Mission Zamora
Encyclopedia
Mission Zamora is an integrated land reform
and land redistribution
program in Venezuela
, created in law by the Ley de Tierras ("Law of Land"), part of a package of 49 decrees made by Hugo Chávez
in November 2001. The plan is named in honor of Ezequiel Zamora
, a 19th century Venezuelan peasant leader.
, governmental neglect, depopulation, and abandonment ever since oil wealth was discovered in the early 20th century; as a consequence Venezuela now has an urbanization rate of more than 85% — among the highest in Latin America — and is, despite its vast tracts of highly fertile soil and arable land, a net food importer. The Ley de Tierras — "Law of the Lands" — was passed by presidential decree in November 2001; it included the creation of Plan Zamora to implement land reform
s, including redistribution, in Venezuelan agriculture. The plan was created for several pressing reasons: to stimulate the agricultural
sector in Venezuela in order to provide food security
to the country (the only net food importer in Latin America
) and more economic activity, to break up the concentrated economic power of the latifundios (75-80% of land owned by 5% of landowners, 2% owned 60% of farmland; 60% of agricultors do not possess any land ) and redistribute wealth to the poor in Venezuela, and to discourage urbanization
, which creates heavy burdens on city services in the slum
s of Caracas
and other Venezuelan cities.
Underutilized or unused private corporate and agricultural estates would now be subject to expropriation
after "fair-market" compensation was paid to the owners. Inheritable, inalienable, and at times communal land grants were also gifted to small farmers and farmer's collectives. The rationale given for this program was that it would provide incentives for the eventual and gradual repopulation of the countryside and provide "food security
" for the country by lessening the present dependence on foreign imports. There are three types of land that may be distributed under the program:
To date, the Chávez government has only distributed the first two types of land.
Venezuelan citizens between the age of 18 and 25 or who head a family may petition to benefit from the Plan's land redistribution programs. The Plan's participants are first granted a piece of land to homestead and cultivate; if they cultivate it continuously for three years, they are then given official title to the land. This government-recognized title may then be inherited by the participants's relations, but its sale is legally proscribed.
; the Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo Rural ("National Rural Development Institute"), which oversees aid to farmers, including technical expertise and equipment, and the Corporación de Abastecimiento y Servicios Agrícolas ("Agricultural Corporation of Supplies and Services"), to help with marketing. By the end of 2003, 60,000 families had received temporary title to a total of 55,000 km² of land under this plan .
(Fedecámaras) and the Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela
(CTV) joined together to campaign for a general strike on December 10, 2001, a month after the 49 decrees were passed. When Fedecámaras head Pedro Carmona
took over the presidency during the April, 2002 coup attempt, he reversed the 49 decrees Chávez had passed, including the Ley de Tierras, although this was declared null when the coup failed and Chávez returned to power.
From 1999 to 2006, 130 landless workers were assassinated by sicarios paid by opponents to the reform. After the murder of Jacinto Mendoza, who worked with the landless families to request property titles for non-used lands owned by the state, the intermediary charged of having hired the sicarios testified having received 8 millions bolivars (4,500 Euros) from Omar Contreras Barboza, former Minister of Agriculture of Carlos Andrés Pérez
, who claimed as his own the properties at stakes. Following Jacinto Mendoza's murder, Hugo Chavez declared that such acts would not remain "unpunished," and announced the creation of Brigades of Rural Security.
Land reform
[Image:Jakarta farmers protest23.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Farmers protesting for Land Reform in Indonesia]Land reform involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership. Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution,...
and land redistribution
Redistribution (economics)
Redistribution of wealth is the transfer of income, wealth or property from some individuals to others caused by a social mechanism such as taxation, monetary policies, welfare, nationalization, charity, divorce or tort law. Most often it refers to progressive redistribution, from the rich to the...
program in Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south...
, created in law by the Ley de Tierras ("Law of Land"), part of a package of 49 decrees made by Hugo Chávez
Hugo Chávez
Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías is the 56th and current President of Venezuela, having held that position since 1999. He was formerly the leader of the Fifth Republic Movement political party from its foundation in 1997 until 2007, when he became the leader of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela...
in November 2001. The plan is named in honor of Ezequiel Zamora
Ezequiel Zamora
Ezequiel Zamora , 1 February 1817 - 10 January 1860) was a Venezuelan soldier and leader of the Federalists in the Federal War of 1859-1863. His life was marked by the romanticism that characterized liberals of the time....
, a 19th century Venezuelan peasant leader.
Background
Venezuela's rural areas have seen substantial economic disinvestmentDisinvestment
Disinvestment, sometimes referred to as divestment, refers to the use of a concerted economic boycott, with specific emphasis on liquidating stock, to pressure a government, industry, or company towards a change in policy, or in the case of governments, even regime change...
