion army's wanton destruction, killings, and especially, the unconscionable removal of their national symbol, the Mahamuni Buddha
Mahamuni Buddha
The Mahamuni Buddha Temple is a Buddhist temple and major pilgrimage site, located southwest of Mandalay, Burma . The Mahamuni Buddha image is deified in this temple, and originally came from Arakan...
. They soon organized a resistance movement that would eventually lead the Burmese to the first war with the British in 1824.
Siam (1785–1812)
The relative ease with which Arakan was taken whetted Bodawpaya's appetite for war. Only a few months after Arakan, in early 1785, he sent an expedition force to take JunkceylonPhuket Province
Phuket , formerly known as Thalang and, in Western sources, Junk Ceylon , is one of the southern provinces of Thailand...
(Phuket) to prevent foreign arms shipment to Siam but the invasion force was driven back. In mid-October 1785, he launched a four-pronged invasion towards Chiang Mai, Tak
Tak Province
Tak is one of the northern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, Sukhothai, Kamphaeng Phet, Nakhon Sawan, Uthai Thani and Kanchanaburi...
, Kanchanaburi
Kanchanaburi
Kanchanaburi ) is a town in the west of Thailand and the capital of Kanchanaburi province. In 2006 it had a population of 31,327...
and Junkceylon. The combined strength was about 50,000 men. The hastily planned invasion had not made proper arrangements for transportation or supplies, and was a total disaster. Aside from the northern army which took Chiang Mai and swept down to Lampang, the southern armies were driven back, or in one case, nearly annihilated. The invasion armies withdrew in disarray in late January 1786. So severe was the defeat that the invasion turned out to be the last full-scale invasion of Siam by Burma.
Siam was now on the offensive, and tried to regain the Tenasserim coast they had lost since 1765. In 1787, its forces laid siege to Tavoy but were unsuccessful. In March 1792, they got the governor of Tavoy to switch sides, and sent in a large army to retake Tenasserim. But the Siamese could not take Mergui and had to lay siege to the city. Initial Burmese efforts to retake Tavoy failed. The Burmese sent in another force after the rainy season and in December, recovered Tavoy and relieved Mergui which had held on for nine months.
Having failed in the south, Siam then tried north. After the 1786 war, Siam consolidated its control of Lan Na, and in 1794, took over the Laotian state of Luang Prabang, its erstwhile ally against the Burmese. In response, Burma sent in a small expedition in 1797 to Chiang Mai and Luang Prabang to check the Siamese but it failed to make any impression. Undeterred, the Siamese army invaded Burmese territories of Kengtung and Kenghung (Sipsongpanna) in November 1803, laying siege to both towns. They withdrew in early 1804, taking back many conscripts with them. Burmese forces followed up on the retreating Siamese into Lan Na but were driven back at Chiang Saen
Chiang Saen
* Amphoe Chiang Saen, a district in modern Chiang Rai Province* Chiang Saen, a capital in the ancient Lanna kingdom, and the namesake of the modern district...
at the border. Siam did not give up. In 1807–1808, Siamese troops based out of their vassal Luang Prabang tried to take over Sipsongpanna but were driven back. (In 1822, they again encouraged the ruler of Sipsongpanna to revolt. Burmese troops from Kengtung arrested the rebel sawbwa.)
While Siam was focused on extending its northern border, Burma was focused on extending its southern border. Burma sent four expeditions between 1809 and 1812 to take Junkceylon. Aside from a few temporary victories, the army was driven back each time. It was the last invasion of Siam by Burma.
Manipur (1812–1820)
After the four failed expeditions on Junkceylon, Bodawpaya gave up on wars with Siam, and now looked to the small states to the west. The first target was Manipur, which had regained independence from Burma since 1782. In late 1812, he sent an expedition force to place his nominee Marjit SinghMarjeet Singh
Marjeet Singh was a Manipuri royal who fought for power during the internal power struggles in Manipur after the death of Ching-Thang Khomba. He was King shortly before the advent of the Chahi-Taret Khuntakpa. He was the brother of Chourjit Singh and Chinglen Nongdrenkhomba.-References:Hodson,...
to the Manipuri throne. The Manipuri army was defeated after heavy fighting in early 1813, and its raja Chourjit Singh
Chourjit Singh
Chourjit Singh was a Manipuri royal who fought for power during the internal power struggles in Manipur after the death of Ching-Thang Khomba.-References:Hodson, Thomas Callan.The Meitheis. Harvard University, 1908....
fled into Cachar.
