Money fund
Encyclopedia
A money market fund is an open-ended mutual fund
that invests in short-term debt securities such as US Treasury bills and commercial paper
. Money market funds are widely (though not necessarily accurately) regarded as being as safe as bank deposits yet providing a higher yield. Regulated in the US under the Investment Company Act of 1940, money market funds are important providers of liquidity to financial intermediaries.
, market
, and liquidity risk
s. Money market funds in the United States
are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission's (SEC) Investment Company Act of 1940
. Rule 2a-7 of the act restricts the quality, maturity and diversity of investments by money market funds. Under this act, a money fund mainly buys the highest rated debt
, which matures in under 13 months. The portfolio must maintain a weighted average maturity
(WAM) of 60 days or less and not invest more than 5% in any one issuer, except for government securities and repurchase agreement
s.
Unlike most other financial instruments, money market funds seek to maintain a stable value of $1 per share. Funds are able to pay dividends to investors.
Securities
in which money markets may invest include commercial paper
, repurchase agreement
s, short-term bonds
and other money funds. Money market securities must be highly liquid and of the highest quality.
and Henry B. R. Brown
established the first money market fund in the U.S. It was named The Reserve Fund and was offered to investors who were interested in preserving their cash and earning a small rate of return. Several more funds were shortly set up and the market grew significantly over the next few years.
Money market funds in the US created a loophole around Regulation Q
, which at the time prohibited demand deposit accounts from paying interest and thus money market funds can be seen as a substitute for bank accounts.
Outside of the U.S., the first money market fund was set up in 1968 and was designed for small investors. The fund was called Conta Garantia and was created by John Oswin Schroy. The fund's investments included low denominations of commercial paper.
In the 1990s, bank interest rates in Japan
were near zero for an extended period of time. To search for higher yields from these low rates in bank deposits, investors used money market funds for short-term deposits instead. However, several money market funds fell off short of their stable value in 2001 due to the Enron bankruptcy
, in which several Japanese funds had invested, and investors fled into government-insured bank accounts. Since then the total value of money markets have remained low.
Money market funds in Europe have always had much lower levels of investments capital than in the United States or Japan. Regulations in the EU
have always encouraged investors to use banks rather than money market funds for short term deposits.
, or NAV (which is generally $1.00 in the US); they aim never to lose money. If a fund's NAV drops below $1.00, it is said that the fund "broke the buck".
This has rarely happened: Up to the 2008 financial crisis, only three money funds have broken the buck, in the 37-year history of money funds.
It is important to note that, while the funds are managed in a fairly safe manner, there would have been many more failures except that the companies offering the money market funds had, in the past, stepped in when necessary to support the fund and avoid having the funds "break the buck". This was done because the expected cost to the business from allowing the fund value to drop -- in lost customers and reputation -- was greater than the amount needed to bail it out.
The first money market mutual fund to break the buck was First Multifund for Daily Income (FMDI) in 1978, liquidating and restating NAV at 94 cents per share. An argument has been made that FMDI was not technically a money market fund as at the time of liquidation the average maturity of securities in its portfolio exceeded two years. However, prospective investors were informed that MFDI would invest "solely in Short-Term (30-90 days) MONEY MARKET obligations." Furthermore, the rule which restricts the maturities which money market funds are permitted to invest in, Rule 2-a7 of the Investment Company Act of 1940, was not promulgated until 1983. Prior to the adoption of this rule, a mutual fund had to do little other than present itself as a money market fund, which FMDI did. Seeking higher yield, FMDI had purchased increasingly longer maturity securities and rising interest rates negatively impacted the value of its portfolio. In order to meet increasing redemptions the fund was forced to sell a certificate of deposit at a 3% loss, triggering a restatement of its NAV and the first instance of a money market fund "breaking the buck."
The Community Bankers US Government Fund broke the buck in 1994, paying investors 96 cents per share. This was only the second failure in the then 23-year history of money funds and there were no further failures for 14 years. The fund had invested a large percentage of its assets into adjustable rate securities. As interest rates increased, these floating rate securities lost value. This fund was an institutional money fund, not a retail money fund, thus individuals were not directly affected.
No further failures occurred until September 2008, a month that saw tumultuous events for money funds. Though, as noted above, other failures were only averted by infusions of capital from the fund sponsors.
and large-scale funding of foreign bank's short-term US denominated debt put the funds in a pivotal position in the market place.
