Categorical list of programming languages
Encyclopedia
This is a list of programming language
s grouped by category. Some languages are listed in multiple categories.
(also known as vector or multidimensional languages) generalize operations on scalars to apply transparently to vectors, matrices, and higher dimensional arrays.
s directly correspond to a machine language (see below) so machine code instructions appear in a form understandable by humans. Assembly languages lets programmers use symbolic addresses, which the assembler converts to absolute addresses. Most assemblers also support macros and symbolic constants.
(CLI) languages are also called batch languages, or job control languages. Examples:
s, though theoretically any language can be compiled or interpreted. See also compiled language
.
languages provide language constructs for concurrency
. The predominant paradigm for concurrency in mainstream languages such as Java
is shared memory
concurrency based on monitors
. Concurrent languages that make use of message passing have generally been inspired by CSP
or the π-calculus
, but have had little commercial success, except for Ada and Erlang. Ada is a multipurpose language and concurrent programming is only one option available.
s are those where logic is structured in ways similar to their data. Such languages are generally well suited to reflection and introspection. There are three main types:
Assembly language
s that statically link data inline with instructions can also be considered data-structured, in the most primitive way.
describe a problem rather than defining a solution. Declarative programming
stands in contrast to imperative programming
via imperative programming languages, where serial orders (imperatives) are given to a computer. In addition to the examples given just below, all (pure) functional and logic-based programming languages are also declarative. In fact, "functional" and "logical" constitute the usual subcategories of the declarative category.
Client-side embedded languages are limited by the capabilities of the browser or intended client. They aim to provide dynamism to web pages without the need to recontact the server.
Server-side embedded languages are much more flexible, since almost any language can be built into a server. The aim of having fragments of server-side code embedded in a web page is to generate additional markup dynamically; the code itself disappears when the page is served, to be replaced by its output.
The above examples are particulalrly dedicated to this purpose. A large number of other languages, such as Candle
, Erlang, Scala, PERL
, Python
and Ruby
can be adapted (for instance, by being made into Apache modules.
needs to be linked into the executable. Source code fragments for the embedded language can then be passed to an evaluation function as strings. Application control languages can be implemented this way, if the source code is input by the user. Languages with small interpreters are preferred.
is a programming language designed as a test of the boundaries of computer programming language design, as a proof of concept, or as a joke.
s are high-level languages built around database systems. They are generally used in commercial environments.
languages define programs and subroutines as mathematical functions. Many so-called functional languages are "impure", containing imperative features. Not surprisingly, many of these languages are tied to mathematical calculation tools. Functional languages include:
s are programming languages in which programs may be executed from source code form, by an interpreter. Theoretically, any language can be compiled or interpreted, so the term *interpreted language* generally refers to languages that are commonly interpreted rather than compiled.
s.
that are based upon the list data structure.
languages specify a set of attributes that a solution must have, rather than a set of steps to obtain a solution. Examples:
s are directly executable by a computer's CPU. They are typically formulated as bit patterns, usually represented in octal
or hexadecimal
. Each group of npatterns (often 1 or more bytes) causes the circuits in the CPU to execute one of the fundamental operations of the hardware. The activation of specific electrical inputs (e.g., CPU package pins for microprocessors), and logical settings for CPU state values, control the processor's computation. Individual machine languages are processor specific and are not portable. They are (essentially) always defined by the CPU developer, not by 3rd parties. The symbolic version, the processor's assembly language
, is also defined by the developer, in most cases. Since processors come in families based on a shared architecture, the same basic assembly language style can often be used for more than one CPU. Each of the following CPUs served as the basis for a family of processors:
Macro languages may be restricted to acting on specially labeled code regions (pre-fixed with a
a macro embedded in a string literal
, so they still need a rudimentary awareness
of syntax. That being the case, they are often still applicable to more than one language. Contrast with source-embeddable languages like PHP
, which are fully featured.
s such as Tcl
and ECMAScript
(ActionScript
, ECMAScript for XML, JavaScript
, JScript
) have been embedded into applications. These are sometimes called "macro languages", although in a somewhat different sense to textual-substitution macros like m4
.
is writing of programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data or that do part of the work that is otherwise done at run time during compile time
. In many cases, this allows programmers to get more done in the same amount of time as they would take to write all the code manually.
s support more than one programming paradigm
. They allow a program
to use more than one programming
style. The goal is to allow programmers to use the best tool for a job, admitting that no one paradigm solves all problems in the easiest or most efficient way.
s support objects defined by their class. Class definitions include member data. Message passing
is a key concept (if not the key concept) in Object-oriented languages.
Polymorphic functions parameterized by the class of some of their arguments are typically called methods. In languages with single dispatch
, classes typically also include method definitions. In languages with multiple dispatch
, methods are defined by generic function
s. There are exceptions where single dispatch
methods are generic function
s (e.g. Bigloo
's object system).
Multiple dispatch
are object-oriented languages where the distinction between classes and instances has been removed:
languages are those where blocks are formed, indicated, by their indentation
.
languages are based on the concept of the unit and scope (the data viewing range of an executable code statement). A procedural program is composed of one or more units or modules, either user coded or provided in a code library; each module is composed of one or more procedures, also called a function, routine, subroutine, or method, depending on the language. Examples of procedural languages include:
let programs examine and possibly modify their high level structure at runtime. This is most common in high-level virtual machine programming languages like Smalltalk
, and less common in lower-level programming languages like C
. Languages and platforms supporting reflection:
" has two apparently different, but in fact similar meanings. In a traditional sense, scripting languages are designed to automate frequently used tasks that usually involve calling or passing commands to external programs. Many complex application programs provide built-in languages that let users automate tasks. Those that are interpretive
are often called scripting languages.
Recently, many applications have built-in traditional scripting languages, such as Perl
or Visual Basic
, but there are quite a few "native" scripting languages still in use. Many scripting languages are compiled to bytecode and then this (usually) platform independent bytecode is run through a virtual machine (compare to Java
).
that are based upon the stack
data structure.
s are optimized for programming reactive systems, systems that are often interrupted and must respond quickly. Many such systems are also called realtime systems
, and are found often in embedded uses
. Examples:
and parsers
for Context-free grammar
s.
s let users specify programs in a two-(or more)-dimensional way, instead of as one-dimensional text strings, via graphic layouts of various types.
Some dataflow programming languages are also visual languages.
designed and implemented several influential languages.
. Although the big-boy equivalents of Oracle/PostgreSQL/MSSQL don't yet exist for XML, there are languages to navigate through it and its more tree-oriented structure.
Programming language
A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine and/or to express algorithms precisely....
s grouped by category. Some languages are listed in multiple categories.
Array languages
Array programmingArray programming
In computer science, array programming languages generalize operations on scalars to apply transparently to vectors, matrices, and higher dimensional arrays....
(also known as vector or multidimensional languages) generalize operations on scalars to apply transparently to vectors, matrices, and higher dimensional arrays.
- APL
- Chapel
- X10X10 (programming language)X10 is a programming language being developed by IBM at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center as part of the Productive, Easy-to-use, Reliable Computing System project funded by DARPA's High Productivity Computing Systems program...
- ZPL
Aspect-oriented languages
- AspectC++AspectC++AspectC++ is an aspect-oriented extension of C and C++ languages. It is based on source-to-source translation, translating AspectC++ source code to C++...
- AspectJAspectJAspectJ is an aspect-oriented extension created at PARC for the Java programming language. It is available in Eclipse Foundation open-source projects, both stand-alone and integrated into Eclipse. AspectJ has become the widely-used de-facto standard for AOP by emphasizing simplicity and usability...
- AspectLua (a Lua extension)
- CaesarJ
- Compose*
- ObjectTeams
- EE (programming language)E is an object-oriented programming language for secure distributed computing, created by Mark S. Miller, Dan Bornstein, and others at Electric Communities in 1997. E is mainly descended from the concurrent language Joule and from Original-E, a set of extensions to Java for secure distributed...
Assembly languages
Assembly languageAssembly language
An assembly language is a low-level programming language for computers, microprocessors, microcontrollers, and other programmable devices. It implements a symbolic representation of the machine codes and other constants needed to program a given CPU architecture...
s directly correspond to a machine language (see below) so machine code instructions appear in a form understandable by humans. Assembly languages lets programmers use symbolic addresses, which the assembler converts to absolute addresses. Most assemblers also support macros and symbolic constants.
- ASEM-51
- AKIAki-Places in Japan:*Aki District, Hiroshima, a district in Hiroshima Prefecture*Aki, Kōchi, a city in Kochi Prefecture*Aki District, Kōchi, a district in Kochi Prefecture*Aki, Ōita, a town in Ōita Prefecture...
(AvtoKod "Inzhener", "Engineer's Autocode" for Minsk family of computersMinsk family of computersMinsk family of mainframe computers was developed and produced in the Byelorussian SSR from 1959 to 1975. Its further progress was stopped by a political decision of switching to IBM System/360 clone family known as ES EVM during the brief period of détente....
) - ASCENT (ASsembler for CENTral Processor Unit of Control Data CorporationControl Data CorporationControl Data Corporation was a supercomputer firm. For most of the 1960s, it built the fastest computers in the world by far, only losing that crown in the 1970s after Seymour Cray left the company to found Cray Research, Inc....
computer systems pre-COMPASSCOMPASSCOMPASS is an acronym for COMPrehensive ASSembler. COMPASS is any of a family of macro assembly languages on Control Data Corporation's 3000 series, and on the 60-bit CDC 6000 series, 7600 and Cyber 70 and 170 series mainframe computers...
) - ASPERAsper- People :* Aemilius Asper, Latin grammarian* David Asper, Vice-president of CanWest Global Communications Corp.* Gail Asper, President of the CanWest Global Foundation and managing director and secretary of The Asper Foundation...
(ASsembler for PERipheral Processor Units of Control Data CorporationControl Data CorporationControl Data Corporation was a supercomputer firm. For most of the 1960s, it built the fastest computers in the world by far, only losing that crown in the 1970s after Seymour Cray left the company to found Cray Research, Inc....
computer systems pre-COMPASSCOMPASSCOMPASS is an acronym for COMPrehensive ASSembler. COMPASS is any of a family of macro assembly languages on Control Data Corporation's 3000 series, and on the 60-bit CDC 6000 series, 7600 and Cyber 70 and 170 series mainframe computers...
) - AUTOCODERAutocoderAutocoder was the name given to certain assemblers for a number of IBM computers of the 1950s and 1960s.The first Autocoders appear to have been the earliest assemblers to provide a macro facility....
(for IBM 1401 and 1440 mainframe systems) - BAL (Basic AssembLer) - for IBM System/360 and later mainframe systems
- C--C--C-- is a C-like programming language. Its creators, functional programming researchers Simon Peyton Jones and Norman Ramsey, designed it to be generated mainly by compilers for very high-level languages rather than written by human programmers...
(name used by a few languages that bring C language closer to Assembly) - COMPASSCOMPASSCOMPASS is an acronym for COMPrehensive ASSembler. COMPASS is any of a family of macro assembly languages on Control Data Corporation's 3000 series, and on the 60-bit CDC 6000 series, 7600 and Cyber 70 and 170 series mainframe computers...
(COMPrehensive ASSembler) - Emu8086 http://www.emu8086.com/ (x86 assemblerX86 assembly languagex86 assembly language is a family of backward-compatible assembly languages, which provide some level of compatibility all the way back to the Intel 8008. x86 assembly languages are used to produce object code for the x86 class of processors, which includes Intel's Core series and AMD's Phenom and...
and IntelIntel CorporationIntel Corporation is an American multinational semiconductor chip maker corporation headquartered in Santa Clara, California, United States and the world's largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. It is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most...
's 8086 microprocessor emulator) - EDTASM (MicrosoftMicrosoftMicrosoft Corporation is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions...
editor/assembler for Motorola 6809Motorola 6809The Motorola 6809 is an 8-bit microprocessor CPU from Motorola, designed by Terry Ritter and Joel Boney and introduced 1978...
on the Color ComputerTRS-80 Color ComputerThe Radio Shack TRS-80 Color Computer was a home computer launched in 1980. It was one of the earliest of the first generation of computers marketed for home use in English-speaking markets...
) - FAPIBM 700/7000 seriesThe IBM 700/7000 series was a series of large-scale computer systems made by IBM through the 1950s and early 1960s. The series included several different, incompatible processor architectures. The 700s used vacuum tube logic and were made obsolete by the introduction of the transistorized 7000s...
(FortranFortranFortran is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing...
Assembly Program, for IBM 709, 7090, 7094 mainframes) - FASMFASMFASM in computing is an assembler. It supports programming in Intel-style assembly language on the IA-32 and x86-64 computer architectures. It claims high speed, size optimizations, operating system portability, and macro abilities. It is a low-level assembler and intentionally uses very few...
(Flat Assembler; IA-32IA-32IA-32 , also known as x86-32, i386 or x86, is the CISC instruction-set architecture of Intel's most commercially successful microprocessors, and was first implemented in the Intel 80386 as a 32-bit extension of x86 architecture...
, IA-64ItaniumItanium is a family of 64-bit Intel microprocessors that implement the Intel Itanium architecture . Intel markets the processors for enterprise servers and high-performance computing systems...
) - GASGNU AssemblerThe GNU Assembler, commonly known as GAS , is the assembler used by the GNU Project. It is the default back-end of GCC. It is used to assemble the GNU operating system and the Linux kernel, and various other software. It is a part of the GNU Binutils package.GAS' executable is named after as, a...
(GNU Assembler) - HLAHigh Level AssemblyHigh Level Assembler is an assembly language developed by Randall Hyde. It allows the use of higher-level language constructs to aid both beginners and advanced assembly developers. It fully supports advanced data types and object-oriented assembly language programming...
(High Level Assembly) - HLASMHigh-level assemblerHigh-level assemblers in computing are assemblers for assembly language that incorporate features found in high-level programming languages.Some high-level assemblers are Borland's TASM, Microsoft's MASM, IBM's HLASM , Alessandro Ghignola's Linoleum, and Niklaus Wirth's PL/360.High-level assemblers...
(High Level Assembler, for mainframesMainframe computerMainframes are powerful computers used primarily by corporate and governmental organizations for critical applications, bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing.The term originally referred to the...
) - LC-3LC-3Little Computer 3, or LC-3, is a type of computer educational programming language, an assembly language, which is a type of low-level programming language. It features a relatively simple instruction set, but can be used to write moderately complex assembly programs, and is a theoretically viable...
- LinoleumLinoleum (programming language)The L.in.oleum is an unstructured, untyped, procedural programming language and a cross-platform assembler developed by Italian programmer Alessandro Ghignola beginning in 2001. The initials stand for Low-level INterfaced OverLanguage for Extremely Universal Machine-coding...
(for cross-platform use) - MACRO-11MACRO-11MACRO-11 is an assembly language with macro facilities for PDP-11 minicomputers from Digital Equipment Corporation . It is the successor to PAL-11 , an earlier version of the PDP-11 assembly language without macro facilities....
(for DECDigital Equipment CorporationDigital Equipment Corporation was a major American company in the computer industry and a leading vendor of computer systems, software and peripherals from the 1960s to the 1990s...
PDP-11PDP-11The PDP-11 was a series of 16-bit minicomputers sold by Digital Equipment Corporation from 1970 into the 1990s, one of a succession of products in the PDP series. The PDP-11 replaced the PDP-8 in many real-time applications, although both product lines lived in parallel for more than 10 years...
) - MACRO-20 (for DEC DECSYSTEM-20DECSYSTEM-20The DECSYSTEM-20 was a 36-bit Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-10 mainframe computer running the TOPS-20 operating system.PDP-10 computers running the TOPS-10 operating system were labeled DECsystem-10 as a way of differentiating them from the PDP-11...
) - MACRO-32 (for DEC VAXVAXVAX was an instruction set architecture developed by Digital Equipment Corporation in the mid-1970s. A 32-bit complex instruction set computer ISA, it was designed to extend or replace DEC's various Programmed Data Processor ISAs...
) - MASMMicrosoft Macro AssemblerThe Microsoft Macro Assembler is an x86 assembler that uses the Intel syntax for Microsoft Windows. there was a version of the Microsoft Macro Assembler for 16-bit and 32-bit assembly sources, MASM, and a different one, ML64, for 64-bit sources only...
(MicrosoftMicrosoftMicrosoft Corporation is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions...
Macro Assembler) - MI (Machine Interface, compile-time intermediate languageIntermediate languageIn computer science, an intermediate language is the language of an abstract machine designed to aid in the analysis of computer programs. The term comes from their use in compilers, where a compiler first translates the source code of a program into a form more suitable for code-improving...
) - MIPS (for MIPS architectureMIPS architectureMIPS is a reduced instruction set computer instruction set architecture developed by MIPS Technologies . The early MIPS architectures were 32-bit, and later versions were 64-bit...
) Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages - Motorola 68k Assembly (for Motorola 68000 family) of CPUs
- NASM (Netwide Assembler)
- NEAT (National's Electronic Autocoder Technique), for NCRNCR CorporationNCR Corporation is an American technology company specializing in kiosk products for the retail, financial, travel, healthcare, food service, entertainment, gaming and public sector industries. Its main products are self-service kiosks, point-of-sale terminals, automated teller machines, check...
computers, evolved into NEAT/3 - PAL-IIIPDP-8The 12-bit PDP-8 was the first successful commercial minicomputer, produced by Digital Equipment Corporation in the 1960s. DEC introduced it on 22 March 1965, and sold more than 50,000 systems, the most of any computer up to that date. It was the first widely sold computer in the DEC PDP series of...
(for DEC PDP-8PDP-8The 12-bit PDP-8 was the first successful commercial minicomputer, produced by Digital Equipment Corporation in the 1960s. DEC introduced it on 22 March 1965, and sold more than 50,000 systems, the most of any computer up to that date. It was the first widely sold computer in the DEC PDP series of...
) - PASMParrot assembly languageThe Parrot assembly language is the basic assembly language used by the Parrot virtual machine.PASM is the lowest level assembly language in the Parrot stack...
(for Parrot virtual machineParrot virtual machineParrot is a register-based process virtual machine designed to run dynamic languages efficiently. It uses just-in-time compilation for speed to reduce the interpretation overhead. It is currently possible to compile Parrot assembly language and PIR to Parrot bytecode and execute it...
) - RosAsm (32-bit Assembler; The Bottom Up Assembler)
- SC123 (for educational computer developed at CSU)
- Sphinx C--C--C-- is a C-like programming language. Its creators, functional programming researchers Simon Peyton Jones and Norman Ramsey, designed it to be generated mainly by compilers for very high-level languages rather than written by human programmers...
(mixes Assembly commands with C-like structures) - SSK (Sistema Simvolicheskogo Kodirovaniya, or "System of symbolic coding") for Minsk family of computersMinsk family of computersMinsk family of mainframe computers was developed and produced in the Byelorussian SSR from 1959 to 1975. Its further progress was stopped by a political decision of switching to IBM System/360 clone family known as ES EVM during the brief period of détente....
- TASMTurbo AssemblerTurbo Assembler is an assembler package developed by Borland which runs on and produces code for 16- or 32-bit x86 MS-DOS or Microsoft Windows. It can be used with Borland's high-level language compilers, such as Turbo Pascal, Turbo Basic and Turbo C. The Turbo Assembler package is bundled with...
(Turbo Assembler, BorlandBorlandBorland Software Corporation is a software company first headquartered in Scotts Valley, California, Cupertino, California and finally Austin, Texas. It is now a Micro Focus subsidiary. It was founded in 1983 by Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, Mogens Glad and Philippe Kahn.-The 1980s:...
) - YasmYasmYasm in computing is an assembler, intended as a full rewrite of the Netwide Assembler . Yasm can generally be used interchangeably with NASM and supports the x86 and x86-64 architectures. It is licensed under a revision of the BSD licenses...
(Rewrite of NASM) - Z80A Mnemonic language used to represent instructions for the Z80A microprocessor
Authoring languages
- BigwigBigwig (programming language)Bigwig is a domain-specific language designed to build web applications. It is implemented as an Apache module and runs under the Linux and Sun Solaris operating systems. No version is available for Microsoft Windows...
(web design language) - Coursewriter
- PILOTPILOTProgrammed Instruction, Learning, Or Teaching is a simle historic programming language developed in the 1960s.Like its younger sibling LOGO programming language, it was an early foray into the technology of computer assisted instruction ....
- TUTOR
Command line interface languages
Command-line interfaceCommand-line interface
A command-line interface is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks...
(CLI) languages are also called batch languages, or job control languages. Examples:
- 4DOS4DOS4DOS is a command line interpreter by JP Software, designed to replace the default command interpreter COMMAND.COM in DOS and Windows 95/98/Me. The 4DOS family of programs are meant to replace the default command processor. 4OS2 and 4NT replace CMD.EXE in OS/2 and Windows NT respectively...
(extended command-line shell for IBM PCs) - .batBatch fileIn DOS, OS/2, and Microsoft Windows, batch file is the name given to a type of script file, a text file containing a series of commands to be executed by the command interpreter....
(Windows batch file language as understood by COMMAND.COMCOMMAND.COMCOMMAND.COM is the filename of the default operating system shell for DOS operating systems and the default command line interpreter on Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me...
and Command PromptCommand PromptCommand Prompt is the Microsoft-supplied command-line interpreter on OS/2, Windows CE and on Windows NT-based operating systems...