However, Marjit Singh revolted after Bodawpaya died in June 1819. The new king Bagyidaw
Bagyidaw
Bagyidaw Bagyidaw's reign saw the First Anglo-Burmese War , which marked the beginning of the end of the highly militaristic Konbaung dynasty. Bagyidaw inherited the largest Burmese empire, second only to King Bayinnaung's, but also one that shared a long ill-defined borders with British India...
sent an expedition force of 25,000 (3000 horses) in October 1819. Gen. Maha Bandula reconquered Manipur but the raja escaped to neighboring Cachar. In November 1820, the fallen raja's forces laid siege to the Burmese garrison at Imphal, and withdrew only when Burmese reinforcements were approaching. Nonetheless, the raja continued to raid Manipur with British support using his bases from Cachar and Jaintia, which had been declared as British protectorates, to the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1824.
Assam (1816–1822)
The kingdom of Assam was the last conquest of Bodawpaya. In December 1816, he sent a 16,000-strong force to Assam to install his nominee, Chandra Kanta Singh, to the Assamese throne. From their northernmost forts in Hukawng ValleyHukawng Valley
The Hukawng Valley is an isolated valley in Burma, roughly in area. It is located in Tanaing Township in the Myitkyina District of Kachin State in the northernmost part of the country.-Rivers:...
in present-day northern Kachin State, the Burmese army crossed the 9000-foot high Himalayan Patkai range, and finally entered Assam in early 1817. The army decisively defeated the Assamese army at the battle of Kathalguri, near the Assamese capital Jorhat
Jorhat
Jorhat is a city of Assam in India. Jorhat was established as a new capital in the closing years of the 18th century by the declining Tunkhungia Ahom Dynasty. Jorhat, as the name signifies, was just a couple of markets . Two parallel markets namely, Chowkihat and Macharhat, lay on the eastern...
. A pro-Burmese minister Badan Chandra was installed, with Singh as the nominal king. The army left in April 1817 but instabilities resumed soon after, and Singh had to flee Jorhat. The army had to return in February 1819, and reinstated Singh. A large portion of the army remained in Assam to hunt down the rebels in Upper Assam. The authority rested with the Burmese commanders, not the nominal king.
Unhappy with the arrangement, Singh switched his allegiance to the British in April 1821, and tried to drive out the Burmese. His first attack on the Burmese garrison at Gauhati in September 1821 failed. But reinforced by British arms and personnel, Singh took Gauhati in January 1822, and marched to Jorhat. But the capital had been reinforced by a 20,000-strong army led by Bandula, who had just arrived. Bandula defeated Singh on 17 April 1822 at Mahgarh near Jorhat. Singh fell back to Gauhati but was defeated by Gen. Maha Thilawa on 3 June 1822. The fallen king fled to the British territory, and continued to make raids in the years leading to the First Anglo-Burmese War.
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826)
Kolkata
Kolkata , formerly known as Calcutta, is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Located on the east bank of the Hooghly River, it was the commercial capital of East India...
had their own designs on the region, and actively supported rebellions in Manipur, Assam and Arakan. Calcutta unilaterally declared Cachar and Jaintia British protectorates, and sent in troops. Cross border raids into Arakan, Manipur and from British territories vexed the Burmese. In January 1824, Bandula allowed Burmese troops into Cachar and Jaintia in pursuit of the rebels. The British sent in their own force to meet the Burmese in Cachar, resulting in the first clashes between the two. The war formally broke out on 5 March 1824, following border clashes in Arakan.
At first, battle hardened Burmese forces were able to push back the British forces in Cachar, Jaintia and East Bengal. Instead of fighting in the difficult terrain, which represented "a formidable obstacle to the march of a European force", the British took the fight to the Burmese mainland. On 11 May 1824, a British naval force of 11,000 took Rangoon
Yangon
Yangon is a former capital of Burma and the capital of Yangon Region . Although the military government has officially relocated the capital to Naypyidaw since March 2006, Yangon, with a population of over four million, continues to be the country's largest city and the most important commercial...