The week of September 15, 2008 to September 19, 2008 was very turbulent for money funds and a key part of financial markets seizing up.
. On Tuesday, September 16, 2008, Reserve Primary Fund
, the oldest money fund, broke the buck when its shares fell to 97 cents after writing off
debt issued by Lehman Brothers.
The resulting investor anxiety almost caused a run on
money funds, as investors redeemed their holdings and funds were forced to liquidate assets or impose limits on redemptions: through Wednesday, September 17, 2008, prime institutional funds saw substantial redemptions. Retail funds saw net inflows of $4 billion, for a net capital outflow
from all funds of $169 billion to $3.4 trillion (5%).
In response, on Friday, September 19, 2008, the U.S. Department of the Treasury
announced an optional program to "insure the holdings of any publicly offered eligible money market mutual fund—both retail and institutional—that pays a fee to participate in the program". The insurance will guarantee that if a covered fund breaks the buck, it will be restored to $1 NAV. This program is similar to the FDIC
, in that it insures deposit-like holdings and seeks to prevent runs on the bank. The guarantee is backed by assets of the Treasury Department's Exchange Stabilization Fund
, up to a maximum of $50 billion. It is very important to realize that this program only covers assets invested in funds before September 19, 2008 and those who sold equities, for example, during the recent market crash and parked their assets in money funds, are at risk. The program immediately stabilized
the system and stanched the outflows, but drew criticism from banking organizations, including the Independent Community Bankers of America
and American Bankers Association
, who expected funds to drain out of bank deposits and into newly insured money funds, as these latter would combine higher yields with insurance.
on the shadow banking system
: the redemptions caused a drop in demand for commercial paper
, preventing companies from rolling over their short-term debt, potentially causing an acute liquidity crisis
: if companies cannot issue new debt to repay maturing debt, and do not have cash on hand to pay it back, they will default
on their obligations, and may have to file for bankruptcy
. Thus there was concern that the run could cause extensive bankruptcies, a debt deflation
spiral, and serious damage to the real economy
, as in the Great Depression
.
The drop in demand resulted in a "buyers strike", as money funds could not (because of redemptions) or would not (because of fear of redemptions) buy commercial paper, driving yields up dramatically: from around 2% the previous week to 8%, and funds put their money in Treasuries, driving their yields close to 0%.
This is a bank run in the sense that there is a mismatch in maturities, and thus a money fund is a "virtual bank": the assets of money funds, while short term, nonetheless typically have maturities of several months, while investors can request redemption at any time, without waiting for obligations to come due. Thus if there is a sudden demand for redemptions, the assets may be liquidated in a fire sale
, depressing their sale price.
An earlier crisis occurred in 2007–2008, where the demand for asset-backed commercial paper dropped, causing the collapse of some structured investment vehicle
s.
reports statistics on money funds weekly as part of its Mutual Fund Statistics, as part of its industry statistics, including total assets and net flows, both for institutional and retail funds. It also provides annual reports in the ICI Fact Book.
As of December 11, 2008, almost 2,000 money funds are in operation, with total asset
s of nearly US$3.8 trillion. Of this $3.8 trillion, retail money market funds had $1.282 trillion in Assets Under Management (AUM), of which 77% was in tax-exempt funds. Institutional funds had $2.5 trillion under management of which the overwhelming majority - 93% - was tax-exempt.
The largest institutional money fund is the JPMorgan Prime Money Market Fund, with over US$100 billion in assets. Among the largest companies offering institutional money funds are BlackRock
, Western Asset, Federated, Bank of America, Dreyfus
, AIM and Evergreen
(Wachovia
).
Retail money funds come in a few different breeds: government-only funds, non-government funds and tax-free funds. Yields are typically somewhat higher than in savings account
s. Investors will obtain a slightly higher yield in the non-government variety, whose principal holdings are high-quality commercial paper and other instruments; of course, such funds may get in trouble if fears emerge about previously well-regarded companies.
Instruments of the United States Government (and funds holding them) are usually exempt from state income taxes, and conversely, "muni bond funds" are generally exempt from federal income tax. In both cases, yields are (almost always) lower, but may result in better conservation of value depending an individual investors' tax situation.