) - Windows PowerShellWindows PowerShellWindows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
(MicrosoftMicrosoftMicrosoft Corporation is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions...
.NET.NET FrameworkThe .NET Framework is a software framework that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a large library and supports several programming languages which allows language interoperability...
-based CLI) - CHAINCHAIN (programming language)CHAIN was Datapoint's batch programming language, used in the late 1980s....
(DatapointDatapointDatapoint Corporation, originally known as Computer Terminal Corporation , was a computer company based in San Antonio, Texas, United States. Founded in 1967 by Phil Ray and Gus Roche, its first products were, as the company's initial name suggests, computer terminals...
) - CLISTCLISTCLIST is a procedural programming language for TSO in MVS systems. It originated in OS/360 Release 20 and has assumed a secondary role since the availability of Rexx in TSO/E Version 2....
(MVSMVSMultiple Virtual Storage, more commonly called MVS, was the most commonly used operating system on the System/370 and System/390 IBM mainframe computers...
Command List) - DCLDIGITAL Command LanguageDCL, the DIGITAL Command Language, is the standard command languageadopted by most of the operating systems that were sold by the former Digital Equipment Corporation...
DIGITAL Command Language - standard CLI language for VMSOpenVMSOpenVMS , previously known as VAX-11/VMS, VAX/VMS or VMS, is a computer server operating system that runs on VAX, Alpha and Itanium-based families of computers. Contrary to what its name suggests, OpenVMS is not open source software; however, the source listings are available for purchase...
(DECDigital Equipment CorporationDigital Equipment Corporation was a major American company in the computer industry and a leading vendor of computer systems, software and peripherals from the 1960s to the 1990s...
, CompaqCompaqCompaq Computer Corporation is a personal computer company founded in 1982. Once the largest supplier of personal computing systems in the world, Compaq existed as an independent corporation until 2002, when it was acquired for US$25 billion by Hewlett-Packard....
, HPHewlett-PackardHewlett-Packard Company or HP is an American multinational information technology corporation headquartered in Palo Alto, California, USA that provides products, technologies, softwares, solutions and services to consumers, small- and medium-sized businesses and large enterprises, including...
) - DOS batch languageBatch fileIn DOS, OS/2, and Microsoft Windows, batch file is the name given to a type of script file, a text file containing a series of commands to be executed by the command interpreter....
(standard CLI/batch language for the IBM PC running DR-DOSDR-DOSDR-DOS is an MS-DOS-compatible operating system for IBM PC-compatible personal computers, originally developed by Gary Kildall's Digital Research and derived from Concurrent PC DOS 6.0, which was an advanced successor of CP/M-86...
, MS-DOSMS-DOSMS-DOS is an operating system for x86-based personal computers. It was the most commonly used member of the DOS family of operating systems, and was the main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal computers during the 1980s to the mid 1990s, until it was gradually superseded by operating...
, or PC-DOS before WindowsMicrosoft WindowsMicrosoft Windows is a series of operating systems produced by Microsoft.Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces . Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal...
)- EA_QB_Command
- CMS EXECCMS EXECCMS EXEC, or EXEC, is an interpreted, command procedure control, computer programming language used by the CMS EXEC Processor supplied with the IBM Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System operating system....
- EXEC 2EXEC 2EXEC 2 is an interpreted, command procedure control, computer programming language used by the EXEC 2 Processor supplied with the IBM Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System operating system....
- JCLJob Control LanguageJob Control Language is a scripting language used on IBM mainframe operating systems to instruct the system on how to run a batch job or start a subsystem....
(punch cardPunched cardA punched card, punch card, IBM card, or Hollerith card is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions...
-oriented batch control language for IBM System/360 family mainframes) - shBourne shellThe Bourne shell, or sh, was the default Unix shell of Unix Version 7 and most Unix-like systems continue to have /bin/sh - which will be the Bourne shell, or a symbolic link or hard link to a compatible shell - even when more modern shells are used by most users.Developed by Stephen Bourne at AT&T...
(the standard UNIXUnixUnix is a multitasking, multi-user computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna...
shell, written by Stephen R. BourneStephen R. BourneSteve Bourne is a computer scientist, originally from the United Kingdom and based in the US for most of his career. He is most famous as the author of the Bourne shell , which is the foundation for the standard command line interfaces to Unix....
) - cshC shellThe C shell is a Unix shell that was created by Bill Joy while a graduate student at University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s. It has been distributed widely, beginning with the 2BSD release of the BSD Unix system that Joy began distributing in 1978...
(C-like shell from Bill JoyBill JoyWilliam Nelson Joy , commonly known as Bill Joy, is an American computer scientist. Joy co-founded Sun Microsystems in 1982 along with Vinod Khosla, Scott McNealy and Andy Bechtolsheim, and served as chief scientist at the company until 2003...
at UC Berkeley) - Ch (C-compatible shell)
- tcshTcshtcsh is a Unix shell based on and compatible with the C shell . It is essentially the C shell with programmable command line completion, command-line editing, and a few other features.-History:...
(a UNIXUnixUnix is a multitasking, multi-user computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna...
shell) - bash (the Bourne-Again shell from GNUGNUGNU is a Unix-like computer operating system developed by the GNU project, ultimately aiming to be a "complete Unix-compatible software system"...
/FSFFree Software FoundationThe Free Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation founded by Richard Stallman on 4 October 1985 to support the free software movement, a copyleft-based movement which aims to promote the universal freedom to create, distribute and modify computer software...
) - kshKorn shellThe Korn shell is a Unix shell which was developed by David Korn in the early 1980s and announced at USENIX on July 14, 1983. Other early contributors were AT&T Bell Labs developers Mike Veach, who wrote the emacs code, and Pat Sullivan, who wrote the vi code...
(a standard UNIXUnixUnix is a multitasking, multi-user computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna...
shell, written by David Korn) - zshZ shellThe Z shell is a Unix shell that can be used as an interactive login shell and as a powerful command interpreter for shell scripting...
(a UNIXUnixUnix is a multitasking, multi-user computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna...
shell) - ExpectExpectExpect is a Unix automation and testing tool, written by Don Libes as an extension to the Tcl scripting language, for interactive applications such as telnet, ftp, passwd, fsck, rlogin, tip, ssh, and others. It uses Unix pseudo terminals to wrap up subprocesses transparently, allowing the...
(a UNIXUnixUnix is a multitasking, multi-user computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna...
automation and test tool) - RcRcrc is the command line interpreter for Version 10 Unix and Plan 9 from Bell Labs operating systems. It resembles the Bourne shell, but its syntax is somewhat simpler. It was created by Tom Duff, who is better known for an unusual C programming language construct called Duff's device.A port of the...
(command-line shell for Plan 9Plan 9 from Bell LabsPlan 9 from Bell Labs is a distributed operating system. It was developed primarily for research purposes as the successor to Unix by the Computing Sciences Research Center at Bell Labs between the mid-1980s and 2002...
) - Es shellEs shellThe es shell is a command line interpreter developed by Byron Rakitzis and Paul Haahr, that uses a scripting language similar to the rc shell of the Plan 9 operating system. It is intended to provide a fully functional programming language as a Unix shell. The bulk of es' development occurred in...
(shell based on Rc) - REXXREXXREXX is an interpreted programming language that was developed at IBM. It is a structured high-level programming language that was designed to be both easy to learn and easy to read...
- Shadow Command Line Interface
- SpiritShadow Command Line Interface (2009)
- Tandem Advanced Command Language (TACLTACLTACL is the scripting programming language used in Tandem Computers. TACL is the shell.Tandem Computers were originally designed and sold by Tandem Computers, Inc., based in Cupertino, CA. These were the first commercially available parallel processing computers, originally referred to as...
)
Compiled languages
These are languages typically processed by compilerCompiler
A compiler is a computer program that transforms source code written in a programming language into another computer language...
s, though theoretically any language can be compiled or interpreted. See also compiled language
Compiled language
A compiled language is a programming language whose implementations are typically compilers , and not interpreters ....
.
- AdaAda (programming language)Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages...
(multi-purpose language) - ALGOLALGOLALGOL is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in the mid 1950s which greatly influenced many other languages and became the de facto way algorithms were described in textbooks and academic works for almost the next 30 years...
(extremely influential language design. The second high level language compiler.)- SMALL Machine Algol Like LanguageSMALLSMALL, Small Machine Algol Like Language, is a programming language developed by Dr. Nevil Brownlee of Auckland University.-History:The aim of the language was to enable people to write ALGOL-like code that ran on a small machine...
- SMALL Machine Algol Like Language
- Ateji PXAteji PXAteji PX is an object-oriented programming language extension for Java. It is intended to facilliate parallel computing on multi-core processors, GPU, Grid and Cloud....
, an extension of the Java language for parallelism - BASICBASICBASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use - the name is an acronym from Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code....
(some dialects, including the first version of Dartmouth BASIC) - BCPLBCPLBCPL is a procedural, imperative, and structured computer programming language designed by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1966.- Design :...
- CC (programming language)C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system....
(one of the most widely used procedural programming languages) - C++C++C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
- CLIPPER 5.3 (Programming Language for dos base software)
- C# (compiled into Intermediate LanguageIntermediate languageIn computer science, an intermediate language is the language of an abstract machine designed to aid in the analysis of computer programs. The term comes from their use in compilers, where a compiler first translates the source code of a program into a form more suitable for code-improving...
, which generates a native image at runtime) - CLEO (Clear Language for Expressing Orders) used the compiler for the British Leo computers
- CLush (Lush)
- COBOLCOBOLCOBOL is one of the oldest programming languages. Its name is an acronym for COmmon Business-Oriented Language, defining its primary domain in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments....
- CobraCobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)Cobra is an object-oriented programming language produced by Cobra Language LLC. Cobra is designed by Chuck Esterbrook, and runs on the Microsoft .NET and Mono platforms. It is strongly influenced by Python, C#, Eiffel, Objective-C, and other programming languages. It supports both static and...
- Common LispCommon LispCommon Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
- Corn
- Curl
- DD (programming language)The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
(Attempts a "C++ done right" philosophy) - DASLDASL - Distributed Application Specification LanguageThe DASL Programming Language is a high-level, strongly typed programming language originally developed at Sun Microsystems Laboratories between 1999 and 2003 as part of the...
compiles into Java, JavaScript, JSP, Flex, etc., which are further compiled into a .war file - DelphiObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
(BorlandBorlandBorland Software Corporation is a software company first headquartered in Scotts Valley, California, Cupertino, California and finally Austin, Texas. It is now a Micro Focus subsidiary. It was founded in 1983 by Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, Mogens Glad and Philippe Kahn.-The 1980s:...
's Object Pascal development system) - DIBOLDIBOLDiBOL or Digital's Business Oriented Language is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative programming language, which is well-suited for Management Information Systems software development. It has a syntax similar to FORTRAN and BASIC, along with BCD arithmetic...
(Digital Interactive Business Oriented Language) - Dylan
- dylan.NET
- eC (Ecere C)
- EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
(object-oriented language developed by Bertrand MeyerBertrand MeyerBertrand Meyer is an academic, author, and consultant in the field of computer languages. He created the Eiffel programming language.-Education and academic career:...
)- SatherSatherSather is an object-oriented programming language. It originated circa 1990 at the International Computer Science Institute at the University of California, Berkeley, developed by an international team led by Steve Omohundro...
- UbercodeUbercodeUbercode is a high level programming language designed by and released in 2005 for Microsoft Windows. Ubercode is influenced by the Eiffel and BASIC...
- Sather
- eLisp Emacs Lisp
- FactorFactor (programming language)Factor is a stack-oriented programming language created by Slava Pestov. Factor is dynamically typed and has automatic memory management, as well as powerful metaprogramming features. The language has a single implementation featuring a self-hosted optimizing compiler and an interactive development...
- FancyFancy (programming language)Fancy is a pure object-oriented programming language that is heavily influenced by Smalltalk and Ruby. The language is currently under development as an open source project by Christopher Bertels.- Development :...
- Forth (professional systems, like VFX and SwiftForth)
- FortranFortranFortran is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing...
(the first high-level, compiled language, from IBMIBMInternational Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas...
, John BackusJohn BackusJohn Warner Backus was an American computer scientist. He directed the team that invented the first widely used high-level programming language and was the inventor of the Backus-Naur form , the almost universally used notation to define formal language syntax.He also did research in...
, et al.) - GoGo (programming language)Go is a compiled, garbage-collected, concurrent programming language developed by Google Inc.The initial design of Go was started in September 2007 by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson. Go was officially announced in November 2009. In May 2010, Rob Pike publicly stated that Go was being...
- HaskellHaskell (programming language)Haskell is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry. In Haskell, "a function is a first-class citizen" of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the...
- Harbour
- JavaJava (programming language)Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
(usually compiled into JVMJava Virtual MachineA Java virtual machine is a virtual machine capable of executing Java bytecode. It is the code execution component of the Java software platform. Sun Microsystems stated that there are over 4.5 billion JVM-enabled devices.-Overview:...
bytecodeBytecodeBytecode, also known as p-code , is a term which has been used to denote various forms of instruction sets designed for efficient execution by a software interpreter as well as being suitable for further compilation into machine code...
although true native-code compiled versions exist) - JOVIALJOVIALJOVIAL is a high-order computer programming language similar to ALGOL, but specialized for the development of embedded systems .JOVIAL is an acronym for "Jules Own Version of the International...
- LabVIEWLabVIEWLabVIEW is a system design platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. LabVIEW provides engineers and scientists with the tools needed to create and deploy measurement and control systems.The graphical language is named "G"...
- Nemerle (compiled into Intermediate Language bytecode)
- Objective-CObjective-CObjective-C is a reflective, object-oriented programming language that adds Smalltalk-style messaging to the C programming language.Today, it is used primarily on Apple's Mac OS X and iOS: two environments derived from the OpenStep standard, though not compliant with it...
- PascalPascal (programming language)Pascal is an influential imperative and procedural programming language, designed in 1968/9 and published in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth as a small and efficient language intended to encourage good programming practices using structured programming and data structuring.A derivative known as Object Pascal...
(most implementations) - PlusPlus (programming language)Plus is a "Pascal-like" system implementation language from the University of British Columbia , Canada, based on the SUE system language developed at the University of Toronto, circa 1971.- Description :...
- ppC++
- RPG (Report Program Generator)
- Scheme (some implementations, e.g. Gambit)
- SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
generally compiled to platform independent bytecodeBytecodeBytecode, also known as p-code , is a term which has been used to denote various forms of instruction sets designed for efficient execution by a software interpreter as well as being suitable for further compilation into machine code...
that runs on a Virtual Machine. - ML
- Standard MLStandard MLStandard ML is a general-purpose, modular, functional programming language with compile-time type checking and type inference. It is popular among compiler writers and programming language researchers, as well as in the development of theorem provers.SML is a modern descendant of the ML...
- AliceAlice (programming language)Alice ML is a functional programming language designed by the at Saarland University. It is a dialect of Standard ML, augmented with support for lazy evaluation, concurrency and constraint programming.-Overview:Alice extends Standard ML in a number of ways that distinguish it from its predecessor...
- Alice
- OCamlObjective CamlOCaml , originally known as Objective Caml, is the main implementation of the Caml programming language, created by Xavier Leroy, Jérôme Vouillon, Damien Doligez, Didier Rémy and others in 1996...
- Standard ML
- Turing
- Urq
- Visual BasicVisual BasicVisual Basic is the third-generation event-driven programming language and integrated development environment from Microsoft for its COM programming model...
(earlier versions compiled directly to a native runtime. Recent .NET versions compile into Intermediate Language that is generated into a native image at runtime) - Visual FoxProVisual FoxProVisual FoxPro is a data-centric object-oriented and procedural programming language produced by Microsoft. It is derived from FoxPro which was developed by Fox Software beginning in 1984. Fox Technologies merged with Microsoft in 1992, after which the software acquired further features and the...
- Visual PrologVisual PrologVisual Prolog, also formerly known as PDC Prolog and Turbo Prolog, is a strongly typed object-oriented extension of Prolog. As Turbo Prolog it was marketed by Borland, but it is now developed and marketed by the Danish firm Prolog Development Center that originally developed it...
- WinDevWinDevWinDev is an integrated development environment fourth generation language , first published by PC SOFT in 1993, which is based upon a run-time engine . It uses a 4GL known as WLanguage. The tools enables a predetermined set of standard forms and algorithms to be used in an automated fashion to...
- X++Microsoft Dynamics AXis one of Microsoft’s enterprise resource planning software products. It is part of the Microsoft Dynamics family.-History:Microsoft Dynamics AX was originally developed as a collaboration between IBM and Damgaard as IBM Axapta. IBM returned all rights in the product to Damgaard shortly after the...
- XL
- Z++Z++Z++ was an object-oriented extension to the Z specification language.Z++ is an object-oriented extension to the Z specification language, allowing for the definition of classes, and the relation of classes through inheritance, association or aggregation....
Concurrent languages
Message passingMessage passing
Message passing in computer science is a form of communication used in parallel computing, object-oriented programming, and interprocess communication. In this model, processes or objects can send and receive messages to other processes...
languages provide language constructs for concurrency
Concurrency (computer science)
In computer science, concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other...
. The predominant paradigm for concurrency in mainstream languages such as Java
Java (programming language)
Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
is shared memory
Shared memory
In computing, shared memory is memory that may be simultaneously accessed by multiple programs with an intent to provide communication among them or avoid redundant copies. Depending on context, programs may run on a single processor or on multiple separate processors...
concurrency based on monitors
Monitor (synchronization)
In concurrent programming, a monitor is an object or module intended to be used safely by more than one thread. The defining characteristic of a monitor is that its methods are executed with mutual exclusion. That is, at each point in time, at most one thread may be executing any of its methods...
. Concurrent languages that make use of message passing have generally been inspired by CSP
Communicating sequential processes
In computer science, Communicating Sequential Processes is a formal language for describing patterns of interaction in concurrent systems. It is a member of the family of mathematical theories of concurrency known as process algebras, or process calculi...
or the π-calculus
Pi-calculus
In theoretical computer science, the π-calculus is a process calculus originally developed by Robin Milner, and David Walker as a continuation of work on the process calculus CCS...
, but have had little commercial success, except for Ada and Erlang. Ada is a multipurpose language and concurrent programming is only one option available.
- AdaAda (programming language)Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages...
(multi-purpose language) - Afnix – concurrent access to data is protected automatically (previously called Aleph, but unrelated to Alef)
- AlefAlef (programming language)The Alef programming language was designed as part of the Plan 9 operating system by Phil Winterbottom of Bell Labs.In a February 2000 slideshow, Rob Pike noted: "…although Alef was a fruitful language, it proved too difficult to maintain a variant language across multiple architectures, so we took...
– concurrent language with threads and message passing, used for systems programming in early versions of Plan 9 from Bell LabsPlan 9 from Bell LabsPlan 9 from Bell Labs is a distributed operating system. It was developed primarily for research purposes as the successor to Unix by the Computing Sciences Research Center at Bell Labs between the mid-1980s and 2002... - Ateji PXAteji PXAteji PX is an object-oriented programming language extension for Java. It is intended to facilliate parallel computing on multi-core processors, GPU, Grid and Cloud....
an extension of the Java language for parallelism - ChucKChucKChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance, which runs on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and iPhone/iPad. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such...
– domain specific programming language for audio, precise control over concurrency and timing - CilkCilkCilk is a general-purpose programming language designed for multithreaded parallel computing. The commercial instantiation is Intel Cilk Plus.-Design:...
– a concurrent CC (programming language)C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.... - Cω – C Omega, a research language extending C#, uses asynchronous communication
- ClojureClojureClojure |closure]]") is a recent dialect of the Lisp programming language created by Rich Hickey. It is a general-purpose language supporting interactive development that encourages a functional programming style, and simplifies multithreaded programming....
– a dialect of Lisp for the Java Virtual MachineJava Virtual MachineA Java virtual machine is a virtual machine capable of executing Java bytecode. It is the code execution component of the Java software platform. Sun Microsystems stated that there are over 4.5 billion JVM-enabled devices.-Overview:... - ConcurrentLua – a Lua extension
- Chapel
- Co-array FortranCo-array FortranCo-array Fortran , formerly known as F--, is an extension of Fortran 95/2003 for parallel processing created by Robert Numrich and John Reid in 1990s...
- Concurrent PascalConcurrent PascalConcurrent Pascal was designed by Per Brinch Hansen for writing concurrent computing programs such asoperating systems and real-time monitoring systems on shared memorycomputers....
(by Brinch-Hansen) - Corn
- Curry
- EE (programming language)E is an object-oriented programming language for secure distributed computing, created by Mark S. Miller, Dan Bornstein, and others at Electric Communities in 1997. E is mainly descended from the concurrent language Joule and from Original-E, a set of extensions to Java for secure distributed...