(Yangon), taking the Burmese by surprise. The Burmese forces tried multiple times to retake the city but failed. In April 1825, Bandula fell at the battle of Danubyu, and the British took up to Prome. The Burmese tried to retake Prome in a last-ditch attempt but were driven back in December. On 24 February 1826, the Burmese had to agree to British terms without discussion. Per the Treaty of Yandabo
Treaty of Yandabo
The Treaty of Yandabo was the peace treaty that ended the First Anglo-Burmese War. The treaty was signed on 24 February 1826, nearly two years after the war formally broke out on 5 March 1824, by General Sir Archibald Campbell on the British side, and by Governor of Legaing Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin...
, Burma was forced to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds sterling.
The war was the longest and most expensive war in British Indian history. Fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties. The campaign cost the British five million pounds sterling to 13 million pounds sterling (roughly 18.5 billion to 48 billion in 2006 US dollars) that led to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833. For the Burmese, it was the beginning of the end of their independence. The Third Burmese Empire, for a brief moment the terror of British India, was crippled and no longer a threat to the eastern frontier of British India. The Burmese would be crushed for years to come by repaying the large indemnity.
Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852)
By 1851, Burma had been greatly weakened, and the British were ready to pounce again. Using a fine of two British ships by the mayor of Rangoon as the excuse, Lord Dalhousie, governor-general of India, sent an ultimatum to rescind the fine, remove the offending mayor, and pay a fine of a one thousand pounds. The Burmese neither wanted nor were ready for a war. They quickly accepted the British demands. But the British officer on the scene, Commodore George LambertGeorge Lambert (Royal Navy officer)
Admiral Sir George Robert Lambert GCB was a Royal Navy officer who went on to be Commander-in-Chief, The Nore.-Naval career:...
, blockaded the port of Rangoon anyway. On 18 February 1852, Dalhousie increased the demand a hundredfold to one hundred thousand pounds sterling. On 12 April 1852, the British navy invaded Rangoon.
King Pagan
Pagan Min
Pagan Min , was the ninth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. Born Maung Biddhu Khyit, he was granted the title of Prince of Pagan by his father Tharrawaddy in August 1842. Pagan Min became king when Tharrawaddy died on 17 November 1846, with the formal title of His Majesty "Pyinsama...
sent four armies to meet the enemy. The Burmese put up tough resistance at Bassein
Pathein
Pathein , also called Bassein, is a port city with a 2004 population estimated at 215,600, and the capital of the Ayeyarwady Region, Burma. It lies on the Pathein River , which is a western branch of the Irrawaddy River....
(Pathein) and Pegu but by June, much of Lower Burma belonged to the invaders. After the end of the rainy season, in November, the British took Prome, and pushed up to Myede on the Irrawaddy, and took Toungoo on the Sittaung, facing minimal Burmese resistance. In December, Prince of Mindon
Mindon Min
Mindon Min was the penultimate king of Burma from 1853 to 1878. He was one of the most popular and revered kings of Burma. Under his half brother King Pagan, the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852 ended with the annexation of Lower Burma by the British Empire. Mindon and his younger brother Kanaung...
raised a rebellion against his brother the king. On 20 December 1852, the British issued a proclamation of annexation, taking Lower Burma, up to the latitude running directly east-west across the country to the borders of Karenni states
Kayah State
Kayah State is a state of Myanmar. Situated in eastern Myanmar, it is bounded on the north by Shan State, on the east by Thailand's Mae Hong Son Province, and on the south and west by Kayin State. It lies approximately between 18° 30' and 19° 55' north latitude and between 94°40' and 97° 93' east...
, 6 miles (9.65 km) north of Myede (and Toungoo). It took three years to "pacify" the province. Burmese resistance leader Myat Tun, with 4000 followers, waged guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
, repulsing three British attacks before succumbing to a fourth one led by a brigadier general. In 1857, an ethnic Karen leader began another round of guerrilla warfare in the Irrawaddy delta, and was put down only after 8 years.
