Programming language

Programming language

A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine and/or to express algorithms precisely....

s can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms

Programming paradigm

A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. Paradigms differ in the concepts and abstractions used to represent the elements of a program and the steps that compose a computation A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. (Compare with a...

 supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.
Actor model

Actor model

In computer science, the Actor model is a mathematical model of concurrent computation that treats "actors" as the universal primitives of concurrent digital computation: in response to a message that it receives, an actor can make local decisions, create more actors, send more messages, and...

 : concurrent computation with "actors" that makes local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behavior)
Constraint programming

Constraint programming

Constraint programming is a programming paradigm wherein relations between variables are stated in the form of constraints. Constraints differ from the common primitives of imperative programming languages in that they do not specify a step or sequence of steps to execute, but rather the properties...

 : relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm

Simplex algorithm

In mathematical optimization, Dantzig's simplex algorithm is a popular algorithm for linear programming. The journal Computing in Science and Engineering listed it as one of the top 10 algorithms of the twentieth century....

)
Dataflow

Dataflow

Dataflow is a term used in computing, and may have various shades of meaning. It is closely related to message passing.-Software architecture:...

 : forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. Spreadsheet

Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper accounting worksheet. It displays multiple cells usually in a two-dimensional matrix or grid consisting of rows and columns. Each cell contains alphanumeric text, numeric values or formulas...

s)
Declarative programming

Declarative programming

In computer science, declarative programming is a programming paradigm that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow. Many languages applying this style attempt to minimize or eliminate side effects by describing what the program should accomplish, rather than...

 : describes actions (e.g. HTML

HTML

HyperText Markup Language is the predominant markup language for web pages. HTML elements are the basic building-blocks of webpages....

 describes a page but not how to actually display it)
Functional programming

Functional programming

In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...

 : uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Imperative programming

Imperative programming

In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...

 : explicit statements that change a program state
Prototype-based programming

Prototype-based programming

Prototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which classes are not present, and behavior reuse is performed via a process of cloning existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as classless, prototype-oriented or instance-based programming...

 : uses object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via the cloning of instances
Reflective programming : special case of metaprogramming

Metaprogramming

Metaprogramming is the writing of computer programs that write or manipulate other programs as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime...

 (modification of programs as data by another program or ability to do part of the work in runtime instead of compile time) in which the program modifies or extends itself
Rule-based programming : a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming language

Visual programming language

In computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...

 : manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink

Simulink

Simulink, developed by MathWorks, is a commercial tool for modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain dynamic systems. Its primary interface is a graphical block diagramming tool and a customizable set of block libraries. It offers tight integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and...

); also known as diagrammatic programming http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=381508.

Two paradigm-languages

• visual
  Visual programming language
  In computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...
  
  , dataflow
  • LabVIEW
    LabVIEW
    LabVIEW is a system design platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. LabVIEW provides engineers and scientists with the tools needed to create and deploy measurement and control systems.The graphical language is named "G"...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  
  • APL
• functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , logic
  Logic programming
  Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
  
  
  • ALF
    Algebraic Logic Functional programming language
    Algebraic Logic Functional programming language also known as ALF is a programming language which combines functional and logic programming techniques...
    
    
• object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  
  • Dylan 
  • Sather
    Sather
    Sather is an object-oriented programming language. It originated circa 1990 at the International Computer Science Institute at the University of California, Berkeley, developed by an international team led by Steve Omohundro...
    
     
  • Claire
• functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , visual
  Visual programming language
  In computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...
  
  
  • Spreadsheet
    Spreadsheet
    A spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper accounting worksheet. It displays multiple cells usually in a two-dimensional matrix or grid consisting of rows and columns. Each cell contains alphanumeric text, numeric values or formulas...
    
    s
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  )
  • AmigaE
    AmigaE
    Amiga E, or very often simply E, is a programming language created by Wouter van Oortmerssen on the Amiga. He has since moved on to develop the SHEEP programming language for the new AmigaDE platform and the CryScript language used during the development of the popular computer game Far Cry.Amiga...
    