– uses promises, ensures deadlocks cannot occur - EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
(through the SCOOPSCOOP (software)SCOOP stands for Simple Concurrent Object Oriented Programming. It is a concurrency model designed for the Eiffel programming language, conceived by Eiffel's creator and designer, Bertrand Meyer....
mechanism, Simple Concurrent Object-Oriented Computation) - Erlang – uses asynchronous message passing with nothing shared
- GoGo (programming language)Go is a compiled, garbage-collected, concurrent programming language developed by Google Inc.The initial design of Go was started in September 2007 by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson. Go was officially announced in November 2009. In May 2010, Rob Pike publicly stated that Go was being...
- JavaJava (programming language)Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
- Join JavaJoin JavaJoin Java is a programming language that extends the standard Java programming language with the join semantics of the join-calculus. It was written at the University of South Australia within the Reconfigurable Computing Lab by Dr...
– concurrent language based on Java - X10X10 (programming language)X10 is a programming language being developed by IBM at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center as part of the Productive, Easy-to-use, Reliable Computing System project funded by DARPA's High Productivity Computing Systems program...
- Join Java
- Join-calculusJoin-calculusThe join-calculus is a process calculus developed at INRIA. The join-calculus was developed to provide a formal basis for the design of distributed programming languages, and therefore intentionally avoids communications constructs found in other process calculi, such as rendezvous communications,...
- JouleJoule (programming language)Joule is a concurrent dataflow programming language, designed for building distributed applications. It is so concurrent, that the order of statements within a block is irrelevant to the operation of the block. Statements are executed whenever possible, based on their inputs. Everything in Joule...
– dataflow language, communicates by message passing - Limbo – relative of AlefAlef (programming language)The Alef programming language was designed as part of the Plan 9 operating system by Phil Winterbottom of Bell Labs.In a February 2000 slideshow, Rob Pike noted: "…although Alef was a fruitful language, it proved too difficult to maintain a variant language across multiple architectures, so we took...
, used for systems programming in Inferno (operating system)Inferno (operating system)Inferno is a distributed operating system started at Bell Labs, but is now developed and maintained by Vita Nuova Holdings as free software. Inferno was based on the experience gained with Plan 9 from Bell Labs, and the further research of Bell Labs into operating systems, languages, on-the-fly... - MultiLispMultiLispMultiLisp is a functional programming language and dialect of the Lisp dialect Scheme, extended with constructs for parallel execution and shared memory; MultiLisp is implemented in Interlisp. These extensions involve side effects, rendering MultiLisp non-deterministic...
– Scheme variant extended to support parallelism - occamOccam (programming language)occam is a concurrent programming language that builds on the Communicating Sequential Processes process algebra, and shares many of its features. It is named after William of Ockham of Occam's Razor fame....
– influenced heavily by Communicating Sequential ProcessesCommunicating sequential processesIn computer science, Communicating Sequential Processes is a formal language for describing patterns of interaction in concurrent systems. It is a member of the family of mathematical theories of concurrency known as process algebras, or process calculi...
(CSP).- occam-π – a modern variant of occamOccam (programming language)occam is a concurrent programming language that builds on the Communicating Sequential Processes process algebra, and shares many of its features. It is named after William of Ockham of Occam's Razor fame....
, which incorporates ideas from Milner's π-calculusPi-calculusIn theoretical computer science, the π-calculus is a process calculus originally developed by Robin Milner, and David Walker as a continuation of work on the process calculus CCS...
- occam-π – a modern variant of occam
- OzOz (programming language)Oz is a multiparadigm programming language, developed in the Programming Systems Lab at Université catholique de Louvain, for programming language education. It has a canonical textbook: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming....
– multiparadigm language, supports shared-state and message-passing concurrency, and futures- Mozart Programming SystemMozart Programming SystemThe Mozart Programming System is a multiplatform implementation of the Oz programming language developed by an international group, the Mozart Consortium, which originally consisted of Saarland University, the Swedish Institute of Computer Science, and the Université catholique de Louvain.Mozart...
– multiplatformCross-platformIn computing, cross-platform, or multi-platform, is an attribute conferred to computer software or computing methods and concepts that are implemented and inter-operate on multiple computer platforms...
Oz
- Mozart Programming System
- Pict – essentially an executable implementation of Milner's π-calculusPi-calculusIn theoretical computer science, the π-calculus is a process calculus originally developed by Robin Milner, and David Walker as a continuation of work on the process calculus CCS...
- SALSA – actor language with token-passing, join, and first-class continuations for distributed computing over the Internet
- Scala – implements Erlang-style actorsActor modelIn computer science, the Actor model is a mathematical model of concurrent computation that treats "actors" as the universal primitives of concurrent digital computation: in response to a message that it receives, an actor can make local decisions, create more actors, send more messages, and...
on the JVM - SR – research language
- Unified Parallel CUnified Parallel CUnified Parallel C is an extension of the C programming language designed for high-performance computing on large-scale parallel machines, including those with a common global address space and those with distributed memory...
- XProcXProcXProc is a W3C Recommendation to define an XML transformation language to define XML Pipelines.Below is an example abbreviated XProc file: This is a pipeline that consists of two atomic steps, XInclude and Validate...
– XML Processing language, enabling concurrency.
Curly-bracket languages
The curly-bracket or curly-brace programming languages have a syntax that defines statement blocks using the curly bracket or brace characters{ and }. A lot of these languages descend from or are strongly influenced by C. Examples of curly-bracket languages include:
- ABCL/c+Actor-Based Concurrent LanguageActor-Based Concurrent Language is a family of programming languages, developed in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s.-ABCL/1:ABCL/1 is a prototype-based concurrent programming language for the ABCL MIMD system, created in 1986 by Akinori Yonezawa, of the Department of Information Science at the...
- AlefAlef (programming language)The Alef programming language was designed as part of the Plan 9 operating system by Phil Winterbottom of Bell Labs.In a February 2000 slideshow, Rob Pike noted: "…although Alef was a fruitful language, it proved too difficult to maintain a variant language across multiple architectures, so we took...
- Limbo
- AutoHotkeyAutoHotkeyAutoHotkey is a free, open source macro-creation and automation software utility which allows users to automate repetitive tasks. Any application user interface can be modified by AutoHotkey...
- AWK
- bcBc programming languagebc, for bench calculator, is "an arbitrary precision calculator language" with syntax similar to the C programming language. bc is typically used as either a mathematical scripting language or as an interactive mathematical shell....
- BCPLBCPLBCPL is a procedural, imperative, and structured computer programming language designed by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1966.- Design :...
- CC (programming language)C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system....
- developed circa 1970 at Bell LabsBell LabsBell Laboratories is the research and development subsidiary of the French-owned Alcatel-Lucent and previously of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company , half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary.Bell Laboratories operates its... - C++C++C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
- C#
- CandleCandle (programming language)Candle is a high-level general-purpose scripting language for both desktop and Internet applications. It unifies the core features of many XML related technologies like XQuery, XSLT, RELAX NG. Its first public beta release was on 12 Oct 2005...
- ChucKChucKChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance, which runs on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and iPhone/iPad. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such...
- audio programming language - CilkCilkCilk is a general-purpose programming language designed for multithreaded parallel computing. The commercial instantiation is Intel Cilk Plus.-Design:...
- concurrent C for multithreaded parallel programming - Coyote - safer C variant to lower the likelihood of some common errors, e.g., buffer overflows
- Cyclone - safer C variant
- DD (programming language)The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
- DASLDASL - Distributed Application Specification LanguageThe DASL Programming Language is a high-level, strongly typed programming language originally developed at Sun Microsystems Laboratories between 1999 and 2003 as part of the...
- based on Java - DINO
- eC (Ecere C)
- EE (programming language)E is an object-oriented programming language for secure distributed computing, created by Mark S. Miller, Dan Bornstein, and others at Electric Communities in 1997. E is mainly descended from the concurrent language Joule and from Original-E, a set of extensions to Java for secure distributed...
- ECMAScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
- ActionScriptActionScriptActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
- ECMAScript for XML
- JavaScriptJavaScriptJavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
- JScriptJScriptJScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
- MDMscript
- ActionScript
- FrinkFrinkFrink, named after the fictional mad scientist Professor John Frink from The Simpsons, is a calculating tool and programming language designed by Alan Eliasen. It is built on the Java Virtual Machine and incorporates features similar to Java, Perl, Ruby, Smalltalk, and various BASIC implementations...
- HaskellHaskell (programming language)Haskell is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry. In Haskell, "a function is a first-class citizen" of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the...
- ICI
- JavaJava (programming language)Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
- Groovy
- Join JavaJoin JavaJoin Java is a programming language that extends the standard Java programming language with the join semantics of the join-calculus. It was written at the University of South Australia within the Reconfigurable Computing Lab by Dr...
- Tea
- X10X10 (programming language)X10 is a programming language being developed by IBM at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center as part of the Productive, Easy-to-use, Reliable Computing System project funded by DARPA's High Productivity Computing Systems program...
- LPC
- Mythryl
- Nemerle - combines C# and ML features, provides syntax extension capabilities
- PCASTLPCASTLThe PCASTL is an interpreted high-level programming language. It was created in 2008 by Philippe Choquette. The PCASTL is designed to ease the writing of self-modifying code...
- PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
- PHPPHPPHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
- Pico
- Pike
- Poses++ (language of the simulation system with the same name)
- ppC++
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- S-Lang
- Scala
- sedSedsed is a Unix utility that parses text and implements a programming language which can apply transformations to such text. It reads input line by line , applying the operation which has been specified via the command line , and then outputs the line. It was developed from 1973 to 1974 as a Unix...
- SuneidoSuneido programming languageSuneido is an interpreted, interactive programming language for Microsoft Windows first released in 2000. It is fully dynamically typed and uses automatic memory management; it is thus similar to Python, Tcl, Perl, Scheme, and Ruby. Suneido is developed as an open source project...
- SuperColliderSupercolliderA Supercollider is a high energy particle accelerator. The term may refer to:* Superconducting Super Collider, planned 80 km project in Texas, canceled in 1993...
- TorqueScript
- UnrealScriptUnrealScriptUnrealScript is the scripting language of the Unreal Engine and is used for authoring game code and gameplay events....
- Windows PowerShellWindows PowerShellWindows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
(MicrosoftMicrosoftMicrosoft Corporation is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions...
.NET.NET FrameworkThe .NET Framework is a software framework that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a large library and supports several programming languages which allows language interoperability...
-based CLI) - Yorick
Dataflow languages
Dataflow programming languages rely on a (usually visual) representation of the flow of data to specify the program. Frequently used for reacting to discrete events or for processing streams of data. Examples of dataflow languages include:- Hartmann pipelineHartmann pipelineA Hartmann pipeline is an extension of the Unix pipeline concept, providing for more complex paths, multiple input/output streams, and other features. It is an example and extension of Pipeline programming....
s - G (used in LabVIEWLabVIEWLabVIEW is a system design platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. LabVIEW provides engineers and scientists with the tools needed to create and deploy measurement and control systems.The graphical language is named "G"...
) - Lucid
- MaxMax (software)Max is a visual programming language for music and multimedia developed and maintained by San Francisco-based software company Cycling '74. During its 20-year history, it has been widely used by composers, performers, software designers, researchers, and artists for creating innovative recordings,...
- PrographPrographPrograph is a visual, object-oriented, dataflow, multiparadigm programming language that uses iconic symbols to represent actions to be taken on data. Commercial Prograph software development environments such as Prograph Classic and Prograph CPX were available for the Apple Macintosh and Windows...
- Pure DataPure DataPure Data is a visual programming language developed by Miller Puckette in the 1990s for creating interactive computer music and multimedia works. While Puckette is the main author of the program, Pd is an open source project with a large developer base working on new extensions to it. It is...
- VEEAgilent VEEAgilent VEE is a graphical dataflow programming software development environment from Agilent Technologies for automated test, measurement, data analysis and reporting. VEE originally stood for Visual Engineering Environment and developed by HP designated as HP VEE; it has since been officially...
- VisSimVisSimVisSim is a visual block diagram language for simulation of dynamical systems and model based design of embedded systems. It is developed by Visual Solutions of Westford, Massachusetts....
- WebMethods FlowWebMethods FlowwebMethods Flow is a graphical programming language that runs within the webMethods Integration Server. It was designed to simplify tedious, difficult to maintain or error prone aspects of integration/B2B activities....
- MonkSeeBeyond Technology CorporationSeeBeyond Technology Corporation was a software company listed on the NASDAQ stock market . On 28 June 2005 the sale of the company for $387m to Sun Microsystems was announced; the deal was completed by August...
- OzOz (programming language)Oz is a multiparadigm programming language, developed in the Programming Systems Lab at Université catholique de Louvain, for programming language education. It has a canonical textbook: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming....
- VHDL
Data-oriented languages
Data-oriented languages provide powerful ways of searching and manipulating the relations that have been described as entity relationship tables which map one set of things into other sets. Examples of data-oriented languages include:- Clarion
- Clipper
- dBaseDBASEdBase II was the first widely used database management system for microcomputers. It was originally published by Ashton-Tate for CP/M, and later on ported to the Apple II and IBM PC under DOS...
a relational database access language - MUMPSMUMPSMUMPS , or alternatively M, is a programming language created in the late 1960s, originally for use in the healthcare industry. It was designed for the production of multi-user database-driven applications...
(an ANSI standard general purpose language with specializations for database work.) - SPARQLSPARQLSPARQL is an RDF query language; its name is an acronym that stands for SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language. It was made a standard by the RDF Data Access Working Group of the World Wide Web Consortium, and considered as one of the key technologies of semantic web...
- SQLSQLSQL is a programming language designed for managing data in relational database management systems ....
- Tutorial DD (data language specification)D is a set of requirements for what Christopher J. Date and Hugh Darwen believe a relational database query language ought to be like. It is proposed in their book The Third Manifesto.-Overview:...
, see also The Third ManifestoThe Third ManifestoThe Third Manifesto is Christopher J. Date's and Hugh Darwen's proposal for future database management systems, a response to two earlier Manifestos with the same purpose. The theme of the manifestos is how to avoid the 'object-relational impedance mismatch' between object-oriented programming... - Visual FoxProVisual FoxProVisual FoxPro is a data-centric object-oriented and procedural programming language produced by Microsoft. It is derived from FoxPro which was developed by Fox Software beginning in 1984. Fox Technologies merged with Microsoft in 1992, after which the software acquired further features and the...
, a native RDBMS engine, object oriented, RAD - WebQLWebQLWebQL is a software platform produced by QL2 Software, that is used to automate data integration and collection from unstructured and structured sources including the Web, PDF and Word documents, spreadsheets, email repositories, corporate data stores and more.WebQL has been on the market since...
Data-structured languages
Data-structured languageData-structured language
In computing a data-structured language is a programming language in which the data structure is a main organizing principle, representation, model, for data and logic alike, in which both are stored and operated upon, i.e., program data and logic are structured and operated on in the same way, by...
s are those where logic is structured in ways similar to their data. Such languages are generally well suited to reflection and introspection. There are three main types:
- Array-based
- List-based
- Stack-based
Assembly language
Assembly language
An assembly language is a low-level programming language for computers, microprocessors, microcontrollers, and other programmable devices. It implements a symbolic representation of the machine codes and other constants needed to program a given CPU architecture...
s that statically link data inline with instructions can also be considered data-structured, in the most primitive way.
Declarative languages
Declarative languagesDeclarative programming
In computer science, declarative programming is a programming paradigm that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow. Many languages applying this style attempt to minimize or eliminate side effects by describing what the program should accomplish, rather than...
describe a problem rather than defining a solution. Declarative programming
Declarative programming
In computer science, declarative programming is a programming paradigm that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow. Many languages applying this style attempt to minimize or eliminate side effects by describing what the program should accomplish, rather than...
stands in contrast to imperative programming
Imperative programming
In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
via imperative programming languages, where serial orders (imperatives) are given to a computer. In addition to the examples given just below, all (pure) functional and logic-based programming languages are also declarative. In fact, "functional" and "logical" constitute the usual subcategories of the declarative category.
- AntApache AntApache Ant is a software tool for automating software build processes. It is similar to Make but is implemented using the Java language, requires the Java platform, and is best suited to building Java projects....
(partially Declarative languagesDeclarative programmingIn computer science, declarative programming is a programming paradigm that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow. Many languages applying this style attempt to minimize or eliminate side effects by describing what the program should accomplish, rather than...
, partially imperative programmingImperative programmingIn computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
) - CandleCandle (programming language)Candle is a high-level general-purpose scripting language for both desktop and Internet applications. It unifies the core features of many XML related technologies like XQuery, XSLT, RELAX NG. Its first public beta release was on 12 Oct 2005...
- DASLDASL - Distributed Application Specification LanguageThe DASL Programming Language is a high-level, strongly typed programming language originally developed at Sun Microsystems Laboratories between 1999 and 2003 as part of the...
(partially Declarative languagesDeclarative programmingIn computer science, declarative programming is a programming paradigm that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow. Many languages applying this style attempt to minimize or eliminate side effects by describing what the program should accomplish, rather than...
, partially imperative programmingImperative programmingIn computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
) - Lustre
- MetaPostMetaPostMetaPost refers to both a programming language and the interpreter of the MetaPost programming language. Both are derived from Donald Knuth's Metafont language and interpreter. MetaPost excels at producing diagrams in the PostScript programming language from a geometric/algebraic description...
- ModelicaModelicaModelica is an object-oriented, declarative, multi-domain modeling language for component-oriented modeling of complex systems, e.g., systems containing mechanical, electrical, electronic, hydraulic, thermal, control, electric power or process-oriented subcomponents.The free Modelica languageis...
- PrologPrologProlog is a general purpose logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is declarative: the program logic is expressed in terms of...
- SQLSQLSQL is a programming language designed for managing data in relational database management systems ....
- xBaseXBasexBase is the generic term for all programming languages that derive from the original dBASE programming language and database formats. These are sometimes informally known as dBASE "clones"...
- XSL TransformationsXSL TransformationsXSLT is a declarative, XML-based language used for the transformation of XML documents. The original document is not changed; rather, a new document is created based on the content of an existing one. The new document may be serialized by the processor in standard XML syntax or in another format,...
- Poses++ (language of the simulation system with the same name)
In source code
Source embeddable languages embed small pieces of executable code inside a piece of free-form text, often a web page.Client-side embedded languages are limited by the capabilities of the browser or intended client. They aim to provide dynamism to web pages without the need to recontact the server.
Server-side embedded languages are much more flexible, since almost any language can be built into a server. The aim of having fragments of server-side code embedded in a web page is to generate additional markup dynamically; the code itself disappears when the page is served, to be replaced by its output.
Server side
- PHPPHPPHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
- VBscriptVBScriptVBScript is an Active Scripting language developed by Microsoft that is modeled on Visual Basic. It is designed as a “lightweight” language with a fast interpreter for use in a wide variety of Microsoft environments...
- SMX, dedicated to web pages
The above examples are particulalrly dedicated to this purpose. A large number of other languages, such as Candle
Candle (programming language)
Candle is a high-level general-purpose scripting language for both desktop and Internet applications. It unifies the core features of many XML related technologies like XQuery, XSLT, RELAX NG. Its first public beta release was on 12 Oct 2005...
, Erlang, Scala, PERL
Perl
Perl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
, Python
Python (programming language)
Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
and Ruby
Ruby (programming language)
Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
can be adapted (for instance, by being made into Apache modules.
Client side
- ActionScriptActionScriptActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
- JavaJava (programming language)Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
- JavascriptJavaScriptJavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
- EcmaScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
- JscriptJScriptJScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
In object code
A wide variety of dynamic or scripting languages can be embedded in compiled executable code. Basically, object code for the language's interpreterInterpreter (computing)
In computer science, an interpreter normally means a computer program that executes, i.e. performs, instructions written in a programming language...
needs to be linked into the executable. Source code fragments for the embedded language can then be passed to an evaluation function as strings. Application control languages can be implemented this way, if the source code is input by the user. Languages with small interpreters are preferred.
- AngelScript
- EELEEL (Extensible Embeddable Language)The Extensible Embeddable Language is a scripting and programming language in development by David Olofson. EEL is intended for scripting in real time systems with cycle rates in the kHz range, such as musical synthesizers and industrial control systems, but also aspires to be usable as a platform...
- Io (programming language)Io (programming language)Io is a pure object-oriented programming language inspired by Smalltalk, Self, Lua, Lisp, Act1, and NewtonScript. Io has a prototype-based object model similar to the ones in Self and NewtonScript, eliminating the distinction between instance and class. Like Smalltalk, everything is an object and...
- Lua
- TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
Esoteric languages
An esoteric programming languageEsoteric programming language
An esoteric programming language is a programming language designed as a test of the boundaries of computer programming language design, as a proof of concept, or as a joke...
is a programming language designed as a test of the boundaries of computer programming language design, as a proof of concept, or as a joke.
- BefungeBefungeBefunge is a stack-based, reflective, esoteric programming language. It differs from conventional languages in that programs are arranged on a two-dimensional grid...
- BrainfuckBrainfuckThe brainfuck programming language is an esoteric programming language noted for its extreme minimalism. It is a Turing tarpit, designed to challenge and amuse programmers, and is not suitable for practical use...
- ChefChef (programming language)Chef is an esoteric programming language designed by David Morgan-Mar. It is based on the manipulation of data values in a number of stacks; the same idea is used in assembly programming languages...