Siam (1849–1855)
Although it failed to dislodge the Burmese from Kengtung and Sipsongpanna at the beginning of the century (1803–1808), Siam never gave up its claims on these lands. They tested the waters in 1849, by raiding as far north as Kengtung. But when the Second Anglo-Burmese War started, the Siamese viewed it as their opportunity to take over the trans-Salween states. In late 1852, a large infantry and elephant force marched from Chiang Mai and launched a two-pronged invasion of Kengtung. Burma couldrespond only after the new king Mindon had seized power in February 1853. Because he was still concerned about the British threat, Mindon could only send several thousand infantry troops from the Mone (Mong Nai) garrison to relieve the Siamese siege of Kengtung. With the troops by Kenghung sawbwa, the Burmese eventually drove out the Siamese but only after heavy loss of life. In 1854, the largest Siamese invasion force, consisted of Laotian levies, tried once more. But this time, with the British front quiet, the Burmese were ready. Mindon had deployed a larger, well-equipped army (with artillery corps and 3000 cavalry). The Siamese forces again reached Kengtung but could not break through. The Siamese forces withdrew to the border in May 1855.
Karenni states (1875)
In the early 1870s, the British again eyed Burmese territories north, this time, the Karenni states, which were the southernmost part of the Shan states, and ruled by its hereditary Shan sawbwas. In 1873, Mindon had to send troops to quell a British supported rebellion. The British were adamant, demanding that Mandalay recognize the "independence" of the Karenni states, and that anything less would be deemed an act of war. Facing a certain defeat, the king chose to swallow a "bitter pill", and signed away the territory in March 1875. Per treaty, the Burmese troops withdrew from the territory but the British troops remained in the newly "independent" territory, causing Mindon to lose considerable prestige at home. (Indeed, the British would conveniently drop the pretense that the Karenni states were independent in 1892 after the Third Anglo-Burmese War.)Shan states rebellions (1878–1885)
In October 1878, Thibaw, a junior prince, succeeded the throne, and soon proved an ineffectual king. His authority quickly waned, especially in the hill regions, which had paid nominal tribute even during his father's reign. Indeed, Mindon had held on to the fealty of Shan states not by force but by maintaining personal relationships. But Thibaw did not command any respect. The Shan state of Mone first revolted, refusing to attend the king's coronation. Soon, the rebellion spread eastward. For six years, thousands of Thibaw's troops were sent to put down the revolt, "trying in vain to resurrect a long-dead empire".Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885)
French Indochina
French Indochina was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin , Annam , and Cochinchina , as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887....
. Burma was trying to pursue the same strategy as Siam, as a buffer between the British and the French. But the British viewed Burma as their sphere of influence, and sent in an invasion force on 7 November 1885. The invaders easily overcame minimal Burmese resistance, and took Mandalay on 29 November 1885. The Burmese king Thibaw
Thibaw Min
Thibaw Min was the last king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma . His reign ended when Burma was defeated by the forces of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Burmese War, on 29 November 1885, prior to its official annexation on 1 January 1886....
and the royal family were taken away to India. Burma was formally annexed by the British on 1 January 1886. The millennium old Burmese monarchy had ended.
Although it took less than a month to occupy Mandalay, the British spent another 10 years to pacify the rest of the country. Over a year into the annexation, the country was still in chaos. In 1887, a 32,000-strong army led by two major generals and six brigadier generals was dispatched to quell the instabilities, and to annex the hill regions. The Burmese resistance in the low country was hammered down by 1890 but the hill regions proved particularly troublesome for the colonizers. A five-month expedition in 1887–1888 brought cis-Salween Shan states under control as British protectorates. The army was then forced to put down insurgencies all over the region. It finally brought Kengtung into the fold in March 1890, completing the annexation of Shan states. But rebellions broke out again in northern Shan states at Hsenwi, Lashio and Bhamo in 1892. In 1894, the British also had to chase down rebels in the Karenni states, which they had formally annexed since 1892. In the west, it took the British forces 15 months to overcome the Chin
Chin people
The Chin , known as the Kuki in Assam, are one of the ethnic groups in Burma. The Chins are found mainly in western part of Burma and numbered circa 1.5 million. They also live in nearby Indian states of Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur and Assam. Owing to Mizo influence and Baptist missionaries'...
resistance before taking Falam in March 1891. But the British had to spend another five difficult years in the unfamiliar hill country to finish off the Chin resistance. Finally, in 1896, the British proclaimed the Chin Hills
Chin Hills
The Chin Hills are a range of mountains in Chin State, northwestern Burma , that extends northward into India's Manipur state. They are part of the Arakan Mountain Range . The highest peak in the Chin Hills is Nat Ma Taung, or Khonumthung , in southern Chin State, which reaches 3,053 meters...
to be a part of Burma.