The largest money market mutual fund is Fidelity Investments'
Cash Reserves (Nasdaq:FDRXX), with assets exceeding US$110 billion. The largest retail money fund providers include: Fidelity, Vanguard
(Nasdaq:VMMXX), and Schwab
(Nasdaq:SWVXX).
savings account
s, but often with higher minimum balance requirements and limited transactions. A money market account may refer to a money market mutual fund, a bank money market deposit account (MMDA) or a brokerage sweep free credit balance.
s similar to money market funds, in that they aim to provide liquidity and principal preservation, but which:
Enhanced cash funds will typically invest some of their portfolio in the same assets as money market funds, but others in riskier, higher yielding, less liquid assets such as:
In general, the NAV will stay close to $1, but is expected to fluctuate above and below, and will break the buck more often. Different managers place different emphases on risk versus return in enhanced cash – some consider preservation of principal as paramount, and thus take few risks, while others see these as more bond-like, and an opportunity to increase yield without necessarily preserving principal. These are typically available only to institutional investors, not retail investors.
The purpose of enhanced cash funds is not to replace money markets, but to fit in the continuum between cash and bonds – to provide a higher yielding investment for more permanent cash. That is, within one's asset allocation
, one has a continuum between cash and long-term investments:
Enhanced cash funds were developed due to low spreads in traditional cash equivalents.
There are also funds which are billed as "money market funds", but are not 2a-7 funds (do not meet the requirements of the rule). In addition to 2a-7 eligible securities, these funds invest in Eurodollar
s and repos (repurchase agreement
s), which are similarly liquid and stable to 2a-7 eligible securities, but are not allowed under the regulations.
Mutual fund
A mutual fund is a professionally managed type of collective investment scheme that pools money from many investors to buy stocks, bonds, short-term money market instruments, and/or other securities.- Overview :...
that invests in short-term debt securities such as US Treasury bills and commercial paper
Commercial paper
In the global money market, commercial paper is an unsecured promissory note with a fixed maturity of 1 to 270 days. Commercial Paper is a money-market security issued by large banks and corporations to get money to meet short term debt obligations , and is only backed by an issuing bank or...
. Money market funds are widely (though not necessarily accurately) regarded as being as safe as bank deposits yet providing a higher yield. Regulated in the US under the Investment Company Act of 1940, money market funds are important providers of liquidity to financial intermediaries.
Explanation
Money market funds seek to limit exposure to losses due to creditCredit risk
Credit risk is an investor's risk of loss arising from a borrower who does not make payments as promised. Such an event is called a default. Other terms for credit risk are default risk and counterparty risk....
, market
Market risk
Market risk is the risk that the value of a portfolio, either an investment portfolio or a trading portfolio, will decrease due to the change in value of the market risk factors. The four standard market risk factors are stock prices, interest rates, foreign exchange rates, and commodity prices...
, and liquidity risk
Liquidity risk
In finance, liquidity risk is the risk that a given security or asset cannot be traded quickly enough in the market to prevent a loss .-Types of Liquidity Risk:...
s. Money market funds in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission's (SEC) Investment Company Act of 1940
Investment Company Act of 1940
The Investment Company Act of 1940 is an act of Congress. It was passed as a United States Public Law on August 22, 1940, and is codified at through . Along with the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and Investment Advisers Act of 1940, and extensive rules issued by the Securities and Exchange...
. Rule 2a-7 of the act restricts the quality, maturity and diversity of investments by money market funds. Under this act, a money fund mainly buys the highest rated debt
Debt
A debt is an obligation owed by one party to a second party, the creditor; usually this refers to assets granted by the creditor to the debtor, but the term can also be used metaphorically to cover moral obligations and other interactions not based on economic value.A debt is created when a...
, which matures in under 13 months. The portfolio must maintain a weighted average maturity
Maturity (finance)
In finance, maturity or maturity date refers to the final payment date of a loan or other financial instrument, at which point the principal is due to be paid....
(WAM) of 60 days or less and not invest more than 5% in any one issuer, except for government securities and repurchase agreement
Repurchase agreement
A repurchase agreement, also known as a repo, RP, or sale and repurchase agreement, is the sale of securities together with an agreement for the seller to buy back the securities at a later date. The repurchase price should be greater than the original sale price, the difference effectively...
s.
Unlike most other financial instruments, money market funds seek to maintain a stable value of $1 per share. Funds are able to pay dividends to investors.