- FALSEFALSEFALSE is an esoteric programming language designed by Wouter van Oortmerssen in 1993, named after his favorite Boolean value. It is a small Forth-like stack-oriented language, with syntax designed to make the code inherently obfuscated, confusing, and unreadable. It is also noteworthy for having a...
- INTERCALINTERCALINTERCAL, a programming language parody, is an esoteric programming language that was created by Don Woods and James M. Lyon, two Princeton University students, in 1972. It satirizes aspects of the various programming languages at the time, as well as the proliferation of proposed language...
- LOLCODELOLCODELOLCODE is an esoteric programming language inspired by the language expressed in examples of the lolcat Internet meme. The language was created in 2007 by Adam Lindsay, researcher at the Computing Department of Lancaster University....
- MalbolgeMalbolgeMalbolge is a public domain esoteric programming language invented by Ben Olmstead in 1998, named after the eighth circle of hell in Dante's Inferno, the Malebolge....
- merd
- PietPiet (programming language)Piet is an esoteric programming language designed by David Morgan-Mar, whose programs are bitmaps that look like abstract art. The compilation is guided by a "pointer" that moves around the image, from one continuous coloured region to the next...
- Qwertycode
- ShakespeareShakespeare (programming language)The Shakespeare Programming Language is an esoteric programming language designed by Jon Åslund and Karl Hasselström. Like the Chef programming language, it is designed to make programs appear to be something other than programs; in this case, Shakespearean plays.A character list in the beginning...
- SNUSP
- Var'aq (KlingonKlingonKlingons are a fictional warrior race in the Star Trek universe.Klingons are recurring villains in the 1960s television show Star Trek: The Original Series, and have appeared in all five spin-off series and eight feature films...
programming language) - WhitespaceWhitespace (programming language)Whitespace is an esoteric programming language developed by Edwin Brady and Chris Morris at the University of Durham . It was released on 1 April 2003 . Its name is a reference to whitespace characters...
Extension languages
Extension programming languages are languages embedded into another program and used to harness its features in extension scripts.- Ateji PXAteji PXAteji PX is an object-oriented programming language extension for Java. It is intended to facilliate parallel computing on multi-core processors, GPU, Grid and Cloud....
an extension of the Java language for parallelism - AutoLISPAutoLISPAutoLISP is a dialect of Lisp programming language built specifically for use with the full version of AutoCAD and its derivatives, which include AutoCAD Map 3D, AutoCAD Architecture and AutoCAD Mechanical...
(specific to AutoCADAutoCADAutoCAD is a software application for computer-aided design and drafting in both 2D and 3D. It is developed and sold by Autodesk, Inc. First released in December 1982, AutoCAD was one of the first CAD programs to run on personal computers, notably the IBM PC...
) - CAL
- C/AL(C/SIDE)C/ALC/AL is the programming language used within C/SIDE the Client/Server Integrated Development Environment in Microsoft Dynamics NAV...
- DeScribe Macro Language (DML - specific to the DeScribe Word Processor)
- GuileGNU GuileGNU Guile is an interpreter/virtual machine for the Scheme programming language. It was first released in 1993. Guile includes modularized extensions for POSIX system calls, APL array functionality, and others packaged as an object library...
- Lua
- OpenCLOpenCLOpenCL is a framework for writing programs that execute across heterogeneous platforms consisting of CPUs, GPUs, and other processors. OpenCL includes a language for writing kernels , plus APIs that are used to define and then control the platforms...
an extension of C and C++ to use the GPU and parallel extensions of the CPU. - OptimJOptimJOptimJ is an extension of the Java with language support for writing optimization models and abstractions for bulk data processing. OptimJ aims at providing a clear and concise algebraic notation for optimization modeling, removing compatibility barriers between optimization modeling and...
an extension of the Java programming language with language support for writing optimization models and powerful abstractions for bulk data processing. - PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
(Maya and other 3-D animation packages) - REXXREXXREXX is an interpreted programming language that was developed at IBM. It is a structured high-level programming language that was designed to be both easy to learn and easy to read...
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
(Google SketchUp) - S-Lang
- SQLSQLSQL is a programming language designed for managing data in relational database management systems ....
- TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
- VimscriptVimscriptVimscript, also Vim script, is the scripting language built into Vim. Based on the ex editor language of the original vi editor, early versions of Vim added commands for control flow and function definitions. Since version 7, Vimscript also supports more advanced data types such as Lists and...
- VBAVisual Basic for ApplicationsVisual Basic for Applications is an implementation of Microsoft's event-driven programming language Visual Basic 6 and its associated integrated development environment , which are built into most Microsoft Office applications...
- Windows PowerShellWindows PowerShellWindows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
Fourth-generation languages
Fourth-generation programming languageFourth-generation programming language
A fourth-generation programming language is a programming language or programming environment designed with a specific purpose in mind, such as the development of commercial business software. In the history of computer science, the 4GL followed the 3GL in an upward trend toward higher...
s are high-level languages built around database systems. They are generally used in commercial environments.
- ABAPABAPABAP , is a high-level programming language created by the German software company SAP...
- ADMINS
- BuildProfessionalBuildProfessionalBuildProfessional is a 4GL programming language developed by Today Systems. It is derived from the Today programming language, which provided character based interfaces while BuildProfessional provides GUI interfaces.- External links :*...
- CorVisionCorVisionCorVision is a fourth generation programming tool currently owned by Attunity, Inc. CorVision was developed by Cortex Corporation for the VAX/VMS ISAM environment. Although Cortex beta tested CorVision-10 which generated for PCs but CorVision itself stayed anchored on VMS...
- CSCComputer Sciences CorporationComputer Sciences Corporation is an American information technology and business services company headquartered in Falls Church, Virginia, USA...
's GraphTalk - dylan.NET
- EasytrieveEasytrieveEasytrieve are programming languages tailored to generating reports and are primarily used by large corporations. Easytrieve is a product of CA, Inc. .- Classic v. Plus :...
report generator (now CA-Easytrieve Plus) - FOCUSFOCUSFOCUS is a computer programming language. It is a database query building language, regarded as a fourth-generation programming language. produced by Information Builders Inc...
- GEMBASE
- IBM Informix-4GL / Aubit-4GLAubit-4GL'Aubit-4gl' is a free-ware, open-source, clone-compiler for IBM Informix-4GL with extensions. Free downloads are available. This 4gl generates Embedded SQL/C, which is further expanded into low level C code by the C pre-processor and; which in turn, is finally compiled into machine code...
- LINC 4GLLINC 4GLLINC is a fourth-generation programming language, used mostly on Unisys computer systems.-Background:...
- MAPPERMAPPERMAPPER is a database management and reporting system that includes the world's first 4GL. Developed in-house by the UNIVAC Division of Sperry Corporation, MAPPER's heritage dates back to the 1960s when Louis Schlueter conceived the CRT RPS as a means to help Sperry/Univac manage...
(Unisys/SperryUnisysUnisys Corporation , headquartered in Blue Bell, Pennsylvania, United States, and incorporated in Delaware, is a long established business whose core products now involves computing and networking.-History:...
) now part of BIS - MARK-IV (Sterling/InformaticsSterling SoftwareSterling Software was an American software company founded in Dallas, Texas in 1981 by Sterling Williams and brothers Sam and Charles Wyly. The company was acquired by Computer Associates International in 2000 in a stock-for-stock transaction worth $3.3 billion.Computer Associates sold Sterling...
) now VISION:BUILDER of CA - Oracle Express 4GL
- Progress 4GLProgress 4GLOpenEdge Advanced Business Language, or OpenEdge ABL for short, is a business application development language created and maintained by Progress Software Corporation . The language, typically classified as a fourth-generation programming language, uses an English-like syntax to simplify software...
- Revolution (not based on a database; still, the goal is to work at a higher level of abstraction than 3GLs)
- SASSAS SystemSAS is an integrated system of software products provided by SAS Institute Inc. that enables programmers to perform:* retrieval, management, and mining* report writing and graphics* statistical analysis...
- Sculptor
- Today
- UbercodeUbercodeUbercode is a high level programming language designed by and released in 2005 for Microsoft Windows. Ubercode is influenced by the Eiffel and BASIC...
(VHLL, or Very High Level Language) - UnifaceUniface (programming language)Uniface is a development and deployment platform for enterprise applications that can run in a large range of runtime environments, including mobile, mainframe, web, Service-oriented architecture , Windows, Java EE and .NET. It has been described as a 4GL RDBMS Rapid Application Development ...
- Visual DataFlexVisual DataFlexVisual DataFlex is a 4GL windows programming language by Data Access, targeted at creating database and client-server type programs.- Architecture :Visual DataFlex has a 3-layer architecture:Bottom layer: At this level you have the database tables....
- Visual FoxProVisual FoxProVisual FoxPro is a data-centric object-oriented and procedural programming language produced by Microsoft. It is derived from FoxPro which was developed by Fox Software beginning in 1984. Fox Technologies merged with Microsoft in 1992, after which the software acquired further features and the...
- xBaseXBasexBase is the generic term for all programming languages that derive from the original dBASE programming language and database formats. These are sometimes informally known as dBASE "clones"...
- XMLmosaic
Functional languages
Functional programmingFunctional programming
In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
languages define programs and subroutines as mathematical functions. Many so-called functional languages are "impure", containing imperative features. Not surprisingly, many of these languages are tied to mathematical calculation tools. Functional languages include:
Pure
- Charity
- Clean
- Curry
- HaskellHaskell (programming language)Haskell is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry. In Haskell, "a function is a first-class citizen" of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the...
- Hope
- Miranda
Impure
- APL
- CandleCandle (programming language)Candle is a high-level general-purpose scripting language for both desktop and Internet applications. It unifies the core features of many XML related technologies like XQuery, XSLT, RELAX NG. Its first public beta release was on 12 Oct 2005...
- Curl
- Erlang
- F#
- FPrFPr (programming language)FPr is a programming language that is an implementation of an FP-System. FP was invented by John Backus and described in his Turing Award lecture...
- CAL
- HopHop (software)Hop is a Lisp-like programming language by Manuel Serrano for web 2.0 and also the name of the web broker that implements this language. It is written in Bigloo Scheme. A web broker is a program that can act as a web server and a web proxy....
- JJ (programming language)The J programming language, developed in the early 1990s by Kenneth E. Iverson and Roger Hui, is a synthesis of APL and the FP and FL function-level languages created by John Backus....
- Joy
- Kite
- Lisp
- ClojureClojureClojure |closure]]") is a recent dialect of the Lisp programming language created by Rich Hickey. It is a general-purpose language supporting interactive development that encourages a functional programming style, and simplifies multithreaded programming....
- Common LispCommon LispCommon Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
- Dylan
- eLisp Emacs Lisp
- Little bLittle b (programming language)Little b is a domain-specific programming language, more specifically, a modeling language, designed to build modular mathematical models of biological systems. It was designed and authored by Aneil Mallavarapu...
- LogoLogo (programming language)Logo is a multi-paradigm computer programming language used in education. It is an adaptation and dialect of the Lisp language; some have called it Lisp without the parentheses. It was originally conceived and written as functional programming language, and drove a mechanical turtle as an output...
- Scheme
- Racket (formerly PLT Scheme)
- Tea
- Clojure
- Lush
- MathematicaMathematicaMathematica is a computational software program used in scientific, engineering, and mathematical fields and other areas of technical computing...
- ML
- Standard MLStandard MLStandard ML is a general-purpose, modular, functional programming language with compile-time type checking and type inference. It is popular among compiler writers and programming language researchers, as well as in the development of theorem provers.SML is a modern descendant of the ML...
- AliceAlice (programming language)Alice ML is a functional programming language designed by the at Saarland University. It is a dialect of Standard ML, augmented with support for lazy evaluation, concurrency and constraint programming.-Overview:Alice extends Standard ML in a number of ways that distinguish it from its predecessor...
- Alice
- OcamlObjective CamlOCaml , originally known as Objective Caml, is the main implementation of the Caml programming language, created by Xavier Leroy, Jérôme Vouillon, Damien Doligez, Didier Rémy and others in 1996...
- Mythryl
- Standard ML
- Nemerle
- Opal
- OPS5OPS5OPS5 is a rule-based or production system computer language, notable as the first such language to be used in a successful expert system, the R1/XCON system used to configure VAX computers....
- PoplogPoplogPoplog is a powerful multi-language, multiparadigm, reflective, incrementally compiled software development environment, originally created in the UK for teaching and research in Artificial Intelligence at the University of Sussex.-History:...
- Q (equational programming language)
- Q (programming language from Kx Systems)Q (programming language from Kx Systems)Q is a proprietary array processing language developed by Arthur Whitney and commercialized by Kx Systems. The language serves as the query language for kdb+, a disk based and in-memory, column-based database. kdb+ is based upon K, a terse variant of APL...
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- REFALRefalRefal "is a functional programming language oriented toward symbol manipulation", including "string processing, translation, [and] artificial intelligence". It is one of the oldest members of this family, first conceived in 1966 as a theoretical tool with the first implementation appearing in 1968...
- Russell
- Scala
- SpreadsheetSpreadsheetA spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper accounting worksheet. It displays multiple cells usually in a two-dimensional matrix or grid consisting of rows and columns. Each cell contains alphanumeric text, numeric values or formulas...
s
Interactive mode languages
Interactive mode languages act as a kind of shell: expressions or statements can be entered one at a time, and the result of their evaluation is seen immediately.- BASICBASICBASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use - the name is an acronym from Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code....
(some dialects) - ClojureClojureClojure |closure]]") is a recent dialect of the Lisp programming language created by Rich Hickey. It is a general-purpose language supporting interactive development that encourages a functional programming style, and simplifies multithreaded programming....
- Common LispCommon LispCommon Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
- Erlang
- F#
- FancyFancy (programming language)Fancy is a pure object-oriented programming language that is heavily influenced by Smalltalk and Ruby. The language is currently under development as an open source project by Christopher Bertels.- Development :...
- Forth
- FPrFPr (programming language)FPr is a programming language that is an implementation of an FP-System. FP was invented by John Backus and described in his Turing Award lecture...
- FrilFrilFril is a programming language for first-order predicate calculus. It includes the semantics of Prolog as a subset, but takes its syntax from the micro-Prolog of Logic Programming Associates and adds support for fuzzy sets, support logic, and metaprogramming....
- HaskellHaskell (programming language)Haskell is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry. In Haskell, "a function is a first-class citizen" of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the...
(with the GHCi or Hugs interpreter) - IDL
- JJ (programming language)The J programming language, developed in the early 1990s by Kenneth E. Iverson and Roger Hui, is a synthesis of APL and the FP and FL function-level languages created by John Backus....
- Lua
- MUMPSMUMPSMUMPS , or alternatively M, is a programming language created in the late 1960s, originally for use in the healthcare industry. It was designed for the production of multi-user database-driven applications...
(an ANSI standard general purpose language) - MapleMaple (software)Maple is a general-purpose commercial computer algebra system. It was first developed in 1980 by the Symbolic Computation Group at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada....
- MathematicaMathematicaMathematica is a computational software program used in scientific, engineering, and mathematical fields and other areas of technical computing...
- MATLABMATLABMATLAB is a numerical computing environment and fourth-generation programming language. Developed by MathWorks, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages,...
- ML
- Mythryl
- PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
(with the perl shell, pshPerl ShellThe Perl Shell is a command line environment that can be used as the user's primary post-login shell on Unix-like operating systems.Being itself written in Perl, psh can also be used under Microsoft Windows and other operating systems...
) - PostScriptPostScriptPostScript is a dynamically typed concatenative programming language created by John Warnock and Charles Geschke in 1982. It is best known for its use as a page description language in the electronic and desktop publishing areas. Adobe PostScript 3 is also the worldwide printing and imaging...
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- Scala
- REXXREXXREXX is an interpreted programming language that was developed at IBM. It is a structured high-level programming language that was designed to be both easy to learn and easy to read...
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
(with IRBInteractive Ruby ShellInteractive Ruby Shell is a shell for programming in the object-oriented scripting language Ruby. The program is launched from a command line and allows the execution of Ruby commands with immediate response, experimenting in real-time...
) - Scheme
- SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
(anywhere in a Smalltalk environment) - S-Lang (with the S-Lang shell, slsh)
- TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
(with the Tcl shell, tclsh) - Windows PowerShellWindows PowerShellWindows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
(MicrosoftMicrosoftMicrosoft Corporation is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions...
.NET.NET FrameworkThe .NET Framework is a software framework that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a large library and supports several programming languages which allows language interoperability...
-based CLI)
Interpreted languages
Interpreted languageInterpreted language
Interpreted language is a programming language in which programs are 'indirectly' executed by an interpreter program. This can be contrasted with a compiled language which is converted into machine code and then 'directly' executed by the host CPU...
s are programming languages in which programs may be executed from source code form, by an interpreter. Theoretically, any language can be compiled or interpreted, so the term *interpreted language* generally refers to languages that are commonly interpreted rather than compiled.
- AntApache AntApache Ant is a software tool for automating software build processes. It is similar to Make but is implemented using the Java language, requires the Java platform, and is best suited to building Java projects....
- APL
- AutoHotkeyAutoHotkeyAutoHotkey is a free, open source macro-creation and automation software utility which allows users to automate repetitive tasks. Any application user interface can be modified by AutoHotkey...
scripting language - AutoItAutoItAutoIt is a freeware automation language for Microsoft Windows. In its earliest release, the software was primarily intended to create automation scripts for Microsoft Windows programs but has since grown to include enhancements in both programming language design and overall functionality.With...
scripting language - BASICBASICBASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use - the name is an acronym from Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code....
(some dialects) - DATABUS (later versions added optional compiling)
- EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
(via "Melting Ice Technology" in EiffelStudioEiffelStudioEiffelStudio is a development environment for the Eiffel programming language developed and distributed by Eiffel Software.EiffelStudio includes a combination of tools integrated under a single user interface: compiler, interpreter, debugger, browser, metrics tool, profiler, diagram tool...
) - Forth (interactive shell only; otherwise compiled to native or threaded codeThreaded codeIn computer science, the term threaded code refers to a compiler implementation technique where the generated code has a form that essentially consists entirely of calls to subroutines...
) - FPrFPr (programming language)FPr is a programming language that is an implementation of an FP-System. FP was invented by John Backus and described in his Turing Award lecture...
(Virtual machineVirtual machineA virtual machine is a "completely isolated guest operating system installation within a normal host operating system". Modern virtual machines are implemented with either software emulation or hardware virtualization or both together.-VM Definitions:A virtual machine is a software...
: Text is compiled to linked lists; linked lists are interpreted) - FrinkFrinkFrink, named after the fictional mad scientist Professor John Frink from The Simpsons, is a calculating tool and programming language designed by Alan Eliasen. It is built on the Java Virtual Machine and incorporates features similar to Java, Perl, Ruby, Smalltalk, and various BASIC implementations...
- Game Maker LanguageGame Maker LanguageGame Maker Language is a scripting language developed for use with a computer game creation application called Game Maker. It was originally created by Mark Overmars to supplement the drag-and-drop action system used in Game Maker...
- Groovy
- HaskellHaskell (programming language)Haskell is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry. In Haskell, "a function is a first-class citizen" of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the...
(GHCi, Hugs, NHC, YHC etc.) - JJ (programming language)The J programming language, developed in the early 1990s by Kenneth E. Iverson and Roger Hui, is a synthesis of APL and the FP and FL function-level languages created by John Backus....
- Lisp (early versions, pre-1962, and some experimental ones; production Lisp systems are compilers, but many of them still provide an interpreter if needed)
- Tea
- LPC
- Lua
- Lush
- MUMPSMUMPSMUMPS , or alternatively M, is a programming language created in the late 1960s, originally for use in the healthcare industry. It was designed for the production of multi-user database-driven applications...
(an ANSI standard general purpose language) - MapleMaple (software)Maple is a general-purpose commercial computer algebra system. It was first developed in 1980 by the Symbolic Computation Group at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada....
- MathematicaMathematicaMathematica is a computational software program used in scientific, engineering, and mathematical fields and other areas of technical computing...
- PascalPascal (programming language)Pascal is an influential imperative and procedural programming language, designed in 1968/9 and published in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth as a small and efficient language intended to encourage good programming practices using structured programming and data structuring.A derivative known as Object Pascal...
(early implementations) - PCASTLPCASTLThe PCASTL is an interpreted high-level programming language. It was created in 2008 by Philippe Choquette. The PCASTL is designed to ease the writing of self-modifying code...
- PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
- PiktPIKTPIKT is cross-categorical, multi-purpose software for global-view, site-at-a-time system and network administration. Applicability includes system monitoring, configuration management, server and network administration, system security, and many other uses....
- PostScriptPostScriptPostScript is a dynamically typed concatenative programming language created by John Warnock and Charles Geschke in 1982. It is best known for its use as a page description language in the electronic and desktop publishing areas. Adobe PostScript 3 is also the worldwide printing and imaging...
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- REXXREXXREXX is an interpreted programming language that was developed at IBM. It is a structured high-level programming language that was designed to be both easy to learn and easy to read...
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
- S-Lang
- SpinParallax PropellerThe Parallax P8X32A Propeller chip, introduced in 2006, is a multi-core architecture parallel microcontroller with eight 32-bit RISC CPU cores....
- TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
- TorqueScript
- thinBasicThinBasicthinBasic is a BASIC-like computer programming language interpreter with a central core engine architecture surrounded by many specialized modules...
scripting language - VBScriptVBScriptVBScript is an Active Scripting language developed by Microsoft that is modeled on Visual Basic. It is designed as a “lightweight” language with a fast interpreter for use in a wide variety of Microsoft environments...
- Windows PowerShellWindows PowerShellWindows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
(MicrosoftMicrosoftMicrosoft Corporation is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions...
.NET.NET FrameworkThe .NET Framework is a software framework that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a large library and supports several programming languages which allows language interoperability...
-based CLI) - XMLmosaic
- Some scripting languages (below)
Iterative languages
Iterative languages are built around or offering generatorGenerator (computer science)
In computer science, a generator is a special routine that can be used to control the iteration behaviour of a loop. A generator is very similar to a function that returns an array, in that a generator has parameters, can be called, and generates a sequence of values...
s.
- AldorAldorAldor is a programming language. It is the successor of A# as the extension language of the Axiom computer algebra system.The Aldor language combines imperative, functional, and object-oriented features. It has an elaborate type system, allowing types to be used as first-class values...
- Alphard
- C#
- CLU
- CobraCobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)Cobra is an object-oriented programming language produced by Cobra Language LLC. Cobra is designed by Chuck Esterbrook, and runs on the Microsoft .NET and Mono platforms. It is strongly influenced by Python, C#, Eiffel, Objective-C, and other programming languages. It supports both static and...
- EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
, through "agents" - Icon
- IPL-vInformation Processing LanguageInformation Processing Language is a programming language developed by Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Herbert Simon at RAND Corporation and the Carnegie Institute of Technology from about 1956...
- Lua
- Lush
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- SatherSatherSather is an object-oriented programming language. It originated circa 1990 at the International Computer Science Institute at the University of California, Berkeley, developed by an international team led by Steve Omohundro...
- XL ("iterator" construct)
List-based languages – LISPs
List-based languages are a type of data-structured languageData-structured language
In computing a data-structured language is a programming language in which the data structure is a main organizing principle, representation, model, for data and logic alike, in which both are stored and operated upon, i.e., program data and logic are structured and operated on in the same way, by...
that are based upon the list data structure.
- FPrFPr (programming language)FPr is a programming language that is an implementation of an FP-System. FP was invented by John Backus and described in his Turing Award lecture...
- Joy
- Lisp
- Common LispCommon LispCommon Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
- Arc
- Dylan
- eLisp Emacs Lisp
- Scheme
- LogoLogo (programming language)Logo is a multi-paradigm computer programming language used in education. It is an adaptation and dialect of the Lisp language; some have called it Lisp without the parentheses. It was originally conceived and written as functional programming language, and drove a mechanical turtle as an output...
- Common Lisp
- Lush
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
- Tea
- TRAC
Little languages
Little languages serve a specialized problem domain.- applyApplyIn mathematics and computer science, Apply is a function that applies functions to arguments. It is central to programming languages derived from lambda calculus, such as LISP and Scheme, and also in functional languages...
is a domain-specific language for image processing on parallel and conventional architectures - awk can serve as a prototyping language for CC (programming language)C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system....
, because the syntax is similar - CometComet (programming language)Comet is an object-oriented programming language used to solve complex combinatorial optimization problems in areas such as resource allocation and scheduling...
is used to solve complex combinatorial optimization problems in areas such as resource allocationResource allocationResource allocation is used to assign the available resources in an economic way. It is part of resource management. In project management, resource allocation is the scheduling of activities and the resources required by those activities while taking into consideration both the resource...
and schedulingScheduling (computing)In computer science, a scheduling is the method by which threads, processes or data flows are given access to system resources . This is usually done to load balance a system effectively or achieve a target quality of service...
. - SQLSQLSQL is a programming language designed for managing data in relational database management systems ....
has only a few keywords, and not all the constructs needed for a full programming language. Many database management systems extend SQL with additional constructs as a stored procedureStored procedureA stored procedure is a subroutine available to applications that access a relational database system. A stored procedure is actually stored in the database data dictionary.Typical uses for stored procedures include data validation or access control mechanisms...
language.
Logic-based languages
Logic-basedLogic programming
Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
languages specify a set of attributes that a solution must have, rather than a set of steps to obtain a solution. Examples:
- ALF
- Alma-0Alma-0Alma-0 is a multi-paradigm computer programming language. This language is an augmented version of the imperative Modula-2 language with logic-programming features and convenient backtracking capability. It is small, strongly typed, and combines constraint programming, a limited number of features...
- CLACL (CLAC-Language)CLACL (programming language)CLACL is the result of a theoretical research, still in progress, which aims to provide a formal description of the logical choices relating to the definition of organisational processes of composition.The logic of "CLACL" is not based on the processing of numerical information, but on...
- Curry
- FrilFrilFril is a programming language for first-order predicate calculus. It includes the semantics of Prolog as a subset, but takes its syntax from the micro-Prolog of Logic Programming Associates and adds support for fuzzy sets, support logic, and metaprogramming....
- JanusJanus (programming language)The name Janus refers to at least two computer programming languages or partial descriptions of possible computer programing languages:-Concurrent Constraint Programming:...
- λProlog (a logic programming language featuring polymorphic typing, modular programming, and higher-order programming)
- Leda
- OzOz (programming language)Oz is a multiparadigm programming language, developed in the Programming Systems Lab at Université catholique de Louvain, for programming language education. It has a canonical textbook: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming....
- Mozart Programming SystemMozart Programming SystemThe Mozart Programming System is a multiplatform implementation of the Oz programming language developed by an international group, the Mozart Consortium, which originally consisted of Saarland University, the Swedish Institute of Computer Science, and the Université catholique de Louvain.Mozart...
a multiplatformCross-platformIn computing, cross-platform, or multi-platform, is an attribute conferred to computer software or computing methods and concepts that are implemented and inter-operate on multiple computer platforms...
Oz
- Mozart Programming System
- PoplogPoplogPoplog is a powerful multi-language, multiparadigm, reflective, incrementally compiled software development environment, originally created in the UK for teaching and research in Artificial Intelligence at the University of Sussex.-History:...
- PrologPrologProlog is a general purpose logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is declarative: the program logic is expressed in terms of...
(formulates data and the program evaluation mechanism as a special form of mathematical logic called Horn logicHorn clauseIn mathematical logic, a Horn clause is a clause with at most one positive literal. They are named after the logician Alfred Horn, who first pointed out the significance of such clauses in 1951...
and a general proving mechanism called logical resolutionResolution (logic)In mathematical logic and automated theorem proving, resolution is a rule of inference leading to a refutation theorem-proving technique for sentences in propositional logic and first-order logic...
)- Mercury (based on Prolog)
- Strawberry PrologStrawberry PrologStrawberry Prolog is a dialect of the Prolog programming language. Its syntax is very close to that of ISO-Prolog but it has many extensions which are not part of the standard. The main idea of Strawberry Prolog is to be very easy to use and that is why some universities use it for their Prolog...
(standard Prolog with some extensions) - Visual PrologVisual PrologVisual Prolog, also formerly known as PDC Prolog and Turbo Prolog, is a strongly typed object-oriented extension of Prolog. As Turbo Prolog it was marketed by Borland, but it is now developed and marketed by the Danish firm Prolog Development Center that originally developed it...
(object-oriented Prolog extension)
- ROOP
Machine languages
Machine languageMachine code
Machine code or machine language is a system of impartible instructions executed directly by a computer's central processing unit. Each instruction performs a very specific task, typically either an operation on a unit of data Machine code or machine language is a system of impartible instructions...
s are directly executable by a computer's CPU. They are typically formulated as bit patterns, usually represented in octal
Octal
The octal numeral system, or oct for short, is the base-8 number system, and uses the digits 0 to 7. Numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping consecutive binary digits into groups of three...
or hexadecimal
Hexadecimal
In mathematics and computer science, hexadecimal is a positional numeral system with a radix, or base, of 16. It uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols 0–9 to represent values zero to nine, and A, B, C, D, E, F to represent values ten to fifteen...
. Each group of npatterns (often 1 or more bytes) causes the circuits in the CPU to execute one of the fundamental operations of the hardware. The activation of specific electrical inputs (e.g., CPU package pins for microprocessors), and logical settings for CPU state values, control the processor's computation. Individual machine languages are processor specific and are not portable. They are (essentially) always defined by the CPU developer, not by 3rd parties. The symbolic version, the processor's assembly language
Assembly language
An assembly language is a low-level programming language for computers, microprocessors, microcontrollers, and other programmable devices. It implements a symbolic representation of the machine codes and other constants needed to program a given CPU architecture...
, is also defined by the developer, in most cases. Since processors come in families based on a shared architecture, the same basic assembly language style can often be used for more than one CPU. Each of the following CPUs served as the basis for a family of processors:
- ARMARM architectureARM is a 32-bit reduced instruction set computer instruction set architecture developed by ARM Holdings. It was named the Advanced RISC Machine, and before that, the Acorn RISC Machine. The ARM architecture is the most widely used 32-bit ISA in numbers produced...
- Intel 80x86IA-32IA-32 , also known as x86-32, i386 or x86, is the CISC instruction-set architecture of Intel's most commercially successful microprocessors, and was first implemented in the Intel 80386 as a 32-bit extension of x86 architecture...
- IBM System/360
- IntelIntel CorporationIntel Corporation is an American multinational semiconductor chip maker corporation headquartered in Santa Clara, California, United States and the world's largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. It is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most...
8008Intel 8008The Intel 8008 was an early byte-oriented microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel and introduced in April 1972. It was an 8-bit CPU with an external 14-bit address bus that could address 16KB of memory...
/8080Intel 8080The Intel 8080 was the second 8-bit microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel and was released in April 1974. It was an extended and enhanced variant of the earlier 8008 design, although without binary compatibility...
/8085Intel 8085The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1977. It was binary-compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 but required less supporting hardware, thus allowing simpler and less expensive microcomputer systems to be built.... - MIPS R2000/R3000R1000R1000 is an integrated development environment created by Rational Software for the design, documentation, implementation, and maintenance of large software systems written using the Ada programming language...
- MOS Tech 6502 and 6510MOS Technology 65xxMOS Technology 65xx is a family of 8-bit microprocessors from MOS Technology, based on the Motorola 6800 . The 65xx family most notably included the 6502, used in several home computers such as the Commodore PET and VIC-20, the Apple II, and the Atari 800.One popular 6502 based computer, the...
(Commodore 64 CPU) - Motorola 6800Motorola 6800The 6800 was an 8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974. The MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System that also included serial and parallel interface ICs, RAM, ROM and other support chips...
- Motorola 68000 family
- National 32032NS320xxThe 320xx or NS32000 was a series of microprocessors from National Semiconductor . They were likely the first 32-bit general-purpose microprocessors on the market, but due to a number of factors never managed to become a major player...
- Power ArchitecturePower ArchitecturePower Architecture is a broad term to describe similar RISC instruction sets for microprocessors developed and manufactured by such companies as IBM, Freescale, AMCC, Tundra and P.A. Semi...
- (POWERIBM POWERPOWER is a reduced instruction set computer instruction set architecture developed by IBM. The name is an acronym for Performance Optimization With Enhanced RISC....
and PowerPCPowerPCPowerPC is a RISC architecture created by the 1991 Apple–IBM–Motorola alliance, known as AIM...
) - StrongARMStrongARMThe StrongARM is a family of microprocessors that implemented the ARM V4 instruction set architecture . It was developed by Digital Equipment Corporation and later sold to Intel, who continued to manufacture it before replacing it with the XScale....
- Sun SPARCSPARCSPARC is a RISC instruction set architecture developed by Sun Microsystems and introduced in mid-1987....
, UltraSPARCUltraSPARCThe UltraSPARC is a microprocessor developed by Sun Microsystems who is now a part of Oracle Corporation and fabricated by Texas Instruments that implements the SPARC V9 instruction set architecture . It was introduced in mid-1995. It was the first microprocessor from Sun Microsystems to implement... - Zilog Z80Zilog Z80The Zilog Z80 is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by Zilog and sold from July 1976 onwards. It was widely used both in desktop and embedded computer designs as well as for military purposes...
Textual substitution macro languages
Macro languages transform one source code file into another. A "macro" is essentially a short piece of text that expands into a longer one, possibly with parameter substitution. They are often used to preprocess source code. Preprocessors can also supply facilities like file inclusion.Macro languages may be restricted to acting on specially labeled code regions (pre-fixed with a
# in the case of the C preprocessor. Alternatively, they may not, but in this case it is still often undesirable to (for instance) expanda macro embedded in a string literal
String literal
A string literal is the representation of a string value within the source code of a computer program. There are numerous alternate notations for specifying string literals, and the exact notation depends on the individual programming language in question...
, so they still need a rudimentary awareness
of syntax. That being the case, they are often still applicable to more than one language. Contrast with source-embeddable languages like PHP
PHP
PHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
, which are fully featured.
- cppC preprocessorThe C preprocessor is the preprocessor for the C and C++ computer programming languages. The preprocessor handles directives for source file inclusion , macro definitions , and conditional inclusion ....
(the C preprocessor) - m4M4 (computer language)m4 is a general purpose macro processor designed by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie. m4 is an extension of an earlier macro processor m3, written by Ritchie for the AP-3 minicomputer.-Use:...
(originally from AT&T, bundled with UNIX)
Application macro languages
Scripting languageScripting language
A scripting language, script language, or extension language is a programming language that allows control of one or more applications. "Scripts" are distinct from the core code of the application, as they are usually written in a different language and are often created or at least modified by the...
s such as Tcl
Tcl
Tcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
and ECMAScript
ECMAScript
ECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
(ActionScript
ActionScript
ActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
, ECMAScript for XML, JavaScript
JavaScript
JavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
, JScript
JScript
JScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
) have been embedded into applications. These are sometimes called "macro languages", although in a somewhat different sense to textual-substitution macros like m4
M4 (computer language)
m4 is a general purpose macro processor designed by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie. m4 is an extension of an earlier macro processor m3, written by Ritchie for the AP-3 minicomputer.-Use:...
.
Metaprogramming languages
MetaprogrammingMetaprogramming
Metaprogramming is the writing of computer programs that write or manipulate other programs as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime...
is writing of programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data or that do part of the work that is otherwise done at run time during compile time
Compile time
In computer science, compile time refers to either the operations performed by a compiler , programming language requirements that must be met by source code for it to be successfully compiled , or properties of the program that can be reasoned about at compile time.The operations performed at...
. In many cases, this allows programmers to get more done in the same amount of time as they would take to write all the code manually.
- C++C++C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
- Curl
- DD (programming language)The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
- FancyFancy (programming language)Fancy is a pure object-oriented programming language that is heavily influenced by Smalltalk and Ruby. The language is currently under development as an open source project by Christopher Bertels.- Development :...
- Forth
- HaskellHaskell (programming language)Haskell is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry. In Haskell, "a function is a first-class citizen" of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the...
- Lisp
- Lua
- Maude systemMaude systemThe Maude system is an implementation of rewriting logic developed at SRI International. It is similar in its general approach to Joseph Goguen's OBJ3 implementation of equational logic, but based on rewriting logic rather than order-sorted equational logic, and with a heavy emphasis on powerful...
- MathematicaMathematicaMathematica is a computational software program used in scientific, engineering, and mathematical fields and other areas of technical computing...
- MetaLMetaL (programming language)The Meta-programming Language is a programming language designed for meta-programming. Meta-programming is a method for developing computer programs. It works by generating source code in a target language from a program specification in a higher level language...
- MetaOCaml
- Nemerle
- PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
- SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
- XL (concept programmingConcept programmingConcept programming is a programming paradigm focusing on how concepts, that live in the programmer's head, translate into representations that are found in the code space. This approach was introduced in 2001 by Christophe de Dinechin with the XL Programming Language.- Pseudo-metrics :Concept...
)
Multiparadigm languages
Multiparadigm languageMulti-paradigm programming language
Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.-Paradigm summaries:A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article....
s support more than one programming paradigm
Programming paradigm
A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. Paradigms differ in the concepts and abstractions used to represent the elements of a program and the steps that compose a computation A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. (Compare with a...
. They allow a program
Computer program
A computer program is a sequence of instructions written to perform a specified task with a computer. A computer requires programs to function, typically executing the program's instructions in a central processor. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute...
to use more than one programming
Computer program
A computer program is a sequence of instructions written to perform a specified task with a computer. A computer requires programs to function, typically executing the program's instructions in a central processor. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute...
style. The goal is to allow programmers to use the best tool for a job, admitting that no one paradigm solves all problems in the easiest or most efficient way.
- AdaAda (programming language)Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages...
(concurrentParallel computingParallel computing is a form of computation in which many calculations are carried out simultaneously, operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which are then solved concurrently . There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level,...
, distributedDistributed computingDistributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers that communicate through a computer network. The computers interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal...
, genericGeneric programmingIn a broad definition, generic programming is a style of computer programming in which algorithms are written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters...
(template metaprogrammingTemplate metaprogrammingTemplate metaprogramming is a metaprogramming technique in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled. The output of these templates include compile-time constants, data structures, and...
), imperativeImperative programmingIn computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
, object-orientedObject-oriented programmingObject-oriented programming is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction,...
(class-basedClass (computer science)In object-oriented programming, a class is a construct that is used as a blueprint to create instances of itself – referred to as class instances, class objects, instance objects or simply objects. A class defines constituent members which enable these class instances to have state and behavior...
)) - ALF (functionalFunctional programmingIn computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state...
, logicLogic programmingLogic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a...
) - Alma-0Alma-0Alma-0 is a multi-paradigm computer programming language. This language is an augmented version of the imperative Modula-2 language with logic-programming features and convenient backtracking capability. It is small, strongly typed, and combines constraint programming, a limited number of features...
(constraint, imperative, logic) - APL (functional, imperative)
- BETABETABETA is a pure object-oriented language originating within the "Scandinavian School" in object-orientation where the first object-oriented language Simula was developed....
(functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based)) - C++C++C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
(generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based)) - C# (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), functional, declarative)
- ChucKChucKChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance, which runs on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and iPhone/iPad. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such...
(imperative, object-oriented, time-based, concurrent, on-the-fly) - CobraCobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)Cobra is an object-oriented programming language produced by Cobra Language LLC. Cobra is designed by Chuck Esterbrook, and runs on the Microsoft .NET and Mono platforms. It is strongly influenced by Python, C#, Eiffel, Objective-C, and other programming languages. It supports both static and...
(generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), functional, contractual) - Common LispCommon LispCommon Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
(functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), aspect-orientedAspect-oriented programmingIn computing, aspect-oriented programming is a programming paradigm which aims to increase modularity by allowing the separation of cross-cutting concerns...
(user may add further paradigms, e.g., logic)) - Corn (concurrent, generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- Curl (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), metaprogramming)
- Curry (concurrent, functional, logic)
- DD (programming language)The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
(generic, imperative, functional, object-oriented (class-based), metaprogramming) - DelphiObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
(generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), metaprogramming) - Dylan (functional, object-oriented (class-based))
- ECMAScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
(functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-based))- ActionScriptActionScriptActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
- ECMAScript for XML
- JavaScriptJavaScriptJavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
- JScriptJScriptJScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
- ActionScript
- EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
(imperative, object-oriented (class-based), generic) - F# (functional, generic, object-oriented (class-based), language-oriented)
- Fantom (functional, object-oriented (class-based))
- FPrFPr (programming language)FPr is a programming language that is an implementation of an FP-System. FP was invented by John Backus and described in his Turing Award lecture...
(function-level, object-oriented (class-based)) - Harbour
- HopHop (software)Hop is a Lisp-like programming language by Manuel Serrano for web 2.0 and also the name of the web broker that implements this language. It is written in Bigloo Scheme. A web broker is a program that can act as a web server and a web proxy....
- JJ (programming language)The J programming language, developed in the early 1990s by Kenneth E. Iverson and Roger Hui, is a synthesis of APL and the FP and FL function-level languages created by John Backus....
(functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based)) - LabVIEWLabVIEWLabVIEW is a system design platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. LabVIEW provides engineers and scientists with the tools needed to create and deploy measurement and control systems.The graphical language is named "G"...
(dataflow, visualVisual programming languageIn computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...
) - Lasso (macro, object-oriented (prototype-based), procedural, scripting)
- Lava (object-oriented (class-based), visual)
- Leda (functional, imperative, logic, object-oriented (class-based))
- Lua (functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-basedPrototype-based programmingPrototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which classes are not present, and behavior reuse is performed via a process of cloning existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as classless, prototype-oriented or instance-based programming...
)) - Metaobject protocolsMetaobjectIn computer science, a metaobject or meta-object is any entity that manipulates, creates, describes, or implements other objects. The object that the metaobject is about is called the base object...
(object-oriented (class-based, prototype-based)) - Mythryl (functional, imperative)
- Nemerle (functional, object-oriented (class-based), imperative, metaprogramming)
- Objective CamlObjective CamlOCaml , originally known as Objective Caml, is the main implementation of the Caml programming language, created by Xavier Leroy, Jérôme Vouillon, Damien Doligez, Didier Rémy and others in 1996...
(functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based)) - OzOz (programming language)Oz is a multiparadigm programming language, developed in the Programming Systems Lab at Université catholique de Louvain, for programming language education. It has a canonical textbook: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming....
(functional (evaluation: eagerEager evaluationIn computer programming, eager evaluation or greedy evaluation is the evaluation strategy in most traditional programming languages. In eager evaluation an expression is evaluated as soon as it gets bound to a variable. The term is typically used to contrast lazy evaluation, where expressions are...
, lazyLazy evaluationIn programming language theory, lazy evaluation or call-by-need is an evaluation strategy which delays the evaluation of an expression until the value of this is actually required and which also avoids repeated evaluations...
), logic, constraintConstraint programmingConstraint programming is a programming paradigm wherein relations between variables are stated in the form of constraints. Constraints differ from the common primitives of imperative programming languages in that they do not specify a step or sequence of steps to execute, but rather the properties...
, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), concurrent, distributed)- Mozart Programming SystemMozart Programming SystemThe Mozart Programming System is a multiplatform implementation of the Oz programming language developed by an international group, the Mozart Consortium, which originally consisted of Saarland University, the Swedish Institute of Computer Science, and the Université catholique de Louvain.Mozart...
(multiplatformCross-platformIn computing, cross-platform, or multi-platform, is an attribute conferred to computer software or computing methods and concepts that are implemented and inter-operate on multiple computer platforms...
Oz)
- Mozart Programming System
- Object PascalObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
(imperative, object-oriented (class-based)) - PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
(imperative, functional (can't be purely functional), object-oriented, class-oriented, aspect-oriented (through modules)) - PHPPHPPHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
(imperative, object-oriented) - Pliant (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- PoplogPoplogPoplog is a powerful multi-language, multiparadigm, reflective, incrementally compiled software development environment, originally created in the UK for teaching and research in Artificial Intelligence at the University of Sussex.-History:...
(functional, imperative, logic) - ppC++ (imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- PrographPrographPrograph is a visual, object-oriented, dataflow, multiparadigm programming language that uses iconic symbols to represent actions to be taken on data. Commercial Prograph software development environments such as Prograph Classic and Prograph CPX were available for the Apple Macintosh and Windows...
(dataflow, object-oriented (class-based), visual) - PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
(functional, object-oriented (class-based), imperative) - RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- REBOLREBOLREBOL is a cross-platform data exchange language and a multi-paradigm dynamic programming language originally designed by Carl Sassenrath for network communications and distributed computing. The language and its official implementation, which is a proprietary freely redistributable software are...
(functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-based), metaprogramming (dialected)) - ROOP (imperative, logic, object-oriented (class-based), rule-based)
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
(functional, object-oriented (class-based)) - Scala (functional, object-oriented)
- Seed7 (imperative, object-oriented, generic)
- SISALSISALSISAL is a general-purpose single assignment functional programming language with strict semantics, implicit parallelism, and efficient array handling. SISAL outputs a dataflow graph in Intermediary Form 1...
(concurrent, dataflow, functional) - SpreadsheetSpreadsheetA spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper accounting worksheet. It displays multiple cells usually in a two-dimensional matrix or grid consisting of rows and columns. Each cell contains alphanumeric text, numeric values or formulas...
s (functional, visual) - TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
(functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))- Tea (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- Windows PowerShellWindows PowerShellWindows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
(functional, imperative, pipeline, object-oriented (class-based)) - XL (concept programmingConcept programmingConcept programming is a programming paradigm focusing on how concepts, that live in the programmer's head, translate into representations that are found in the code space. This approach was introduced in 2001 by Christophe de Dinechin with the XL Programming Language.- Pseudo-metrics :Concept...
approach)
Numerical analysis
- AIMMSAIMMSAIMMS is a software system designed for modeling and solving large-scale optimization and scheduling-type problems....
- Algae
- AMPL
- GAMSGeneral Algebraic Modeling SystemThe General Algebraic Modeling System is a high-level modeling system for mathematical optimization. GAMS is designed for modeling and solving linear, nonlinear, and mixed-integer optimization problems. The system is tailored for complex, large-scale modeling applications and allows the user to...
- MATLABMATLABMATLAB is a numerical computing environment and fourth-generation programming language. Developed by MathWorks, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages,...
- SenecaOberon (programming language)Oberon is a programming language created in 1986 by Professor Niklaus Wirth and his associates at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. It was developed as part of the implementation of the Oberon operating system...
an OberonOberon (programming language)Oberon is a programming language created in 1986 by Professor Niklaus Wirth and his associates at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. It was developed as part of the implementation of the Oberon operating system...
variant
Non-English-based languages
- ARLOGOARLOGOARLOGO is the Arabic language Logo Project. It is based on UCBLogo and is an attempt to create the first open-source Arabic programming language.At the moment, UCBLogo Arabic Beta 1 is available only for Microsoft Windows.-External links:*...
- ArabicArabic languageArabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book... - Chinese BASICChinese BASICChinese BASIC is the name given to several Chinese-localized versions of the BASIC programming language in the early 1980s.- Versions :...
- ChineseChinese languageThe Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages... - Fjölnir - IcelandicIcelandic languageIcelandic is a North Germanic language, the main language of Iceland. Its closest relative is Faroese.Icelandic is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic or Nordic branch of the Germanic languages. Historically, it was the westernmost of the Indo-European languages prior to the...
- HPL - HebrewHebrew languageHebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
- Lexico - SpanishSpanish languageSpanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
- RapiraRapiraRapira is an educational procedural programming language developed in the USSR and implemented on Agat computer, PDP-11 clones and Intel-8080/Z80 clones . It was an interpreted language with dynamic type system and high level constructions. The language originally had a Russian-based set of...
- RussianRussian languageRussian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics... - Glagol - RussianRussian languageRussian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...
- Portugol - PortuguesePortuguese languagePortuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
Object-oriented class-based languages
Class-based Object-oriented programming languageObject-oriented programming language
This is a list of object-oriented programming programming languages.-Languages with object-oriented features:*ABAP*Ada 95*AmigaE*BETA*Blue*Boo*C++*C#*COBOL*Cobra*ColdFusion*Common Lisp*COOL*CorbaScript*Clarion*CLU*Curl*D*Dylan*E*Eiffel...
s support objects defined by their class. Class definitions include member data. Message passing
Message passing
Message passing in computer science is a form of communication used in parallel computing, object-oriented programming, and interprocess communication. In this model, processes or objects can send and receive messages to other processes...
is a key concept (if not the key concept) in Object-oriented languages.
Polymorphic functions parameterized by the class of some of their arguments are typically called methods. In languages with single dispatch
Dynamic dispatch
In computer science, dynamic dispatch is the process of mapping a message to a specific sequence of code at runtime. This is done to support the cases where the appropriate method can't be determined at compile-time...
, classes typically also include method definitions. In languages with multiple dispatch
Multiple dispatch
Multiple dispatch or multimethods or function overloading is the feature of some object-oriented programming languages in which a function or method can be dynamically dispatched based on the run time type of more than one of its arguments...
, methods are defined by generic function
Generic function
In certain systems for object-oriented programming such as the Common Lisp Object System and Dylan, a generic function is an entity made up of all methods having the same name. Typically a generic function itself is an instance of a class that inherits both from function and standard-object...
s. There are exceptions where single dispatch
Dynamic dispatch
In computer science, dynamic dispatch is the process of mapping a message to a specific sequence of code at runtime. This is done to support the cases where the appropriate method can't be determined at compile-time...
methods are generic function
Generic function
In certain systems for object-oriented programming such as the Common Lisp Object System and Dylan, a generic function is an entity made up of all methods having the same name. Typically a generic function itself is an instance of a class that inherits both from function and standard-object...
s (e.g. Bigloo
Bigloo
Bigloo is an implementation of the Scheme programming language developed at the French IT research institute INRIA. Its orientation is towards providing tools for effective and diverse code generation that can match the performance of hand-written C or C++. The Bigloo system contains a Scheme...
's object system).
Multiple dispatchMultiple dispatchMultiple dispatch or multimethods or function overloading is the feature of some object-oriented programming languages in which a function or method can be dynamically dispatched based on the run time type of more than one of its arguments...
- Common LispCommon LispCommon Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
- Dylan
- GooGoo (programming language)GOO is a lexically scoped, dynamic, type-based, object-oriented programming language. It is designed to be simple, productive, powerful, extensible, dynamic, efficient and real-time. It heavily leverages features from many earlier languages. In particular, it attempts to be a simpler, more dynamic,...
- Cecil
Single dispatch
- ActorActor (programming language)The Actor programming language was invented by Charles Duff of The Whitewater Group in 1988. It was an offshoot of some object-oriented extensions to the Forth language he had been working on....
- Ada 95Ada (programming language)Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages...
and Ada 2005Ada (programming language)Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages...
(multi-purpose language) - BETABETABETA is a pure object-oriented language originating within the "Scandinavian School" in object-orientation where the first object-oriented language Simula was developed....
- C++C++C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
- C#
- Oxygene (formerly known as Chrome)
- ChucKChucKChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance, which runs on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and iPhone/iPad. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such...
- CobraCobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)Cobra is an object-oriented programming language produced by Cobra Language LLC. Cobra is designed by Chuck Esterbrook, and runs on the Microsoft .NET and Mono platforms. It is strongly influenced by Python, C#, Eiffel, Objective-C, and other programming languages. It supports both static and...
- ColdFusionColdFusionIn computing, ColdFusion is the name of a commercial rapid application development platform invented by Jeremy and JJ Allaire in 1995. ColdFusion was originally designed to make it easier to connect simple HTML pages to a database, by version 2 it had...
- Corn
- Curl
- DD (programming language)The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
- DASLDASL - Distributed Application Specification LanguageThe DASL Programming Language is a high-level, strongly typed programming language originally developed at Sun Microsystems Laboratories between 1999 and 2003 as part of the...
- DelphiObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
- dylan.NET
- EE (programming language)E is an object-oriented programming language for secure distributed computing, created by Mark S. Miller, Dan Bornstein, and others at Electric Communities in 1997. E is mainly descended from the concurrent language Joule and from Original-E, a set of extensions to Java for secure distributed...
- GNU EGNU EGNU E is an extension of C++ designed for writing software systems tosupport persistent applications, it was designed as part of the.- External links :* [ftp://ftp.cs.wisc.edu/exodus/E/ GNU E software and papers]*...
- eC (Ecere C)
- EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
- SatherSatherSather is an object-oriented programming language. It originated circa 1990 at the International Computer Science Institute at the University of California, Berkeley, developed by an international team led by Steve Omohundro...
- UbercodeUbercodeUbercode is a high level programming language designed by and released in 2005 for Microsoft Windows. Ubercode is influenced by the Eiffel and BASIC...
- Sather
- FancyFancy (programming language)Fancy is a pure object-oriented programming language that is heavily influenced by Smalltalk and Ruby. The language is currently under development as an open source project by Christopher Bertels.- Development :...
- F-Script
- Fortran 2003
- Fortress
- FPrFPr (programming language)FPr is a programming language that is an implementation of an FP-System. FP was invented by John Backus and described in his Turing Award lecture...
- GambasGambasGambas is the name of an object-oriented dialect of the BASIC programming language as well as the integrated development environment that accompanies it. Designed to run on Linux and other Unix-like computer operating systems, its name is a recursive acronym for Gambas Almost Means Basic...
- Game Maker LanguageGame Maker LanguageGame Maker Language is a scripting language developed for use with a computer game creation application called Game Maker. It was originally created by Mark Overmars to supplement the drag-and-drop action system used in Game Maker...
- Harbour
- JJ (programming language)The J programming language, developed in the early 1990s by Kenneth E. Iverson and Roger Hui, is a synthesis of APL and the FP and FL function-level languages created by John Backus....
- JavaJava (programming language)Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
- Groovy
- Join JavaJoin JavaJoin Java is a programming language that extends the standard Java programming language with the join semantics of the join-calculus. It was written at the University of South Australia within the Reconfigurable Computing Lab by Dr...
- Tea
- X10X10 (programming language)X10 is a programming language being developed by IBM at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center as part of the Productive, Easy-to-use, Reliable Computing System project funded by DARPA's High Productivity Computing Systems program...
- Kite
- LabVIEWLabVIEWLabVIEW is a system design platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. LabVIEW provides engineers and scientists with the tools needed to create and deploy measurement and control systems.The graphical language is named "G"...
- Lava
- Lua
- Modula-2Modula-2Modula-2 is a computer programming language designed and developed between 1977 and 1980 by Niklaus Wirth at ETH Zurich as a revision of Pascal to serve as the sole programming language for the operating system and application software for the personal workstation Lilith...
(data abstraction, information hiding, strong typing, full modularity)- Modula-3Modula-3In computer science, Modula-3 is a programming language conceived as a successor to an upgraded version of Modula-2 known as Modula-2+. While it has been influential in research circles it has not been adopted widely in industry...
(added more object oriented features to Modula-2)
- Modula-3
- Moto
- Nemerle
- IBM NetRexx
- Oberon-2 (full object orientation equivalence in an original, strongly typed, Wirthian manner)
- Object PascalObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
- Object REXXObject REXXThe Object REXX programming language is an object-oriented scripting language initially produced by IBM for OS/2. It is a follow-on to and a significant extension of the "Classic Rexx" language originally created for the CMS component of VM/SP and later ported to MVS, OS/2 and PC DOS.On October 12,...
- Objective-CObjective-CObjective-C is a reflective, object-oriented programming language that adds Smalltalk-style messaging to the C programming language.Today, it is used primarily on Apple's Mac OS X and iOS: two environments derived from the OpenStep standard, though not compliant with it...
(a superset of C adding a SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
derived object model and message passing syntax) - Objective CamlObjective CamlOCaml , originally known as Objective Caml, is the main implementation of the Caml programming language, created by Xavier Leroy, Jérôme Vouillon, Damien Doligez, Didier Rémy and others in 1996...
- OzOz (programming language)Oz is a multiparadigm programming language, developed in the Programming Systems Lab at Université catholique de Louvain, for programming language education. It has a canonical textbook: Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming....
- Mozart Programming SystemMozart Programming SystemThe Mozart Programming System is a multiplatform implementation of the Oz programming language developed by an international group, the Mozart Consortium, which originally consisted of Saarland University, the Swedish Institute of Computer Science, and the Université catholique de Louvain.Mozart...
- Mozart Programming System
- Perl 5PerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
- PHPPHPPHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
- Pliant
- ppC++
- PrographPrographPrograph is a visual, object-oriented, dataflow, multiparadigm programming language that uses iconic symbols to represent actions to be taken on data. Commercial Prograph software development environments such as Prograph Classic and Prograph CPX were available for the Apple Macintosh and Windows...
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
(object oriented interpretive language) - Revolution (programmer does not get to pick the objects)
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
- Scala
- Seccia (assisted object-oriented programming)
- SimulaSimulaSimula is a name for two programming languages, Simula I and Simula 67, developed in the 1960s at the Norwegian Computing Center in Oslo, by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard...
(the first object oriented language, developed by Ole-Johan DahlOle-Johan DahlOle-Johan Dahl was a Norwegian computer scientist and is considered to be one of the fathers of Simula and object-oriented programming along with Kristen Nygaard.- Career :...
and Kristen NygaardKristen NygaardKristen Nygaard was a Norwegian computer scientist, programming language pioneer and politician. He was born in Oslo and died of a heart attack in 2002.-Object-oriented programming:...
) - SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
(pure object-orientation, developed at Xerox PARC)- BistroBistro (programming language)The Bistro programming language is object oriented, dynamically typed, and reflective. It is intended to integrate features of Smalltalk and Java, running as a variant of Smalltalk that runs atop any Java virtual machine conforming to Sun Microsystems' Java specification...
- F-Script
- Little SmalltalkLittle SmalltalkLittle Smalltalk is a non-standard dialect of the Smalltalk programming language invented by Timothy Budd. It was originally described in the book: "A Little Smalltalk", Timothy Budd, Addison-Wesley, 1987, ISBN 0-201-10698-1....
- SqueakSqueakThe Squeak programming language is a Smalltalk implementation. It is object-oriented, class-based and reflective.It was derived directly from Smalltalk-80 by a group at Apple Computer that included some of the original Smalltalk-80 developers...
- Scratch
- IBM VisualAge
- VisualWorksVisualWorksVisualWorks is a cross-platform implementation of the Smalltalk language. It is implemented as a development system based on "images", which are dynamic collections of software objects, each contained in a system image....
- Bistro
- SPINParallax PropellerThe Parallax P8X32A Propeller chip, introduced in 2006, is a multi-core architecture parallel microcontroller with eight 32-bit RISC CPU cores....
- SuperColliderSupercolliderA Supercollider is a high energy particle accelerator. The term may refer to:* Superconducting Super Collider, planned 80 km project in Texas, canceled in 1993...
- VBScriptVBScriptVBScript is an Active Scripting language developed by Microsoft that is modeled on Visual Basic. It is designed as a “lightweight” language with a fast interpreter for use in a wide variety of Microsoft environments...
(Microsoft Office 'macro scripting' language) - Visual DataFlexVisual DataFlexVisual DataFlex is a 4GL windows programming language by Data Access, targeted at creating database and client-server type programs.- Architecture :Visual DataFlex has a 3-layer architecture:Bottom layer: At this level you have the database tables....
- Visual FoxProVisual FoxProVisual FoxPro is a data-centric object-oriented and procedural programming language produced by Microsoft. It is derived from FoxPro which was developed by Fox Software beginning in 1984. Fox Technologies merged with Microsoft in 1992, after which the software acquired further features and the...
- Visual PrologVisual PrologVisual Prolog, also formerly known as PDC Prolog and Turbo Prolog, is a strongly typed object-oriented extension of Prolog. As Turbo Prolog it was marketed by Borland, but it is now developed and marketed by the Danish firm Prolog Development Center that originally developed it...
- X++Microsoft Dynamics AXis one of Microsoft’s enterprise resource planning software products. It is part of the Microsoft Dynamics family.-History:Microsoft Dynamics AX was originally developed as a collaboration between IBM and Damgaard as IBM Axapta. IBM returned all rights in the product to Damgaard shortly after the...
- XOTclXOTclXOTcl is an object-oriented extension for the Tool Command Language created by Gustaf Neumann and Uwe Zdun. It is an extension of the MIT OTcl. XOTcl supports metaclasses. Class and method definitions are completely dynamic...
Object-oriented prototype-based languages
Prototype-based languagesPrototype-based programming
Prototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which classes are not present, and behavior reuse is performed via a process of cloning existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as classless, prototype-oriented or instance-based programming...
are object-oriented languages where the distinction between classes and instances has been removed:
- ABCL/1Actor-Based Concurrent LanguageActor-Based Concurrent Language is a family of programming languages, developed in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s.-ABCL/1:ABCL/1 is a prototype-based concurrent programming language for the ABCL MIMD system, created in 1986 by Akinori Yonezawa, of the Department of Information Science at the...
- ABCL/RActor-Based Concurrent LanguageActor-Based Concurrent Language is a family of programming languages, developed in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s.-ABCL/1:ABCL/1 is a prototype-based concurrent programming language for the ABCL MIMD system, created in 1986 by Akinori Yonezawa, of the Department of Information Science at the...
- ABCL/R2Actor-Based Concurrent LanguageActor-Based Concurrent Language is a family of programming languages, developed in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s.-ABCL/1:ABCL/1 is a prototype-based concurrent programming language for the ABCL MIMD system, created in 1986 by Akinori Yonezawa, of the Department of Information Science at the...
- ABCL/c plusActor-Based Concurrent LanguageActor-Based Concurrent Language is a family of programming languages, developed in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s.-ABCL/1:ABCL/1 is a prototype-based concurrent programming language for the ABCL MIMD system, created in 1986 by Akinori Yonezawa, of the Department of Information Science at the...
- Agora
- Cecil
- ECMAScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
- ActionScriptActionScriptActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
- ECMAScript for XML
- JavaScriptJavaScriptJavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
(first named Mocha, then LiveScript) - JScriptJScriptJScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
- ActionScript
- EtoysEToys (Programming Language)Etoys is a child-friendly computer environment and object-oriented prototype-based programming language for use in education.Etoys is a media-rich authoring environment with a scripted object model for many different objects that runs on different platforms and is free and open source.- Brief...
in SqueakSqueakThe Squeak programming language is a Smalltalk implementation. It is object-oriented, class-based and reflective.It was derived directly from Smalltalk-80 by a group at Apple Computer that included some of the original Smalltalk-80 developers... - Glyphic Script
- IoIo (programming language)Io is a pure object-oriented programming language inspired by Smalltalk, Self, Lua, Lisp, Act1, and NewtonScript. Io has a prototype-based object model similar to the ones in Self and NewtonScript, eliminating the distinction between instance and class. Like Smalltalk, everything is an object and...
- LisaacLisaacLisaac is a compiled object-oriented programming language based on prototype concepts, with system programming facilities and design by contract....
- Lua
- MOO
- NewtonScriptNewtonScriptNewtonScript is a prototype based programming language created to write programs for the Newton platform. It is heavily influenced by the Self computer language, but modified to be more suited to needs of mobile and embedded devices.- History :...