     
  • Simula
    Simula
    Simula is a name for two programming languages, Simula I and Simula 67, developed in the 1960s at the Norwegian Computing Center in Oslo, by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard...
    
     
• object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), (prototype-based
  Prototype-based programming
  Prototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which classes are not present, and behavior reuse is performed via a process of cloning existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as classless, prototype-oriented or instance-based programming...
  
  )
  • Metaobject
    Metaobject
    In computer science, a metaobject or meta-object is any entity that manipulates, creates, describes, or implements other objects. The object that the metaobject is about is called the base object...
    
     protocols
• object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), visual
  Visual programming language
  In computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...
  
  
  • Lava

Three paradigm-languages

• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
  , visual
  Visual programming language
  In computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...
  
  
  • PointDragon
• functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , concurrent, dataflow
  Dataflow
  Dataflow is a term used in computing, and may have various shades of meaning. It is closely related to message passing.-Software architecture:...
  
  
  • SISAL
    SISAL
    SISAL is a general-purpose single assignment functional programming language with strict semantics, implicit parallelism, and efficient array handling. SISAL outputs a dataflow graph in Intermediary Form 1...
    
    
• functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , concurrent, distributed
  • Erlang
• functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , concurrent, logic
  Logic programming
  Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
  
  
  • Curry
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), concurrent
  • ChucK
    ChucK
    ChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance, which runs on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and iPhone/iPad. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such...
    
     
• object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), visual
  Visual programming language
  In computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...
  
  , dataflow
  Dataflow
  Dataflow is a term used in computing, and may have various shades of meaning. It is closely related to message passing.-Software architecture:...
  
  
  • Prograph
    Prograph
    Prograph is a visual, object-oriented, dataflow, multiparadigm programming language that uses iconic symbols to represent actions to be taken on data. Commercial Prograph software development environments such as Prograph Classic and Prograph CPX were available for the Apple Macintosh and Windows...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , logic
  Logic programming
  Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
  
  
  • Poplog
    Poplog
    Poplog is a powerful multi-language, multiparadigm, reflective, incrementally compiled software development environment, originally created in the UK for teaching and research in Artificial Intelligence at the University of Sussex.-History:...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  
  • BETA
    BETA
    BETA is a pure object-oriented language originating within the "Scandinavian School" in object-orientation where the first object-oriented language Simula was developed....
    
     
  • F# 
  • J
    J (programming language)
    The J programming language, developed in the early 1990s by Kenneth E. Iverson and Roger Hui, is a synthesis of APL and the FP and FL function-level languages created by John Backus....
    
     
  • Perl
    Perl
    Perl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
    
     
  • Pliant 
  • Tcl
    Tcl
    Tcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
    
     with itcl or XOTcl
    XOTcl
    XOTcl is an object-oriented extension for the Tool Command Language created by Gustaf Neumann and Uwe Zdun. It is an extension of the MIT OTcl. XOTcl supports metaclasses. Class and method definitions are completely dynamic...
    
     extensions
  • PHP
    PHP
    PHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
    
    

• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (prototype-based
  Prototype-based programming
  Prototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which classes are not present, and behavior reuse is performed via a process of cloning existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as classless, prototype-oriented or instance-based programming...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  
  • ECMAScript
    ECMAScript
    ECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
    
    
    • ActionScript
      ActionScript
      ActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
      
      
    • E4X
      E4X
      ECMAScript for XML is a programming language extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScript . The goal is to provide an alternative to DOM interfaces that uses a simpler syntax for accessing XML documents. It also offers a new way of making XML visible...
      