Securities
Security (finance)
A security is generally a fungible, negotiable financial instrument representing financial value. Securities are broadly categorized into:* debt securities ,* equity securities, e.g., common stocks; and,...
in which money markets may invest include commercial paper
Commercial paper
In the global money market, commercial paper is an unsecured promissory note with a fixed maturity of 1 to 270 days. Commercial Paper is a money-market security issued by large banks and corporations to get money to meet short term debt obligations , and is only backed by an issuing bank or...
, repurchase agreement
Repurchase agreement
A repurchase agreement, also known as a repo, RP, or sale and repurchase agreement, is the sale of securities together with an agreement for the seller to buy back the securities at a later date. The repurchase price should be greater than the original sale price, the difference effectively...
s, short-term bonds
Bond (finance)
In finance, a bond is a debt security, in which the authorized issuer owes the holders a debt and, depending on the terms of the bond, is obliged to pay interest to use and/or to repay the principal at a later date, termed maturity...
and other money funds. Money market securities must be highly liquid and of the highest quality.
History
In 1971, Bruce R. BentBruce R. Bent
Bruce R. Bent invented the world's first money fund, The Reserve Fund, with Henry B. R. Brown in 1970. This financial product was recognized by the American Museum of Financial History, an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution, for its importance and impact on the nation's financial history...
and Henry B. R. Brown
Henry B. R. Brown
Henry Bedinger Rust "Harry" Brown was an American financial consultant known for inventing the world's first money market fund, The Reserve Fund, with Bruce R. Bent in 1970.-Early career:...
established the first money market fund in the U.S. It was named The Reserve Fund and was offered to investors who were interested in preserving their cash and earning a small rate of return. Several more funds were shortly set up and the market grew significantly over the next few years.
Money market funds in the US created a loophole around Regulation Q
Regulation Q
Regulation Q is Title 12, part 217 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations. It prohibits banks from paying interest on demand deposits in accordance with Section 11 of the Glass–Steagall Act ....
, which at the time prohibited demand deposit accounts from paying interest and thus money market funds can be seen as a substitute for bank accounts.
Outside of the U.S., the first money market fund was set up in 1968 and was designed for small investors. The fund was called Conta Garantia and was created by John Oswin Schroy. The fund's investments included low denominations of commercial paper.
In the 1990s, bank interest rates in Japan
Lost Decade (Japan)
The is the time after the Japanese asset price bubble's collapse within the Japanese economy, which occurred gradually rather than catastrophically...
were near zero for an extended period of time. To search for higher yields from these low rates in bank deposits, investors used money market funds for short-term deposits instead. However, several money market funds fell off short of their stable value in 2001 due to the Enron bankruptcy
Enron scandal
The Enron scandal, revealed in October 2001, eventually led to the bankruptcy of the Enron Corporation, an American energy company based in Houston, Texas, and the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which was one of the five largest audit and accountancy partnerships in the world...
, in which several Japanese funds had invested, and investors fled into government-insured bank accounts. Since then the total value of money markets have remained low.
Money market funds in Europe have always had much lower levels of investments capital than in the United States or Japan. Regulations in the EU
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
have always encouraged investors to use banks rather than money market funds for short term deposits.
Breaking the buck
Money market funds seek a stable net asset valueNet asset value
Net asset value is a term used to describe the value of an entity's assets less the value of its liabilities. The term is most commonly used in relation to open-ended or mutual funds because shares of such funds registered with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission are redeemed at their net...
, or NAV (which is generally $1.00 in the US); they aim never to lose money. If a fund's NAV drops below $1.00, it is said that the fund "broke the buck".
This has rarely happened: Up to the 2008 financial crisis, only three money funds have broken the buck, in the 37-year history of money funds.
It is important to note that, while the funds are managed in a fairly safe manner, there would have been many more failures except that the companies offering the money market funds had, in the past, stepped in when necessary to support the fund and avoid having the funds "break the buck". This was done because the expected cost to the business from allowing the fund value to drop -- in lost customers and reputation -- was greater than the amount needed to bail it out.
The first money market mutual fund to break the buck was First Multifund for Daily Income (FMDI) in 1978, liquidating and restating NAV at 94 cents per share. An argument has been made that FMDI was not technically a money market fund as at the time of liquidation the average maturity of securities in its portfolio exceeded two years. However, prospective investors were informed that MFDI would invest "solely in Short-Term (30-90 days) MONEY MARKET obligations." Furthermore, the rule which restricts the maturities which money market funds are permitted to invest in, Rule 2-a7 of the Investment Company Act of 1940, was not promulgated until 1983. Prior to the adoption of this rule, a mutual fund had to do little other than present itself as a money market fund, which FMDI did. Seeking higher yield, FMDI had purchased increasingly longer maturity securities and rising interest rates negatively impacted the value of its portfolio. In order to meet increasing redemptions the fund was forced to sell a certificate of deposit at a 3% loss, triggering a restatement of its NAV and the first instance of a money market fund "breaking the buck."