- Obliq
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- REBOLREBOLREBOL is a cross-platform data exchange language and a multi-paradigm dynamic programming language originally designed by Carl Sassenrath for network communications and distributed computing. The language and its official implementation, which is a proprietary freely redistributable software are...
- Self (the first prototype-based language, derived from SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
) - TADSTADSText Adventure Development System is a prototype-based domain-specific programming language and set of standard libraries for creating interactive fiction games.-History:...
Off-side rule languages
Off-side ruleOff-side rule
A computer programming language is said to adhere to the off-side rule if the scope of declarations in that language is expressed by their indentation. The term and the idea are attributed to Peter J. Landin, and the term can be seen as a pun on the offside law of football .- Definition :Peter J...
languages are those where blocks are formed, indicated, by their indentation
Indentation
An indentation may refer to:* A notch, or deep recesses; for instance in a coastline, or a carving in rock* The placement of text farther to the right to separate it from surrounding text....
.
- ISWIMISWIMISWIM is an abstract computer programming language devised by Peter J. Landin and first described in his article, The Next 700 Programming Languages, published in the Communications of the ACM in 1966...
, the abstract language that introduced the rule - ABC, Python's parent
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- CobraCobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)Cobra is an object-oriented programming language produced by Cobra Language LLC. Cobra is designed by Chuck Esterbrook, and runs on the Microsoft .NET and Mono platforms. It is strongly influenced by Python, C#, Eiffel, Objective-C, and other programming languages. It supports both static and...
- Boo
- Cobra
- Python
- HyperTalkHyperTalkHyperTalk is a high-level, procedural programming language created in 1987 by Dan Winkler and used in conjunction with Apple Computer's HyperCard hypermedia program by Bill Atkinson. The main target audience of HyperTalk was beginning programmers, hence HyperTalk programmers were usually called...
- Ivy
- Miranda, Haskell's parent
- OrwellOrwell (programming language)Orwell is a small lazy functional programming language first released in 1984 by Philip Wadler. Developed as a free alternative to Miranda, it was a forerunner of Haskell. It was one of the first programming languages to support list comprehensions and pattern matching.The name is a tribute to...
- HaskellHaskell (programming language)Haskell is a standardized, general-purpose purely functional programming language, with non-strict semantics and strong static typing. It is named after logician Haskell Curry. In Haskell, "a function is a first-class citizen" of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the...
- Curry
- Orwell
- F#
- OccamOccam (programming language)occam is a concurrent programming language that builds on the Communicating Sequential Processes process algebra, and shares many of its features. It is named after William of Ockham of Occam's Razor fame....
- Pliant
- SPINParallax PropellerThe Parallax P8X32A Propeller chip, introduced in 2006, is a multi-core architecture parallel microcontroller with eight 32-bit RISC CPU cores....
- XL
Procedural languages
Procedural programmingProcedural programming
Procedural programming can sometimes be used as a synonym for imperative programming , but can also refer to a programming paradigm, derived from structured programming, based upon the concept of the procedure call...
languages are based on the concept of the unit and scope (the data viewing range of an executable code statement). A procedural program is composed of one or more units or modules, either user coded or provided in a code library; each module is composed of one or more procedures, also called a function, routine, subroutine, or method, depending on the language. Examples of procedural languages include:
- AdaAda (programming language)Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages...
(multi-purpose language) - ALGOLALGOLALGOL is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in the mid 1950s which greatly influenced many other languages and became the de facto way algorithms were described in textbooks and academic works for almost the next 30 years...
(extremely influential language design. The second high level language compiler.)- SMALL Machine Algol Like LanguageSMALLSMALL, Small Machine Algol Like Language, is a programming language developed by Dr. Nevil Brownlee of Auckland University.-History:The aim of the language was to enable people to write ALGOL-like code that ran on a small machine...
- SMALL Machine Algol Like Language
- Alma-0Alma-0Alma-0 is a multi-paradigm computer programming language. This language is an augmented version of the imperative Modula-2 language with logic-programming features and convenient backtracking capability. It is small, strongly typed, and combines constraint programming, a limited number of features...
- BASICBASICBASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use - the name is an acronym from Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code....
(BASICs are innocent of most modularity in (especially) versions before about 1990) - BCPLBCPLBCPL is a procedural, imperative, and structured computer programming language designed by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1966.- Design :...
- BLISS
- CC (programming language)C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system....
- C++C++C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
(C with objects + much else) - C# (similar to Java/C++)
- ChucKChucKChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance, which runs on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and iPhone/iPad. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such...
(C/Java-like syntax, with new syntax elements for time and parallelism) - COBOLCOBOLCOBOL is one of the oldest programming languages. Its name is an acronym for COmmon Business-Oriented Language, defining its primary domain in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments....
- CobraCobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)Cobra is an object-oriented programming language produced by Cobra Language LLC. Cobra is designed by Chuck Esterbrook, and runs on the Microsoft .NET and Mono platforms. It is strongly influenced by Python, C#, Eiffel, Objective-C, and other programming languages. It supports both static and...
- ColdFusionColdFusionIn computing, ColdFusion is the name of a commercial rapid application development platform invented by Jeremy and JJ Allaire in 1995. ColdFusion was originally designed to make it easier to connect simple HTML pages to a database, by version 2 it had...
- Combined Programming LanguageCombined Programming LanguageCPL was a multi-paradigm programming language, that was developed in the early 1960s.- Design :...
(CPL) - Curl
- DD (programming language)The D programming language is an object-oriented, imperative, multi-paradigm, system programming language created by Walter Bright of Digital Mars. It originated as a re-engineering of C++, but even though it is mainly influenced by that language, it is not a variant of C++...
- DASLDASL - Distributed Application Specification LanguageThe DASL Programming Language is a high-level, strongly typed programming language originally developed at Sun Microsystems Laboratories between 1999 and 2003 as part of the...
(partly declarativeDeclarative programmingIn computer science, declarative programming is a programming paradigm that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow. Many languages applying this style attempt to minimize or eliminate side effects by describing what the program should accomplish, rather than...
, partly imperativeImperative programmingIn computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state...
) - dylan.NET
- eC (Ecere C)
- ECMAScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
- ActionScriptActionScriptActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
- ECMAScript for XML
- JavaScriptJavaScriptJavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
(first named Mocha, then LiveScript) - JScriptJScriptJScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
- ActionScript
- EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
- FortranFortranFortran is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing...
(better modularity in later Standards)- F
- GoGo (programming language)Go is a compiled, garbage-collected, concurrent programming language developed by Google Inc.The initial design of Go was started in September 2007 by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson. Go was officially announced in November 2009. In May 2010, Rob Pike publicly stated that Go was being...
- Harbour
- HyperTalkHyperTalkHyperTalk is a high-level, procedural programming language created in 1987 by Dan Winkler and used in conjunction with Apple Computer's HyperCard hypermedia program by Bill Atkinson. The main target audience of HyperTalk was beginning programmers, hence HyperTalk programmers were usually called...
- JavaJava (programming language)Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
- Groovy
- Join JavaJoin JavaJoin Java is a programming language that extends the standard Java programming language with the join semantics of the join-calculus. It was written at the University of South Australia within the Reconfigurable Computing Lab by Dr...
- Tea
- JOVIALJOVIALJOVIAL is a high-order computer programming language similar to ALGOL, but specialized for the development of embedded systems .JOVIAL is an acronym for "Jules Own Version of the International...
- Lasso
- Modula-2Modula-2Modula-2 is a computer programming language designed and developed between 1977 and 1980 by Niklaus Wirth at ETH Zurich as a revision of Pascal to serve as the sole programming language for the operating system and application software for the personal workstation Lilith...
(fundamentally based on modules) - Oberon and Oberon-2Oberon (programming language)Oberon is a programming language created in 1986 by Professor Niklaus Wirth and his associates at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. It was developed as part of the implementation of the Oberon operating system...
(improved, smaller, faster, safer follow-ons for Modula-2)- Component PascalComponent PascalComponent Pascal is a programming language in the tradition of Niklaus Wirth's Pascal, Modula-2, Oberon and Oberon-2. It bears the name of the Pascal programming language but is incompatible with it. Instead, it is a minor variant and refinement of Oberon-2, designed and supported by a small ETH...
- Lagoona
- Seneca
- Component Pascal
- MATLABMATLABMATLAB is a numerical computing environment and fourth-generation programming language. Developed by MathWorks, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages,...
- MUMPSMUMPSMUMPS , or alternatively M, is a programming language created in the late 1960s, originally for use in the healthcare industry. It was designed for the production of multi-user database-driven applications...
(more modular in its first release than a language of the time should have been; the standard has become still more modular since then) - Nemerle
- OccamOccam (programming language)occam is a concurrent programming language that builds on the Communicating Sequential Processes process algebra, and shares many of its features. It is named after William of Ockham of Occam's Razor fame....
- PascalPascal (programming language)Pascal is an influential imperative and procedural programming language, designed in 1968/9 and published in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth as a small and efficient language intended to encourage good programming practices using structured programming and data structuring.A derivative known as Object Pascal...
(successor to ALGOL 60, predecessor of Modula-2)- Free PascalFree PascalFree Pascal Compiler is a free Pascal and Object Pascal compiler.In addition to its own Object Pascal dialect, Free Pascal supports, to varying degrees, the dialects of several other compilers, including those of Turbo Pascal, Delphi, and some historical Macintosh compilers...
(FPC) - Object PascalObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
(Delphi)
- Free Pascal
- PCASTLPCASTLThe PCASTL is an interpreted high-level programming language. It was created in 2008 by Philippe Choquette. The PCASTL is designed to ease the writing of self-modifying code...
- PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
- PL/CPL/CPL/C is a computer programming language developed at Cornell University with the specific goal of being used for teaching programming. It is based on IBM's PL/I language, and was designed in the early 1970s. Cornell also developed a compiler for the language that was based on its earlier CUPL...
- PL/IPL/IPL/I is a procedural, imperative computer programming language designed for scientific, engineering, business and systems programming applications...
(large general purpose language, originally for IBM mainframes) - PlusPlus (programming language)Plus is a "Pascal-like" system implementation language from the University of British Columbia , Canada, based on the SUE system language developed at the University of Toronto, circa 1971.- Description :...
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- RapiraRapiraRapira is an educational procedural programming language developed in the USSR and implemented on Agat computer, PDP-11 clones and Intel-8080/Z80 clones . It was an interpreted language with dynamic type system and high level constructions. The language originally had a Russian-based set of...
- RPG (only available in IBMIBMInternational Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas...
's System iIBM System iThe IBM System i is IBM's previous generation of midrange computer systems for IBM i users, and was subsequently replaced by the IBM Power Systems in April 2008....
midrange computers) - S-Lang
- VBScriptVBScriptVBScript is an Active Scripting language developed by Microsoft that is modeled on Visual Basic. It is designed as a “lightweight” language with a fast interpreter for use in a wide variety of Microsoft environments...
- Visual BasicVisual BasicVisual Basic is the third-generation event-driven programming language and integrated development environment from Microsoft for its COM programming model...
- Visual FoxProVisual FoxProVisual FoxPro is a data-centric object-oriented and procedural programming language produced by Microsoft. It is derived from FoxPro which was developed by Fox Software beginning in 1984. Fox Technologies merged with Microsoft in 1992, after which the software acquired further features and the...
- X++Microsoft Dynamics AXis one of Microsoft’s enterprise resource planning software products. It is part of the Microsoft Dynamics family.-History:Microsoft Dynamics AX was originally developed as a collaboration between IBM and Damgaard as IBM Axapta. IBM returned all rights in the product to Damgaard shortly after the...
- XL
- XMLmosaic
Reflective languages
Reflective languagesReflection (computer science)
In computer science, reflection is the process by which a computer program can observe and modify its own structure and behavior at runtime....
let programs examine and possibly modify their high level structure at runtime. This is most common in high-level virtual machine programming languages like Smalltalk
Smalltalk
Smalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
, and less common in lower-level programming languages like C
C (programming language)
C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system....
. Languages and platforms supporting reflection:
- BefungeBefungeBefunge is a stack-based, reflective, esoteric programming language. It differs from conventional languages in that programs are arranged on a two-dimensional grid...
- C#
- Charm
- ChucKChucKChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance, which runs on Mac OS X, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and iPhone/iPad. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such...
- CobraCobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)Cobra is an object-oriented programming language produced by Cobra Language LLC. Cobra is designed by Chuck Esterbrook, and runs on the Microsoft .NET and Mono platforms. It is strongly influenced by Python, C#, Eiffel, Objective-C, and other programming languages. It supports both static and...
- Component PascalComponent PascalComponent Pascal is a programming language in the tradition of Niklaus Wirth's Pascal, Modula-2, Oberon and Oberon-2. It bears the name of the Pascal programming language but is incompatible with it. Instead, it is a minor variant and refinement of Oberon-2, designed and supported by a small ETH...
BlackBox Component BuilderBlackBox Component BuilderBlackBox Component Builder is an integrated development environment optimized for component-based software development. It consists of development tools, a library of reusable components, a framework that simplifies the development of robust custom components and applications, and a run-time... - Curl
- DelphiObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
- ECMAScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
- ActionScriptActionScriptActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
- ECMAScript for XML
- JavaScriptJavaScriptJavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
- JScriptJScriptJScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
- ActionScript
- EiffelEiffel (programming language)Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer and Eiffel Software. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method...
- Forth
- Harbour
- JavaJava (programming language)Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
- Java Virtual MachineJava Virtual MachineA Java virtual machine is a virtual machine capable of executing Java bytecode. It is the code execution component of the Java software platform. Sun Microsystems stated that there are over 4.5 billion JVM-enabled devices.-Overview:...
- Groovy
- Join JavaJoin JavaJoin Java is a programming language that extends the standard Java programming language with the join semantics of the join-calculus. It was written at the University of South Australia within the Reconfigurable Computing Lab by Dr...
- X10X10 (programming language)X10 is a programming language being developed by IBM at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center as part of the Productive, Easy-to-use, Reliable Computing System project funded by DARPA's High Productivity Computing Systems program...
- Java Virtual Machine
- Lisp
- ClojureClojureClojure |closure]]") is a recent dialect of the Lisp programming language created by Rich Hickey. It is a general-purpose language supporting interactive development that encourages a functional programming style, and simplifies multithreaded programming....
- Common LispCommon LispCommon Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in ANSI standard document ANSI INCITS 226-1994 , . From the ANSI Common Lisp standard the Common Lisp HyperSpec has been derived for use with web browsers...
- Dylan
- LogoLogo (programming language)Logo is a multi-paradigm computer programming language used in education. It is an adaptation and dialect of the Lisp language; some have called it Lisp without the parentheses. It was originally conceived and written as functional programming language, and drove a mechanical turtle as an output...
- Scheme
- Clojure
- Lua
- Maude systemMaude systemThe Maude system is an implementation of rewriting logic developed at SRI International. It is similar in its general approach to Joseph Goguen's OBJ3 implementation of equational logic, but based on rewriting logic rather than order-sorted equational logic, and with a heavy emphasis on powerful...
- .NET Framework.NET FrameworkThe .NET Framework is a software framework that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a large library and supports several programming languages which allows language interoperability...
Common Language RuntimeCommon Language RuntimeThe Common Language Runtime is the virtual machine component of Microsoft's .NET framework and is responsible for managing the execution of .NET programs. In a process known as just-in-time compilation, the CLR compiles the intermediate language code known as CIL into the machine instructions... - Oberon-2 ETH Oberon System
- Objective-CObjective-CObjective-C is a reflective, object-oriented programming language that adds Smalltalk-style messaging to the C programming language.Today, it is used primarily on Apple's Mac OS X and iOS: two environments derived from the OpenStep standard, though not compliant with it...
- PCASTLPCASTLThe PCASTL is an interpreted high-level programming language. It was created in 2008 by Philippe Choquette. The PCASTL is designed to ease the writing of self-modifying code...
- PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
- PHPPHPPHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
- Pico
- Pliant
- PoplogPoplogPoplog is a powerful multi-language, multiparadigm, reflective, incrementally compiled software development environment, originally created in the UK for teaching and research in Artificial Intelligence at the University of Sussex.-History:...
- POP-11POP-11POP-11 is a reflective, incrementally compiled programming language with many of the features of an interpreted language. It is the core language of the Poplog programming environment developed originally by the University of Sussex, and recently in the at the...
- POP-11
- PrologPrologProlog is a general purpose logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is declarative: the program logic is expressed in terms of...
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- REBOLREBOLREBOL is a cross-platform data exchange language and a multi-paradigm dynamic programming language originally designed by Carl Sassenrath for network communications and distributed computing. The language and its official implementation, which is a proprietary freely redistributable software are...
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
- SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
(pure object-orientation, originally from Xerox PARC)- BistroBistro (programming language)The Bistro programming language is object oriented, dynamically typed, and reflective. It is intended to integrate features of Smalltalk and Java, running as a variant of Smalltalk that runs atop any Java virtual machine conforming to Sun Microsystems' Java specification...
- F-Script
- Little SmalltalkLittle SmalltalkLittle Smalltalk is a non-standard dialect of the Smalltalk programming language invented by Timothy Budd. It was originally described in the book: "A Little Smalltalk", Timothy Budd, Addison-Wesley, 1987, ISBN 0-201-10698-1....
- Self
- SqueakSqueakThe Squeak programming language is a Smalltalk implementation. It is object-oriented, class-based and reflective.It was derived directly from Smalltalk-80 by a group at Apple Computer that included some of the original Smalltalk-80 developers...
- IBM VisualAge
- VisualWorksVisualWorksVisualWorks is a cross-platform implementation of the Smalltalk language. It is implemented as a development system based on "images", which are dynamic collections of software objects, each contained in a system image....
- Bistro
- SnobolSNOBOLSNOBOL is a generic name for the computer programming languages developed between 1962 and 1967 at AT&T Bell Laboratories by David J. Farber, Ralph E. Griswold and Ivan P. Polonsky, culminating in SNOBOL4...
- TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
- XOTclXOTclXOTcl is an object-oriented extension for the Tool Command Language created by Gustaf Neumann and Uwe Zdun. It is an extension of the MIT OTcl. XOTcl supports metaclasses. Class and method definitions are completely dynamic...
- XOTcl
- X++Microsoft Dynamics AXis one of Microsoft’s enterprise resource planning software products. It is part of the Microsoft Dynamics family.-History:Microsoft Dynamics AX was originally developed as a collaboration between IBM and Damgaard as IBM Axapta. IBM returned all rights in the product to Damgaard shortly after the...
- XL
Rule-based languages
Rule-based languages instantiate rules when activated by conditions in a set of data. Of all possible activations, some set is selected and the statements belonging to those rules execute. Rule-based languages include:- awk
- CLIPSCLIPSCLIPS is a public domain software tool for building expert systems. The name is an acronym for "C Language Integrated Production System." The syntax and name was inspired by Charles Forgy's OPS...
- Constraint Handling RulesConstraint Handling RulesConstraint Handling Rules is a declarative programming language extensionintroduced in 1991 by Thom Frühwirth.Originally designed for developing constraint programming systems, CHR is increasingly used...
- GOAL (agent programming language)GOAL Agent Programming LanguageGOAL is an agent programming language for programming rational agents. GOAL agents derive their choice of action from their beliefs and goals. The language provides the basic building blocks to design and implement rational agents by means of a set of programming constructs...
- Jess
- OPS5OPS5OPS5 is a rule-based or production system computer language, notable as the first such language to be used in a successful expert system, the R1/XCON system used to configure VAX computers....
- PrologPrologProlog is a general purpose logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is declarative: the program logic is expressed in terms of...
- Poses++ (language of the simulation system with the same name)
- ToonTalk robots are rules
Scripting languages
"Scripting languageScripting language
A scripting language, script language, or extension language is a programming language that allows control of one or more applications. "Scripts" are distinct from the core code of the application, as they are usually written in a different language and are often created or at least modified by the...
" has two apparently different, but in fact similar meanings. In a traditional sense, scripting languages are designed to automate frequently used tasks that usually involve calling or passing commands to external programs. Many complex application programs provide built-in languages that let users automate tasks. Those that are interpretive
Interpreter (computing)
In computer science, an interpreter normally means a computer program that executes, i.e. performs, instructions written in a programming language...
are often called scripting languages.
Recently, many applications have built-in traditional scripting languages, such as Perl
Perl
Perl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
or Visual Basic
Visual Basic
Visual Basic is the third-generation event-driven programming language and integrated development environment from Microsoft for its COM programming model...
, but there are quite a few "native" scripting languages still in use. Many scripting languages are compiled to bytecode and then this (usually) platform independent bytecode is run through a virtual machine (compare to Java
Java Virtual Machine
A Java virtual machine is a virtual machine capable of executing Java bytecode. It is the code execution component of the Java software platform. Sun Microsystems stated that there are over 4.5 billion JVM-enabled devices.-Overview:...
).
- AppleScriptAppleScriptAppleScript is a scripting language created by Apple Inc. and built into Macintosh operating systems since System 7. The term "AppleScript" may refer to the scripting system itself, or to particular scripts that are written in the AppleScript language....