      
    • JavaScript
      JavaScript
      JavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
      
      
    • JScript
      JScript
      JScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
      
      
  • Lua 
  • Tcl
    Tcl
    Tcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
    
     with Snit
    Snit
    Snit is an object-oriented extension to the Tcl programming language. Snit is a recursive acronym that stands for "Snit's Not Incr Tcl." Snit is a pure Tcl object and megawidget system. It is unique among Tcl object systems in that it is based not on inheritance but on delegation...
    
     extension
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
   (template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming is a metaprogramming technique in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled. The output of these templates include compile-time constants, data structures, and...
  
  )
  • D
    D (programming language)
    The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
    
     version 1.0
• object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), distributed, concurrent
  • E
    E (programming language)
    E is an object-oriented programming language for secure distributed computing, created by Mark S. Miller, Dan Bornstein, and others at Electric Communities in 1997. E is mainly descended from the concurrent language Joule and from Original-E, a set of extensions to Java for secure distributed...
    
    

Four paradigm-languages

• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), reflective, generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
  
  • Java
    Java (programming language)
    Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), reflective, functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  
  • Python
    Python (programming language)
    Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
    
    
  • Ruby
    Ruby (programming language)
    Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
   (template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming is a metaprogramming technique in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled. The output of these templates include compile-time constants, data structures, and...
  
  )
  • C++
    C++
    C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
    
    
  • Objective Caml
    Objective Caml
    OCaml , originally known as Objective Caml, is the main implementation of the Caml programming language, created by Xavier Leroy, Jérôme Vouillon, Damien Doligez, Didier Rémy and others in 1996...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , logic
  Logic programming
  Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
  
  
  • Leda
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), logic
  Logic programming
  Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
  
  , rule-based
  • ROOP
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (prototype-based
  Prototype-based programming
  Prototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which classes are not present, and behavior reuse is performed via a process of cloning existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as classless, prototype-oriented or instance-based programming...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , concurrent (Actor model
  Actor model
  In computer science, the Actor model is a mathematical model of concurrent computation that treats "actors" as the universal primitives of concurrent digital computation: in response to a message that it receives, an actor can make local decisions, create more actors, send more messages, and...
  
  )
  • Io
    Io (programming language)
    Io is a pure object-oriented programming language inspired by Smalltalk, Self, Lua, Lisp, Act1, and NewtonScript. Io has a prototype-based object model similar to the ones in Self and NewtonScript, eliminating the distinction between instance and class. Like Smalltalk, everything is an object and...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (prototype-based
  Prototype-based programming
  Prototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which classes are not present, and behavior reuse is performed via a process of cloning existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as classless, prototype-oriented or instance-based programming...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , dialected
  Dialecting
  Dialects are domain specific sub-languages of a programming language or a data exchange language. A language supporting this paradigm encourages users to create new dialects for specific problematic domains.- Languages :* FORTH* LISP* REBOL* Ruby* XL- See also :* Domain-specific...
  
  
  • REBOL
    REBOL
    REBOL is a cross-platform data exchange language and a multi-paradigm dynamic programming language originally designed by Carl Sassenrath for network communications and distributed computing. The language and its official implementation, which is a proprietary freely redistributable software are...
    
    

Five paradigm-languages

• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), concurrent (rendezvous and monitor-like based), generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
  , distributed
  • Ada
    Ada (programming language)
    Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , reflective, pipeline
  Pipeline programming
  When a programming language is originally designed without any syntax to nest function calls, pipeline programming is a simple syntax change to add it. The programmer connects notional program modules into a flow structure, by analogy to a physical pipeline carrying reaction products through a...
  
  
  • Windows PowerShell
    Windows PowerShell
    Windows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
   (only lambda
  Lambda calculus
  In mathematical logic and computer science, lambda calculus, also written as λ-calculus, is a formal system for function definition, function application and recursion. The portion of lambda calculus relevant to computation is now called the untyped lambda calculus...
  
   support), reflective, generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
  
  • C#
  • Visual Basic .NET
    Visual Basic .NET
    Visual Basic .NET , is an object-oriented computer programming language that can be viewed as an evolution of the classic Visual Basic , which is implemented on the .NET Framework...
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , reflective, generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
   (template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming is a metaprogramming technique in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled. The output of these templates include compile-time constants, data structures, and...
  