The Community Bankers US Government Fund broke the buck in 1994, paying investors 96 cents per share. This was only the second failure in the then 23-year history of money funds and there were no further failures for 14 years. The fund had invested a large percentage of its assets into adjustable rate securities. As interest rates increased, these floating rate securities lost value. This fund was an institutional money fund, not a retail money fund, thus individuals were not directly affected.
No further failures occurred until September 2008, a month that saw tumultuous events for money funds. Though, as noted above, other failures were only averted by infusions of capital from the fund sponsors.
September 2008
Money market funds increasingly became important to the wholesale money market leading up to the crisis. Their purchases of asset-backed securitiesAsset-backed security
An asset-backed security is a security whose value and income payments are derived from and collateralized by a specified pool of underlying assets. The pool of assets is typically a group of small and illiquid assets that are unable to be sold individually...
and large-scale funding of foreign bank's short-term US denominated debt put the funds in a pivotal position in the market place.
The week of September 15, 2008 to September 19, 2008 was very turbulent for money funds and a key part of financial markets seizing up.
Events
On Monday, September 15, 2008, Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. filed for bankruptcyBankruptcy
Bankruptcy is a legal status of an insolvent person or an organisation, that is, one that cannot repay the debts owed to creditors. In most jurisdictions bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor....
. On Tuesday, September 16, 2008, Reserve Primary Fund
Reserve Primary Fund
The Reserve Primary Fund was a large money market mutual fund.On September 16, 2008, during the Global financial crisis of September-October, 2008, it lowered its share price below $1 because of exposure to Lehman Brothers debt securities. This resulted in demands from investors to return their...
, the oldest money fund, broke the buck when its shares fell to 97 cents after writing off
Write-off
The term write-off describes a reduction in recognized value. In accounting terminology, it refers to recognition of the reduced or zero value of an asset. In income tax statements, it refers to a reduction of taxable income as recognition of certain expenses required to produce the income...
debt issued by Lehman Brothers.
The resulting investor anxiety almost caused a run on
Bank run
A bank run occurs when a large number of bank customers withdraw their deposits because they believe the bank is, or might become, insolvent...
money funds, as investors redeemed their holdings and funds were forced to liquidate assets or impose limits on redemptions: through Wednesday, September 17, 2008, prime institutional funds saw substantial redemptions. Retail funds saw net inflows of $4 billion, for a net capital outflow
Net Capital Outflow
Net Capital Outflow is the net flow of funds being invested abroad by a country during a certain period of time . A positive NCO means that the country invests outside more than the world invests in it; a negative one, that the world invests in the country more than the country invests in the world...
from all funds of $169 billion to $3.4 trillion (5%).
In response, on Friday, September 19, 2008, the U.S. Department of the Treasury
United States Department of the Treasury
The Department of the Treasury is an executive department and the treasury of the United States federal government. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue...
announced an optional program to "insure the holdings of any publicly offered eligible money market mutual fund—both retail and institutional—that pays a fee to participate in the program". The insurance will guarantee that if a covered fund breaks the buck, it will be restored to $1 NAV. This program is similar to the FDIC
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation is a United States government corporation created by the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933. It provides deposit insurance, which guarantees the safety of deposits in member banks, currently up to $250,000 per depositor per bank. , the FDIC insures deposits at...
, in that it insures deposit-like holdings and seeks to prevent runs on the bank. The guarantee is backed by assets of the Treasury Department's Exchange Stabilization Fund
Exchange Stabilization Fund
The Exchange Stabilization Fund is an emergency reserve fund of the United States Treasury Department, normally used for foreign exchange intervention...
, up to a maximum of $50 billion. It is very important to realize that this program only covers assets invested in funds before September 19, 2008 and those who sold equities, for example, during the recent market crash and parked their assets in money funds, are at risk. The program immediately stabilized
the system and stanched the outflows, but drew criticism from banking organizations, including the Independent Community Bankers of America
Independent Community Bankers of America
The Independent Community Bankers of America is the primary trade group for small U.S. banks. It represents approximately 5,000 small and mid-sized financial institutions that are commonly known as "community banks." The ICBA hosts conventions, publishes the monthly magazine ICBA Independent...
and American Bankers Association
American Bankers Association
The American Bankers Association is an industry trade group and professional association representing the United States' banking industry...