Colonial era
The British had used mainly Indian and Gurkha troops to conquer and pacify the country. In a divide-and-rule maneuver, the British enforced their rule in the province of Burma mainly with Indian troops later joined by indigenous military units of three indigenous ethnic minorities: the Karen, the Kachin and the Chin. The British did not trust the Burmans. Before 1937, with few exceptions, no Burmans were allowed to serve in the military.World War I and interwar period
At the beginning of World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, the only indigenous military regiment in the British India army, the 70th Burma Rifles, consisted of three battalion
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
s, made up of Karens, Kachins and Chins. During the war, the British needed manpower, and relaxed the ban, raising a Burman battalion in the 70th Burma Rifles, a Burman company
Company
A company is a form of business organization. It is an association or collection of individual real persons and/or other companies, who each provide some form of capital. This group has a common purpose or focus and an aim of gaining profits. This collection, group or association of persons can be...
in the 85th Burma Rifles, and seven Burman Mechanical Transport companies. In addition, three companies of Burma Sappers and Miners, made up of mostly Burmans, and a company of Labour Corps
Royal Pioneer Corps
The Royal Pioneer Corps was a British Army combatant corps used for light engineering tasks.The Royal Pioneer Corps was raised on 17 October 1939 as the Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps. It was renamed the Pioneer Corps on 22 November 1940...
, made up of Chins and Burmans, were also raised. All these units began their overseas assignment in 1917. The 70th Burma Rifles served in Egypt for garrison duties while the Burmese Labour Corps served in France. One company of Burma Sappers and Miners distinguished themselves in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
at the crossing the Tigris.
After the war, the 70th Burma Rifles was reorganized as the 20th Burma Rifles, and the three companies of Burma Sappers and Miners was reduced to one. The British stopped recruiting Burmans, and gradually discharged most of its Burman troops between 1923 and 1925. In 1929, the last Burman company of Burma Sappers and Miners too was disbanded. On 1 April 1937, when Burma was made a separate colony, the ethnic makeup of the 20th Burma Rifles, now the British Burma Army, was approximately 50% Karen, 25% Kachin and 25% Karen. A fourth battalion was added for Burmans but few Burmans bothered to join at any rate. Before World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
began, the British Burma Army consisted of Karen (27.8%), Chin (22.6%), Kachin (22.9%), and Burman 12.3%, without counting their British officer corps.
The British used Indian and ethnic minority dominated troops to ruthlessly put down ethnic majority dominated rebellions such as Saya San
Saya San
Saya San was a noted monk, a Burmese medicine man and the leader of the Burmese peasant revolt of 1930-1931 and pretender to the Burmese throne...
's peasant rebellion in 1930–1931. These policies would lead to long-term negative tensions among the country's ethnic groups.
World War II
Thirty Comrades
The Thirty Comrades constituted the embryo of the modern Burmese army called the Burma Independence Army which was formed to fight for independence from Britain...
, who had received military training by the Japanese, founded the Burma Independence Army (BIA) in Bangkok
Bangkok
Bangkok is the capital and largest urban area city in Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep , meaning "city of angels." The full name of Bangkok is Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom...
. The army led by Aung San
Aung San
Bogyoke Aung San ; 13 February 1915 – 19 July 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, and founder of the modern Burmese army, the Tatmadaw....
fought in the Burma Campaign
Burma Campaign
The Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II was fought primarily between British Commonwealth, Chinese and United States forces against the forces of the Empire of Japan, Thailand, and the Indian National Army. British Commonwealth land forces were drawn primarily from...
on the side of the Imperial Japanese Army
Imperial Japanese Army
-Foundation:During the Meiji Restoration, the military forces loyal to the Emperor were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist feudal domains of Satsuma and Chōshū...