, governmental neglect, depopulation, and abandonment ever since oil wealth was discovered in the early 20th century; as a consequence Venezuela now has an urbanization rate of more than 85% — among the highest in Latin America — and is, despite its vast tracts of highly fertile soil and arable land, a net food importer. The Ley de Tierras — "Law of the Lands" — was passed by presidential decree in November 2001; it included the creation of Plan Zamora to implement land reform
Land reform
[Image:Jakarta farmers protest23.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Farmers protesting for Land Reform in Indonesia]Land reform involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership. Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution,...
s, including redistribution, in Venezuelan agriculture. The plan was created for several pressing reasons: to stimulate the agricultural
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
sector in Venezuela in order to provide food security
Food security
Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is considered food-secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. According to the World Resources Institute, global per capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past...
to the country (the only net food importer in Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
) and more economic activity, to break up the concentrated economic power of the latifundios (75-80% of land owned by 5% of landowners, 2% owned 60% of farmland; 60% of agricultors do not possess any land ) and redistribute wealth to the poor in Venezuela, and to discourage urbanization
Urbanization
Urbanization, urbanisation or urban drift is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of global change. The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008....
, which creates heavy burdens on city services in the slum
Slum
A slum, as defined by United Nations agency UN-HABITAT, is a run-down area of a city characterized by substandard housing and squalor and lacking in tenure security. According to the United Nations, the percentage of urban dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent in the...
s of Caracas
Caracas
Caracas , officially Santiago de León de Caracas, is the capital and largest city of Venezuela; natives or residents are known as Caraquenians in English . It is located in the northern part of the country, following the contours of the narrow Caracas Valley on the Venezuelan coastal mountain range...
and other Venezuelan cities.
Underutilized or unused private corporate and agricultural estates would now be subject to expropriation
Nationalization
Nationalisation, also spelled nationalization, is the process of taking an industry or assets into government ownership by a national government or state. Nationalization usually refers to private assets, but may also mean assets owned by lower levels of government, such as municipalities, being...
after "fair-market" compensation was paid to the owners. Inheritable, inalienable, and at times communal land grants were also gifted to small farmers and farmer's collectives. The rationale given for this program was that it would provide incentives for the eventual and gradual repopulation of the countryside and provide "food security
Food security
Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is considered food-secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. According to the World Resources Institute, global per capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past...
" for the country by lessening the present dependence on foreign imports. There are three types of land that may be distributed under the program:
- government land,
- land that is claimed by private owners, but whose claims the government disputes (including centennially inherited land)
- and underutilized private land (including second homes, and investment property).
To date, the Chávez government has only distributed the first two types of land.
Legal specifications
There are three components to the Plan's legal specifications:- A legal limit (a capped limit) on the size of landholdings, which varies based on conditions between 1 and 50 km².
- A tax on unused land holdings.
- A program for distribution of government and expropriated (with compensation) unused private lands.
Venezuelan citizens between the age of 18 and 25 or who head a family may petition to benefit from the Plan's land redistribution programs. The Plan's participants are first granted a piece of land to homestead and cultivate; if they cultivate it continuously for three years, they are then given official title to the land. This government-recognized title may then be inherited by the participants's relations, but its sale is legally proscribed.
Implementation
Three institutions were created to carry out the land distribution program: the Instituto Nacional de Tierras ("National Land Institute"), which oversees land tenancyTenant farmer
A tenant farmer is one who resides on and farms land owned by a landlord. Tenant farming is an agricultural production system in which landowners contribute their land and often a measure of operating capital and management; while tenant farmers contribute their labor along with at times varying...
; the Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo Rural ("National Rural Development Institute"), which oversees aid to farmers, including technical expertise and equipment, and the Corporación de Abastecimiento y Servicios Agrícolas ("Agricultural Corporation of Supplies and Services"), to help with marketing. By the end of 2003, 60,000 families had received temporary title to a total of 55,000 km² of land under this plan .
Opposition
The plan met with heavy opposition: The Venezuelan Federation of Chambers of CommerceVenezuelan Federation of Chambers of Commerce
The Venezuelan Federation of Chambers of Commerce or Fedecámaras is composed of chambers of commerce in twelve basic trade groups: banking, agriculture, commerce, construction, energy, manufacturing, media, mining, ranching, insurance, transportation, and tourism.In practice, the intended...
(Fedecámaras) and the Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela
Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela
The Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela is a federation of labor unions in Venezuela. It has close links to the Democratic Action party....
(CTV) joined together to campaign for a general strike on December 10, 2001, a month after the 49 decrees were passed. When Fedecámaras head Pedro Carmona
Pedro Carmona
Pedro Francisco Carmona Estanga is a former Venezuelan trade organization leader who was briefly declared President of Venezuela during an abortive 2002 military coup against Hugo Chávez. He occupied the office of President from April 12 to April 13...
took over the presidency during the April, 2002 coup attempt, he reversed the 49 decrees Chávez had passed, including the Ley de Tierras, although this was declared null when the coup failed and Chávez returned to power.
From 1999 to 2006, 130 landless workers were assassinated by sicarios paid by opponents to the reform. After the murder of Jacinto Mendoza, who worked with the landless families to request property titles for non-used lands owned by the state, the intermediary charged of having hired the sicarios testified having received 8 millions bolivars (4,500 Euros) from Omar Contreras Barboza, former Minister of Agriculture of Carlos Andrés Pérez
Carlos Andrés Pérez
Carlos Andrés Pérez Rodríguez , also known as CAP and often referred to as El Gocho , was a Venezuelan politician, President of Venezuela from 1974 to 1979 and again from 1989 to 1993. His first presidency was known as the Saudi Venezuela due to its economic and social prosperity thanks to...
, who claimed as his own the properties at stakes. Following Jacinto Mendoza's murder, Hugo Chavez declared that such acts would not remain "unpunished," and announced the creation of Brigades of Rural Security.