, who expected funds to drain out of bank deposits and into newly insured money funds, as these latter would combine higher yields with insurance.
Analysis
The crisis almost developed into a runBank run
A bank run occurs when a large number of bank customers withdraw their deposits because they believe the bank is, or might become, insolvent...
on the shadow banking system
Shadow banking system
The shadow banking system is the infrastructure and practices which support financial transactions that occur beyond the reach of existing state sanctioned monitoring and regulation. It includes entities such as hedge funds, money market funds and Structured investment vehicles...
: the redemptions caused a drop in demand for commercial paper
Commercial paper
In the global money market, commercial paper is an unsecured promissory note with a fixed maturity of 1 to 270 days. Commercial Paper is a money-market security issued by large banks and corporations to get money to meet short term debt obligations , and is only backed by an issuing bank or...
, preventing companies from rolling over their short-term debt, potentially causing an acute liquidity crisis
Credit crunch
A credit crunch is a reduction in the general availability of loans or a sudden tightening of the conditions required to obtain a loan from the banks. A credit crunch generally involves a reduction in the availability of credit independent of a rise in official interest rates...
: if companies cannot issue new debt to repay maturing debt, and do not have cash on hand to pay it back, they will default
Default (finance)
In finance, default occurs when a debtor has not met his or her legal obligations according to the debt contract, e.g. has not made a scheduled payment, or has violated a loan covenant of the debt contract. A default is the failure to pay back a loan. Default may occur if the debtor is either...
on their obligations, and may have to file for bankruptcy
Bankruptcy
Bankruptcy is a legal status of an insolvent person or an organisation, that is, one that cannot repay the debts owed to creditors. In most jurisdictions bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor....
. Thus there was concern that the run could cause extensive bankruptcies, a debt deflation
Debt deflation
Debt deflation is a theory of economic cycles, which holds that recessions and depressions are due to the overall level of debt shrinking : the credit cycle is the cause of the economic cycle....
spiral, and serious damage to the real economy
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, as in the Great Depression
Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...
.
The drop in demand resulted in a "buyers strike", as money funds could not (because of redemptions) or would not (because of fear of redemptions) buy commercial paper, driving yields up dramatically: from around 2% the previous week to 8%, and funds put their money in Treasuries, driving their yields close to 0%.
This is a bank run in the sense that there is a mismatch in maturities, and thus a money fund is a "virtual bank": the assets of money funds, while short term, nonetheless typically have maturities of several months, while investors can request redemption at any time, without waiting for obligations to come due. Thus if there is a sudden demand for redemptions, the assets may be liquidated in a fire sale
Fire sale
A fire sale is the sale of goods at extremely discounted prices, typically when the seller faces bankruptcy or other impending distress. The term may originally have been based on the sale of goods at a heavy discount due to fire damage...
, depressing their sale price.
An earlier crisis occurred in 2007–2008, where the demand for asset-backed commercial paper dropped, causing the collapse of some structured investment vehicle
Structured investment vehicle
A structured investment vehicle was an operating finance company established to earn a spread between its assets and liabilities like a traditional bank...
s.
Statistics
The Investment Company InstituteInvestment Company Institute
The Investment Company Institute is the national association of U.S. investment companies. ICI encourages adherence to high ethical standards, promotes public understanding of funds and investing, and advances the interests of investment funds and their shareholders, directors, and advisers.As of...
reports statistics on money funds weekly as part of its Mutual Fund Statistics, as part of its industry statistics, including total assets and net flows, both for institutional and retail funds. It also provides annual reports in the ICI Fact Book.
As of December 11, 2008, almost 2,000 money funds are in operation, with total asset
Asset
In financial accounting, assets are economic resources. Anything tangible or intangible that is capable of being owned or controlled to produce value and that is held to have positive economic value is considered an asset...
s of nearly US$3.8 trillion. Of this $3.8 trillion, retail money market funds had $1.282 trillion in Assets Under Management (AUM), of which 77% was in tax-exempt funds. Institutional funds had $2.5 trillion under management of which the overwhelming majority - 93% - was tax-exempt.