  )
  • Curl
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , reflective, metaprogramming
  Metaprogramming
  Metaprogramming is the writing of computer programs that write or manipulate other programs as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime...
  
  
  • Common Lisp
    Common Lisp
    Common Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
    
     (although there are other paradigms implemented as libraries )
  • Falcon
    Falcon (programming language)
    Falcon is an open source, multi-paradigm programming language. Design and implementation is led by Giancarlo Niccolai, a native of Bologna, Italy and Information Technology graduate from Pistoia....
    
    
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
  , metaprogramming
  Metaprogramming
  Metaprogramming is the writing of computer programs that write or manipulate other programs as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime...
  
  
  • Nemerle
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
  , concurrent (Actor model
  Actor model
  In computer science, the Actor model is a mathematical model of concurrent computation that treats "actors" as the universal primitives of concurrent digital computation: in response to a message that it receives, an actor can make local decisions, create more actors, send more messages, and...
  
  )
  • Scala
• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , generic
  Generic programming
  In a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
  
   (template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming
  Template metaprogramming is a metaprogramming technique in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled. The output of these templates include compile-time constants, data structures, and...
  
  ), concurrent (Actor model
  Actor model
  In computer science, the Actor model is a mathematical model of concurrent computation that treats "actors" as the universal primitives of concurrent digital computation: in response to a message that it receives, an actor can make local decisions, create more actors, send more messages, and...
  
  )
  • D
    D (programming language)
    The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
    
     (version 2.0)

Seven paradigm-languages

• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , logic
  Logic programming
  Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
  
  , constraint
  Constraint programming
  Constraint programming is a programming paradigm wherein relations between variables are stated in the form of constraints. Constraints differ from the common primitives of imperative programming languages in that they do not specify a step or sequence of steps to execute, but rather the properties...
  
  , distributed, concurrent
  • Oz
    Oz (programming language)
    Oz is a multiparadigm programming language, developed in the Programming Systems Lab at Université catholique de Louvain, for programming language education. It has a canonical textbook: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming....
    
    

Nine paradigm-languages

• imperative
  Imperative programming
  In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
  
  , object-oriented
  Object-oriented programming
  Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
  
   (class-based
  Class (computer science)
  In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
  
  ), functional
  Functional programming
  In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
  
  , reflective, metaprogramming
  Metaprogramming
  Metaprogramming is the writing of computer programs that write or manipulate other programs as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime...
  
  , distributed, logic
  Logic programming
  Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
  
  , rule-based, concurrent
  • LispWorks
    LispWorks
    LispWorks is a commercial implementation and IDE for the Common Lisp programming language. The software runs on Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X , Linux, FreeBSD, Solaris and HP UX....
    
     6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog) and CORBA

See also

• Programming paradigm
  Programming paradigm
  A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. Paradigms differ in the concepts and abstractions used to represent the elements of a program and the steps that compose a computation A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. (Compare with a...
  
  
• Categorical list of programming languages
  Categorical list of programming languages
  This is a list of programming languages grouped by category. Some languages are listed in multiple categories.- Array languages :Array programming generalize operations on scalars to apply transparently to vectors, matrices, and higher dimensional arrays.* APL* Chapel* X10* ZPL- Aspect-oriented...
  
  
• Domain-specific programming language
  Domain-specific programming language
  In software development and domain engineering, a domain-specific language is a programming language or specification language dedicated to a particular problem domain, a particular problem representation technique, and/or a particular solution technique...
  
  
• Domain-specific multimodeling
  Domain-specific multimodeling
  Domain-specific multimodelingis a software development paradigm where each view is made explicit as a separate domain-specific language .Successful development of a modern enterprise system requires the convergence of multiple views...