. It saw a significant engagement at Shwedaung near Prome against the British in March 1942. Thousands of young men joined its ranks—reliable estimates range from 15,000 to 23,000. The great majority of the recruits were Burman, with little ethnic minority representation. Many of the fresh recruits lacked discipline. At Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy delta, an ethnic war broke out between Burman BIA men and Karens, with both sides responsible for massacres. The BIA was soon replaced with the Burma Defense Army, founded on 26 August 1942 with three thousand BIA veterans. The army became Burma National Army
Burma National Army
The Burma National Army served as the armed forces of the Burmese government created by the Japanese during World War II and fought in the Burma Campaign...
with Ne Win
Ne Win
Ne Win was Burmese a politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and also head of state from 1962 to 1981...
as its commander on 1 August 1943 when Burma received nominal independence. In late 1944, it had a strength of approximately 15,000.
Disillusioned by the Japanese occupation, the BNA switched sides, and joined the allied forces on 27 March 1945.
Thai occupation of Kengtung
In May 1942, Thailand occupied the Shan states of Kengtung and Mong PanMong Pan
Mong Pan is a town and seat of Mong Pan Township in the southern Shan State of Burma. To the south it borders Mae Hong Son Province in Thailand and lies west of the Salween River. It lies along National Road 45....
, with the permission of the Japanese. The Thai Phayap Army
Phayap Army
Phayap Army was the Thai force that invaded the Shan States on May 10, 1942, during the Burma Campaign of World War II.- Orbat of Phayap Army 1942 :...
remained there until the end of World War II.
Chinese Nationalist incursion
Soon after gaining independence, the central government led by U NuU Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu .U Nu was a leading Burmese nationalist and political figure of the 20th century...
faced several armed rebellions. The most serious was the Chinese Nationalist KMT
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
invasion of Shan State in 1950. Driven out by the Chinese Communist forces, Nationalist KMT troops (about 16,000 at the peak) planned to use the region east of the Salween river as a base from which to regain their homeland. In March 1953, the KMT forces with US assistance were on the verge of taking the entire Shan State, and within a day's march of the state capital Taunggyi. The Burmese army drove back the invaders east across the Salween. The KMT units remained there until 1961 when some 20,000 troops of the People's Liberation Army
People's Liberation Army
The People's Liberation Army is the unified military organization of all land, sea, strategic missile and air forces of the People's Republic of China. The PLA was established on August 1, 1927 — celebrated annually as "PLA Day" — as the military arm of the Communist Party of China...
and 5000 troops of the Burmese Army defeated them in a joint operation.
Internal conflict (1948–present)
Since independence, the country has been in one of the longest running civil wars that remains unresolved. Successive central governments have fought myriad ethnic and political rebellions. Some of the earliest insurgencies were by Burman-dominated "multi-colored" leftists and by the Karen National UnionKaren National Union
The Karen National Union is a political organisation with an armed wing, the Karen National Liberation Army that represents the Karen people of Burma. It operates in Eastern Burma, and has underground networks in other areas of Burma where Karen people live. In Karen, this Karen area is called...
(KNU). The KNU fought to carve out an independent Karen state out of large swaths of Lower Burma. Other ethnic rebellions broke out only in the early 1960s after the central government had refused to consider a federal style government. Since the early 1980s however, politically oriented armed insurgencies have largely withered away. But ethnic-based insurgencies have remained alive and well.
These insurgencies were (have been) supported or used by foreign states, exacerbating the isolation, suspicion and concern among Burmans over both their minorities and foreign powers. Some British had supported the Karen; East Pakistan (and then Bangladesh) backed the Muslim Rohingyas on their border with Middle Eastern backing. The Indians were said to be involved with the Kachin and the Karen. The Chinese assisted the CPB
Communist Party of Burma
The Communist Party of Burma is the oldest existing political party in Burma. The party is unrecognised by the Burmese authorities, rendering it illegal; so it operates in a clandestine manner, often associating with insurgent armies along the border of People's Republic of China...
(later the Wa), the Naga and Kachin rebels. The United States supported the Kuomintang, and the Thai a wide variety of rebel groups, essentially creating buffer states or zones. Prior to the ceasefires, the largely Burman-dominated armed forces made futile annual dry season campaigns, only to see the rebels return after they left.
The Burman dominated central governments (civilian or military-alike) have not been able to reach a political agreement even though the stated goal of most, if not all, major ethnic insurgencies (including the KNU) is autonomy, not secession. Today, the government has signed uneasy ceasefire agreements with most insurgent groups but the army has not gained the trust of the local populace. The army has been widely accused of mistreating the local population with impunity, and is viewed as an occupying force in the ethnic regions.