Institutional money fund
Institutional money funds are high minimum investment, low expense share classes which are marketed to corporations, governments, or fiduciaries. They are often set up so that money is swept to them overnight from a company's main operating accounts. Large national chains often have many accounts with banks all across the country, but electronically pull a majority of funds on deposit with them to a concentrated money market fund.The largest institutional money fund is the JPMorgan Prime Money Market Fund, with over US$100 billion in assets. Among the largest companies offering institutional money funds are BlackRock
BlackRock
BlackRock, Inc. is an American multinational investment management corporation and the world's largest asset manager. BlackRock is headquartered in Manhattan, New York City, New York, United States and is the leading provider of investment, advisory, and risk management solutions...
, Western Asset, Federated, Bank of America, Dreyfus
Dreyfus Corporation
Dreyfus, established in 1951 and headquartered in New York City, is one of the nation’s leading managers of investment products and strategies. The company merged with Mellon Financial in 1994, and then became a subsidiary of Bank of New York Mellon when Mellon Financial and The Bank of New York...
, AIM and Evergreen
Evergreen Investments
Evergreen Investments was the investment management business of Wachovia. The brand was merged into Wells Fargo Advantage Funds and subsequently phased out following Wells Fargo's acquisition of Wachovia...
(Wachovia
Wachovia
Wachovia was a diversified financial services company based in Charlotte, North Carolina. Before its acquisition by Wells Fargo in 2008, Wachovia was the fourth-largest bank holding company in the United States based on total assets...
).
Retail money fund
Retail money funds are offered primarily to individuals. Retail money market funds hold roughly 33% of all money market fund assets.Retail money funds come in a few different breeds: government-only funds, non-government funds and tax-free funds. Yields are typically somewhat higher than in savings account
Savings account
Savings accounts are accounts maintained by retail financial institutions that pay interest but cannot be used directly as money . These accounts let customers set aside a portion of their liquid assets while earning a monetary return...
s. Investors will obtain a slightly higher yield in the non-government variety, whose principal holdings are high-quality commercial paper and other instruments; of course, such funds may get in trouble if fears emerge about previously well-regarded companies.
Instruments of the United States Government (and funds holding them) are usually exempt from state income taxes, and conversely, "muni bond funds" are generally exempt from federal income tax. In both cases, yields are (almost always) lower, but may result in better conservation of value depending an individual investors' tax situation.
The largest money market mutual fund is Fidelity Investments'
Fidelity Investments
FMR LLC or Fidelity Investments is an American multinational financial services corporation one of the largest mutual fund and financial services groups in the world. It was founded in 1946 and serves North American investors. Fidelity Ventures is its venture capital arm...
Cash Reserves (Nasdaq:FDRXX), with assets exceeding US$110 billion. The largest retail money fund providers include: Fidelity, Vanguard
The Vanguard Group
The Vanguard Group is an American investment management company based in Malvern, Pennsylvania, that manages approximately $1.6 trillion in assets. It offers mutual funds and other financial products and services to individual and institutional investors in the United States and abroad. Founder...
(Nasdaq:VMMXX), and Schwab
Charles Schwab Corp.
The Charles Schwab Corporation , is an American brokerage and banking company, based in San Francisco, California. It was founded in 1971 by Charles R. "Chuck" Schwab, as a traditional, brick and mortar brokerage firm and investment newsletter publisher. In 1973, the company name changed from First...
(Nasdaq:SWVXX).
Money market accounts
Banks in the United States offer savings and money market deposit accounts, but these shouldn't be confused with money mutual funds. These bank accounts offer higher yields than traditional passbookPassbook
A passbook or bankbook is a paper book used to record bank transactions on a deposit account. Depending on the country or the financial institution, it can be of the dimensions of a chequebook or a passport....
savings account
Savings account
Savings accounts are accounts maintained by retail financial institutions that pay interest but cannot be used directly as money . These accounts let customers set aside a portion of their liquid assets while earning a monetary return...
s, but often with higher minimum balance requirements and limited transactions. A money market account may refer to a money market mutual fund, a bank money market deposit account (MMDA) or a brokerage sweep free credit balance.