- AWK
- BeanShellBeanShellBeanShell is a Java scripting language, invented by Patrick Niemeyer. It runs in the Java Runtime Environment and uses Java syntax, in addition to scripting commands and syntax.- Features :...
- BashBashBash is a Unix shell written by Brian Fox for the GNU Project as a free software replacement for the Bourne shell . Released in 1989, it has been distributed widely as the shell for the GNU operating system and as the default shell on Linux, Mac OS X and Darwin...
- CandleCandle (programming language)Candle is a high-level general-purpose scripting language for both desktop and Internet applications. It unifies the core features of many XML related technologies like XQuery, XSLT, RELAX NG. Its first public beta release was on 12 Oct 2005...
- Ch (Embeddable C/C++ interpreter)
- CLISTCLISTCLIST is a procedural programming language for TSO in MVS systems. It originated in OS/360 Release 20 and has assumed a secondary role since the availability of Rexx in TSO/E Version 2....
- ColdFusionColdFusionIn computing, ColdFusion is the name of a commercial rapid application development platform invented by Jeremy and JJ Allaire in 1995. ColdFusion was originally designed to make it easier to connect simple HTML pages to a database, by version 2 it had...
- ECMAScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
- ActionScriptActionScriptActionScript is an object-oriented language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. . It is a dialect of ECMAScript , and is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of...
- ECMAScript for XML
- JavaScriptJavaScriptJavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language that is dynamic, weakly typed and has first-class functions. It is a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles....
(first named Mocha, then LiveScript) - JScriptJScriptJScript is a scripting language based on the ECMAScript standard that is used in Microsoft's Internet Explorer.JScript is implemented as a Windows Script engine. This means that it can be "plugged in" to any application that supports Windows Script, such as Internet Explorer, Active Server Pages,...
- ActionScript
- CMS EXECCMS EXECCMS EXEC, or EXEC, is an interpreted, command procedure control, computer programming language used by the CMS EXEC Processor supplied with the IBM Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System operating system....
- EXEC 2EXEC 2EXEC 2 is an interpreted, command procedure control, computer programming language used by the EXEC 2 Processor supplied with the IBM Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System operating system....
- F-Script
- FalconFalcon (programming language)Falcon is an open source, multi-paradigm programming language. Design and implementation is led by Giancarlo Niccolai, a native of Bologna, Italy and Information Technology graduate from Pistoia....
- FancyFancy (programming language)Fancy is a pure object-oriented programming language that is heavily influenced by Smalltalk and Ruby. The language is currently under development as an open source project by Christopher Bertels.- Development :...
- FrinkFrinkFrink, named after the fictional mad scientist Professor John Frink from The Simpsons, is a calculating tool and programming language designed by Alan Eliasen. It is built on the Java Virtual Machine and incorporates features similar to Java, Perl, Ruby, Smalltalk, and various BASIC implementations...
- Game Maker LanguageGame Maker LanguageGame Maker Language is a scripting language developed for use with a computer game creation application called Game Maker. It was originally created by Mark Overmars to supplement the drag-and-drop action system used in Game Maker...
(GML) - ICI
- IoIo (programming language)Io is a pure object-oriented programming language inspired by Smalltalk, Self, Lua, Lisp, Act1, and NewtonScript. Io has a prototype-based object model similar to the ones in Self and NewtonScript, eliminating the distinction between instance and class. Like Smalltalk, everything is an object and...
- JASSJASSJASS or JASS2 is an event driven scripting language used in Blizzard Entertainment's Warcraft III game and its expansion pack The Frozen Throne...
- Groovy
- Join JavaJoin JavaJoin Java is a programming language that extends the standard Java programming language with the join semantics of the join-calculus. It was written at the University of South Australia within the Reconfigurable Computing Lab by Dr...
- Tea
- Lua
- MAXScriptMaxscriptMaxScript command processor is an interpreter that implements a subset of the xBase programming language especially conceived to be used inside web pages to provide server side scripting capabilities....
- MELMaya Embedded LanguageThe Maya Embedded Language is a scripting language used to simplify tasks in Autodesk's 3D Graphics Software Maya. Most tasks that can be achieved through Maya's GUI can be achieved with MEL, as well as certain tasks that are not available from the GUI...
- Mondrian
- Mythryl
- PerlPerlPerl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular...
- PHPPHPPHP is a general-purpose server-side scripting language originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document...
(intended for Web servers) - PiktPIKTPIKT is cross-categorical, multi-purpose software for global-view, site-at-a-time system and network administration. Applicability includes system monitoring, configuration management, server and network administration, system security, and many other uses....
- PythonPython (programming language)Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Python claims to "[combine] remarkable power with very clear syntax", and its standard library is large and comprehensive...
- RR (programming language)R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
- REBOLREBOLREBOL is a cross-platform data exchange language and a multi-paradigm dynamic programming language originally designed by Carl Sassenrath for network communications and distributed computing. The language and its official implementation, which is a proprietary freely redistributable software are...
- REXXREXXREXX is an interpreted programming language that was developed at IBM. It is a structured high-level programming language that was designed to be both easy to learn and easy to read...
- Revolution
- RubyRuby (programming language)Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, general-purpose object-oriented programming language that combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like features. Ruby originated in Japan during the mid-1990s and was first developed and designed by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto...
- SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
- S-Lang
- sedSedsed is a Unix utility that parses text and implements a programming language which can apply transformations to such text. It reads input line by line , applying the operation which has been specified via the command line , and then outputs the line. It was developed from 1973 to 1974 as a Unix...
- TclTclTcl is a scripting language created by John Ousterhout. Originally "born out of frustration", according to the author, with programmers devising their own languages intended to be embedded into applications, Tcl gained acceptance on its own...
- TorqueScript
- VBScriptVBScriptVBScript is an Active Scripting language developed by Microsoft that is modeled on Visual Basic. It is designed as a “lightweight” language with a fast interpreter for use in a wide variety of Microsoft environments...
- Windows PowerShellWindows PowerShellWindows PowerShell is Microsoft's task automation framework, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language built on top of, and integrated with the .NET Framework...
(MicrosoftMicrosoftMicrosoft Corporation is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions...
.NET.NET FrameworkThe .NET Framework is a software framework that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a large library and supports several programming languages which allows language interoperability...
-based CLI) - WinbatchWinbatchWinbatch is a Microsoft Windows scripting language developed by Wilson WindowWare. Its environment includes an interpreter and a code editor along with a dialog designer and optional compiler to create self-contained executables....
- Many shell command languages such as the UNIX shellBourne shellThe Bourne shell, or sh, was the default Unix shell of Unix Version 7 and most Unix-like systems continue to have /bin/sh - which will be the Bourne shell, or a symbolic link or hard link to a compatible shell - even when more modern shells are used by most users.Developed by Stephen Bourne at AT&T...
or DCL on VMS have powerful scripting capabilities.
Stack-based languages
Stack-based languages are a type of data-structured languageData-structured language
In computing a data-structured language is a programming language in which the data structure is a main organizing principle, representation, model, for data and logic alike, in which both are stored and operated upon, i.e., program data and logic are structured and operated on in the same way, by...
that are based upon the stack
Stack (data structure)
In computer science, a stack is a last in, first out abstract data type and linear data structure. A stack can have any abstract data type as an element, but is characterized by only three fundamental operations: push, pop and stack top. The push operation adds a new item to the top of the stack,...
data structure.
- Cat
- colorForthColorForthcolorForth is a programming language from the Forth language's original designer, Charles H. Moore, developed in the 1990s. There was an earlier predecessor called 386 OK which appeared for sale at Silicon Valley Forth Interest Group meetings in 1992.An idiosyncratic programming environment, the...
- FactorFactor (programming language)Factor is a stack-oriented programming language created by Slava Pestov. Factor is dynamically typed and has automatic memory management, as well as powerful metaprogramming features. The language has a single implementation featuring a self-hosted optimizing compiler and an interactive development...
- Forth
- Joy (all functions work on parameter stacks instead of named parameters)
- PietPiet (programming language)Piet is an esoteric programming language designed by David Morgan-Mar, whose programs are bitmaps that look like abstract art. The compilation is guided by a "pointer" that moves around the image, from one continuous coloured region to the next...
- PoplogPoplogPoplog is a powerful multi-language, multiparadigm, reflective, incrementally compiled software development environment, originally created in the UK for teaching and research in Artificial Intelligence at the University of Sussex.-History:...
via its implementation language POP-11POP-11POP-11 is a reflective, incrementally compiled programming language with many of the features of an interpreted language. It is the core language of the Poplog programming environment developed originally by the University of Sussex, and recently in the at the... - PostScriptPostScriptPostScript is a dynamically typed concatenative programming language created by John Warnock and Charles Geschke in 1982. It is best known for its use as a page description language in the electronic and desktop publishing areas. Adobe PostScript 3 is also the worldwide printing and imaging...
- RPL
- Urq
Synchronous languages
Synchronous programming languageSynchronous programming language
A synchronous programming language is a computer programming language optimized for programming reactive systems, systems that are often interrupted and must respond quickly. Many such systems are also called realtime systems, and are found often in embedded uses. The term 'reactive' is chosen to...
s are optimized for programming reactive systems, systems that are often interrupted and must respond quickly. Many such systems are also called realtime systems
Real-time computing
In computer science, real-time computing , or reactive computing, is the study of hardware and software systems that are subject to a "real-time constraint"— e.g. operational deadlines from event to system response. Real-time programs must guarantee response within strict time constraints...
, and are found often in embedded uses
Embedded system
An embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a larger system. often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal...
. Examples:
- ArgusArgus (programming language)Argus is a programming language created at MIT by Barbara Liskov between 1982 and 1988, in collaboration with Maurice Herlihy, Paul Johnson, Robert Scheifler, and William Weihl. It is an extension of the CLU language, and utilizes most of the same syntax and semantics...
- AverestAverestAverest is a synchronous programming language and set of tools to specify, verify, and implement reactive systems. It includes a compiler for synchronous programs, a symbolic model checker, and a tool for hardware/software synthesis....
- EsterelEsterelEsterel is a synchronous programming language for the development of complex reactive systems. The imperative programming style of Esterel allows the simple expression of parallelism and preemption...
- LEA
- Lustre
- SignalSIGNAL (programming language)SIGNAL is a programming language based on synchronized data-flow : a process is a set of equations on elementary flows describing both data and control....
- SyncChartsSyncChartsSyncCharts is a graphical formalism dedicated to reactive system modeling. It allows specifying the reactive behavior, and the synchronous programming, of applications. SyncCharts is the name of the model. A syncChart is an instance. This language was created by Prof...
Syntax handling languages
These languages assist with generating lexical analzyersLexical analysis
In computer science, lexical analysis is the process of converting a sequence of characters into a sequence of tokens. A program or function which performs lexical analysis is called a lexical analyzer, lexer or scanner...
and parsers
Parsing
In computer science and linguistics, parsing, or, more formally, syntactic analysis, is the process of analyzing a text, made of a sequence of tokens , to determine its grammatical structure with respect to a given formal grammar...
for Context-free grammar
Context-free grammar
In formal language theory, a context-free grammar is a formal grammar in which every production rule is of the formwhere V is a single nonterminal symbol, and w is a string of terminals and/or nonterminals ....
s.
- ANTLRANTLRIn computer-based language recognition, ANTLR , or ANother Tool for Language Recognition, is a parser generator that uses LL parsing. ANTLR is the successor to the Purdue Compiler Construction Tool Set , first developed in 1989, and is under active development...
- CandleCandle (programming language)Candle is a high-level general-purpose scripting language for both desktop and Internet applications. It unifies the core features of many XML related technologies like XQuery, XSLT, RELAX NG. Its first public beta release was on 12 Oct 2005...
(instead of generating lexical analzyers or parsers, Candle takes EBNF kind of grammar and generate the AST of the source) - Coco/RCoco/RCoco/R is a compiler generator that takes an L-attributed Extended Backus–Naur Form grammar of a source language and generates a scanner and a parser for that language....
(EBNF with semantics) - GNU bisonGNU bisonGNU bison, commonly known as Bison, is a parser generator that is part of the GNU Project. Bison reads a specification of a context-free language, warns about any parsing ambiguities, and generates a parser which reads sequences of tokens and decides whether the sequence conforms to the syntax...
(FSF's version of Yacc) - GNU FlexFlex lexical analyserflex is a free software alternative to lex. It is frequently used with the free Bison parser generator. Unlike Bison, flex is not part of the GNU Project. Flex was written in C by Vern Paxson around 1987...
(FSF's version of Lex) - lex (Lexical Analysis, from Bell Labs)
- M4M4 (computer language)m4 is a general purpose macro processor designed by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie. m4 is an extension of an earlier macro processor m3, written by Ritchie for the AP-3 minicomputer.-Use:...
- yaccYaccThe computer program yacc is a parser generator developed by Stephen C. Johnson at AT&T for the Unix operating system. The name is an acronym for "Yet Another Compiler Compiler." It generates a parser based on an analytic grammar written in a notation similar to BNF.Yacc used to be available as...
(yet another compiler compiler, from Bell Labs) - JavaCCJavaCCJavaCC is an open source parser generator and lexical analyzer generator for the Java programming language. JavaCC is similar to yacc in that it generates a parser from a formal grammar written in EBNF notation, except the output is Java source code...
- Rats!
Visual languages
Visual programming languageVisual programming language
In computing, a visual programming language is any programming language that lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually. A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and graphic symbols, used...
s let users specify programs in a two-(or more)-dimensional way, instead of as one-dimensional text strings, via graphic layouts of various types.
- CODE
- Fabrik
- G (used in LabVIEWLabVIEWLabVIEW is a system design platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. LabVIEW provides engineers and scientists with the tools needed to create and deploy measurement and control systems.The graphical language is named "G"...
) - Lava
- LimnorLimnorLimnor is a generic-purpose codeless and visual programming system. The aim is to enable users to create computer software without directly coding in a texture programming language. It can be extended by software developers.- Vision :...
- MaxMax (software)Max is a visual programming language for music and multimedia developed and maintained by San Francisco-based software company Cycling '74. During its 20-year history, it has been widely used by composers, performers, software designers, researchers, and artists for creating innovative recordings,...
- NXT-G
- Pict programming language
- PrographPrographPrograph is a visual, object-oriented, dataflow, multiparadigm programming language that uses iconic symbols to represent actions to be taken on data. Commercial Prograph software development environments such as Prograph Classic and Prograph CPX were available for the Apple Macintosh and Windows...
- Pure DataPure DataPure Data is a visual programming language developed by Miller Puckette in the 1990s for creating interactive computer music and multimedia works. While Puckette is the main author of the program, Pd is an open source project with a large developer base working on new extensions to it. It is...
- Quartz Composer
- Scratch (written in and based on SqueakSqueakThe Squeak programming language is a Smalltalk implementation. It is object-oriented, class-based and reflective.It was derived directly from Smalltalk-80 by a group at Apple Computer that included some of the original Smalltalk-80 developers...
, a version of SmalltalkSmalltalkSmalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis." It was designed and created in part for educational use, more so for constructionist...
) - SimulinkSimulinkSimulink, developed by MathWorks, is a commercial tool for modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain dynamic systems. Its primary interface is a graphical block diagramming tool and a customizable set of block libraries. It offers tight integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and...
- Subtext
- ToonTalk
- VEEAgilent VEEAgilent VEE is a graphical dataflow programming software development environment from Agilent Technologies for automated test, measurement, data analysis and reporting. VEE originally stood for Visual Engineering Environment and developed by HP designated as HP VEE; it has since been officially...
- VisSimVisSimVisSim is a visual block diagram language for simulation of dynamical systems and model based design of embedded systems. It is developed by Visual Solutions of Westford, Massachusetts....
- vvvvVvvvvvvv is a general purpose toolkit with a special focus on real time video synthesis and programming large media environments with physical interfaces, real-time motion graphics, audio and video...
- EICASLABEICASLABEICASLAB is a software suite providing a laboratory for automatic control design and time-series forecasting developed as final output of the European ACODUASIS Project IPS-2001-42068 funded by the European Community within the Innovation Programme...
Some dataflow programming languages are also visual languages.
Wirth languages
Computer scientist Niklaus WirthNiklaus Wirth
Niklaus Emil Wirth is a Swiss computer scientist, best known for designing several programming languages, including Pascal, and for pioneering several classic topics in software engineering. In 1984 he won the Turing Award for developing a sequence of innovative computer languages.-Biography:Wirth...
designed and implemented several influential languages.
- ALGOL WALGOL WALGOL W is a programming language. It was based on a proposal for ALGOL X by Niklaus Wirth and C. A. R. Hoare as a successor to ALGOL 60 in IFIP Working Group 2.1. When the committee decided that the proposal was not a sufficient advance over ALGOL 60, the proposal was published as A contribution...
- ModulaModulaThe Modula programming language is a descendent of the Pascal programming language. It was developed in Switzerland in the late 1970s by Niklaus Wirth, the same person who designed Pascal...
- Modula-2Modula-2Modula-2 is a computer programming language designed and developed between 1977 and 1980 by Niklaus Wirth at ETH Zurich as a revision of Pascal to serve as the sole programming language for the operating system and application software for the personal workstation Lilith...
(and Modula 3, etc. variants)- Obliq Modula 3 variant
- OberonOberon (programming language)Oberon is a programming language created in 1986 by Professor Niklaus Wirth and his associates at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. It was developed as part of the implementation of the Oberon operating system...
(Oberon, Oberon-07, and Oberon-2)- Component PascalComponent PascalComponent Pascal is a programming language in the tradition of Niklaus Wirth's Pascal, Modula-2, Oberon and Oberon-2. It bears the name of the Pascal programming language but is incompatible with it. Instead, it is a minor variant and refinement of Oberon-2, designed and supported by a small ETH...
- Lagoona
- Oberon-2
- Component Pascal
- PascalPascal (programming language)Pascal is an influential imperative and procedural programming language, designed in 1968/9 and published in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth as a small and efficient language intended to encourage good programming practices using structured programming and data structuring.A derivative known as Object Pascal...
- Object PascalObject PascalObject Pascal refers to a branch of object-oriented derivatives of Pascal, mostly known as the primary programming language of Embarcadero Delphi.-Early history at Apple:...
(original name for Delphi language)
- Object Pascal
XML-based languages
These are languages based on or that operate on XMLXML
Extensible Markup Language is a set of rules for encoding documents in machine-readable form. It is defined in the XML 1.0 Specification produced by the W3C, and several other related specifications, all gratis open standards....
. Although the big-boy equivalents of Oracle/PostgreSQL/MSSQL don't yet exist for XML, there are languages to navigate through it and its more tree-oriented structure.
- AntApache AntApache Ant is a software tool for automating software build processes. It is similar to Make but is implemented using the Java language, requires the Java platform, and is best suited to building Java projects....
- CandleCandle (programming language)Candle is a high-level general-purpose scripting language for both desktop and Internet applications. It unifies the core features of many XML related technologies like XQuery, XSLT, RELAX NG. Its first public beta release was on 12 Oct 2005...
- Cω
- ECMAScriptECMAScriptECMAScript is the scripting language standardized by Ecma International in the ECMA-262 specification and ISO/IEC 16262. The language is widely used for client-side scripting on the web, in the form of several well-known dialects such as JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript.- History :JavaScript...
ECMAScript for XML - Jelly
- MXMLMXMLMXML is an XML-based user interface markup language first introduced by Macromedia in March 2004. Application developers use MXML in combination with ActionScript to develop rich Internet applications, with products such as Adobe Flex....
- LZXOpenLaszloOpenLaszlo is an open source platform for the development and delivery of rich Internet applications. It is released under the Open Source Initiative-certified Common Public License ....
- XAMLXAMLExtensible Application Markup Language is a declarative XML-based language created by Microsoft used for initializing structured values and objects. It is available under Microsoft's Open Specification Promise...
- XMLmosaic
- XPathXPathXPath is a language for selecting nodes from an XML document. In addition, XPath may be used to compute values from the content of an XML document...
- XQueryXQuery- Features :XQuery provides the means to extract and manipulate data from XML documents or any data source that can be viewed as XML, such as relational databases or office documents....
- XProcXProcXProc is a W3C Recommendation to define an XML transformation language to define XML Pipelines.Below is an example abbreviated XProc file: This is a pipeline that consists of two atomic steps, XInclude and Validate...
- XSLTXSL TransformationsXSLT is a declarative, XML-based language used for the transformation of XML documents. The original document is not changed; rather, a new document is created based on the content of an existing one. The new document may be serialized by the processor in standard XML syntax or in another format,...
See also
- Programming paradigmProgramming paradigmA programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. Paradigms differ in the concepts and abstractions used to represent the elements of a program and the steps that compose a computation A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming. (Compare with a...
s - IEC 61131-3IEC 61131-3IEC 61131-3 is the third part of the open international standard IEC 61131 for programmable logic controllers, and was first published in December 1993 by the IEC...
- a standard for PLCProgrammable logic controllerA programmable logic controller or programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines...
programming languages - Educational programming languageEducational programming languageAn educational programming language is a programming language that is designed primarily as a learning instrument and not so much as a tool for writing programs for real-world work.-Learning paths:...
- Esoteric programming languageEsoteric programming languageAn esoteric programming language is a programming language designed as a test of the boundaries of computer programming language design, as a proof of concept, or as a joke...