Ultrashort bond funds
Ultrashort bond funds are mutual funds, similar to money market funds, that, as the name implies, invest in bonds with extremely short maturities. Unlike money market funds, however, there are no restrictions on the quality of the investments they hold. Instead, ultrashort bond funds typically invest in riskier securities in order to increase their return. Since these high-risk securities can experience large swings in price or even default, ultrashort bond funds, unlike money market funds, do not seek to maintain a stable $1.00 NAV and may lose money or dip below the $1.00 mark in the short term. Finally, because they invest in lower quality securities, ultrashort bond funds are more susceptible to adverse market conditions such as those brought on by the Financial crisis of 2007–2010.Enhanced cash funds
Enhanced cash funds are bond fundBond fund
A bond fund is a collective investment scheme that invests in bonds and other debt securities. Bond funds typically pay periodic dividends that include interest payments on the fund's underlying securities plus periodic realized capital appreciation. Bond funds typically pay higher dividends than...
s similar to money market funds, in that they aim to provide liquidity and principal preservation, but which:
- invest in a wider variety of assets, and do not meet the restrictions of SEC Rule 2a-7;
- aim for higher returns;
- have less liquidity;
- do not aim as strongly for stable NAV.
Enhanced cash funds will typically invest some of their portfolio in the same assets as money market funds, but others in riskier, higher yielding, less liquid assets such as:
- lower -rated bonds;
- longer maturity;
- foreign currency denominated debt;
- asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP);
- Mortgage-backed securitiesMortgage-backed securityA mortgage-backed security is an asset-backed security that represents a claim on the cash flows from mortgage loans through a process known as securitization.-Securitization:...
(MBSs); - Structured investment vehicleStructured investment vehicleA structured investment vehicle was an operating finance company established to earn a spread between its assets and liabilities like a traditional bank...
s (SIVs).
In general, the NAV will stay close to $1, but is expected to fluctuate above and below, and will break the buck more often. Different managers place different emphases on risk versus return in enhanced cash – some consider preservation of principal as paramount, and thus take few risks, while others see these as more bond-like, and an opportunity to increase yield without necessarily preserving principal. These are typically available only to institutional investors, not retail investors.
The purpose of enhanced cash funds is not to replace money markets, but to fit in the continuum between cash and bonds – to provide a higher yielding investment for more permanent cash. That is, within one's asset allocation
Asset allocation
Asset allocation is an investment strategy that attempts to balance risk versus reward by adjusting the percentage of each asset in an investment portfolio according to the investors risk tolerance, goals and investment time frame.-Description:...
, one has a continuum between cash and long-term investments:
- cash – most liquid and least risky, but low yielding;
- money markets / cash equivalents;
- enhanced cash;
- long-term bonds and other non-cash long-term investments – least liquid and most risky, but highest yielding.
Enhanced cash funds were developed due to low spreads in traditional cash equivalents.
There are also funds which are billed as "money market funds", but are not 2a-7 funds (do not meet the requirements of the rule). In addition to 2a-7 eligible securities, these funds invest in Eurodollar
Eurodollar
Eurodollars are time deposits denominated in U.S. dollars at banks outside the United States, and thus are not under the jurisdiction of the Federal Reserve. Consequently, such deposits are subject to much less regulation than similar deposits within the U.S., allowing for higher margins. The term...
s and repos (repurchase agreement
Repurchase agreement
A repurchase agreement, also known as a repo, RP, or sale and repurchase agreement, is the sale of securities together with an agreement for the seller to buy back the securities at a later date. The repurchase price should be greater than the original sale price, the difference effectively...
s), which are similarly liquid and stable to 2a-7 eligible securities, but are not allowed under the regulations.
See also
- Money marketMoney marketThe money market is a component of the financial markets for assets involved in short-term borrowing and lending with original maturities of one year or shorter time frames. Trading in the money markets involves Treasury bills, commercial paper, bankers' acceptances, certificates of deposit,...
- Money supplyMoney supplyIn economics, the money supply or money stock, is the total amount of money available in an economy at a specific time. There are several ways to define "money," but standard measures usually include currency in circulation and demand deposits .Money supply data are recorded and published, usually...
- Sweep accountSweep accountA sweep account is an account set up at a bank or other financial institution where the funds are automatically managed between a primary cash account and secondary investment accounts.- Overview :...
External links
- iMoneyNet - Provider of money market mutual fund information and analysis
- Crane Data and Money Fund Intelligence - news, yields, and indexes on money market mutual funds
- MoneyRates.com - News, yields, and information about money funds
- TheStreet.com: Dear Dagen: Where Can I Park My Money for Nine Months?