Municipal annexation in the United States
Encyclopedia
Municipal annexation is a process whereby a city government expands the city limits
into adjacent areas not already incorporated into cities
, village
s or other municipalities, and sometimes when they were. This is the usual response of a city to urbanization
in neighboring areas which seek municipal services or a city which seeks control over its suburb
s, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, although its use has been continued.
In the United States
, all local governments are considered "creatures of the state" according to Dillon's Rule, which resulted from the work of John Forrest Dillon
on the law of municipal corporation
s. Dillon's Rule implies, among other things, that the boundaries of any jurisdiction
falling under state government can be modified by state government action. For this reason, examples of municipal annexation are distinct from annexation
s involving sovereign state
s.
, Georgia
, then located only in Fulton County
, annexed into part of neighboring DeKalb County
(from which Fulton County had originally been divided). Because the original county borders retain legal significance, the expansion into two counties provides some problems such as when police arrest suspects on charges set forth in Georgia state
law and city police must determine to which county's jail they must be taken.
annexed portions of southern Westchester County
and in 1898, after another referendum, the city annexed all of Kings
, Richmond
, and most of Queens
counties. (The annexed portion of Westchester County is now Bronx county; the unannexed portion of Queens County is now Nassau County. As a result, Westchester County does not currently include any portion of the city of New York and Queens County is entirely within the city of New York.)
A "shoestring annexation" is a term used in the United States for an annexation by a city
, town
or other municipality
in which it acquires new territory that is contiguous to the existing territory but is only connected to it by a thin strip of land. It is sometimes called a "flagpole annexation" because the territory resembles a flagpole, in which the connection is the "pole" and the annexed territory the "flag".
Such annexations are sometimes used when a municipality seeks to acquire unincorporated
developed land, such as a newly built subdivision
separated from it by undeveloped open space. They may also be used when a municipality desires to annex a commercial or industrial area without taking over intervening residential areas, so as to collect tax revenues from the businesses or industry without having to provide services (such as electricity
and garbage
collection) to residents. Such uses of the technique are often criticized and derided as a form of gerrymandering
, and have in fact been used for the purpose of manipulating vote distribution among election precincts and districts.
A related strategy is called strip annexation, which involves annexing a narrow strip that encloses a large block of unincorporated land. Strip annexation was widely used by the municipalities of the Phoenix metropolitan area
during the 1970s to preemptively gain control of large areas of land before other municipalities, without having to annex more than a thin strip surrounding a large so-called county island
. The strip protected the county island from being annexed by other municipalities, thus giving the strip-annexing municipality the ability to slowly annex portions of the county island over time. One such annexation by Chandler
in 1974 spurred nearby Gilbert
to create the largest county island to date by annexing a strip no more than 200 feet wide that enclosed 51 square miles of unincorporated Maricopa County
. The annexation was challenged in court and, although found legal, eventually led to new legislation outlawing strip annexation, in 1980. Some municipalities rushed to annex before the law took effect, such as Scottsdale
, which annexed a 10 foot wide strip enclosing an 86 square mile county island. The term "strip annexation" is sometimes also used in the "shoestring" or "flagpole" sense.
Allston-Brighton
The Boston
neighborhoods of Allston
and Brighton were part of an independent town of Brighton before being annexed by Boston. However, at the time Brookline
extended to the Charles River
and separated Boston and Brighton. As a result, a shoestring annexation was obtained by Boston from Brookline when Brighton joined Boston. This was made necessary by Brookline's refusal to join Boston a year before Brighton's annexation.
Port of Los Angeles
The Port of Los Angeles
together with the San Pedro
, Wilmington
and Harbor City
neighborhoods of Los Angeles
, are connected to the main part of the city by what is called locally the "Shoestring Strip
" between Figueroa Street
and Vermont Avenue
(and between Western and Normandie
avenues to the south).
San Ysidro
San Ysidro
, part of the city of San Diego, is connected to the rest of the city by a narrow strip of land at the bottom of San Diego Bay
.
O'Hare Airport
O'Hare Airport is municipally connected to the city of Chicago
via a narrow strip of land, approximately 200 feet wide, running along Foster Avenue from the Des Plaines river
to the airport. This land was annexed into the city limits in the 1950s to assure the airport was contiguous with the city to keep it under city control. The strip is bounded on the north by Rosemont
and the south by Schiller Park
.
Santa Barbara Municipal Airport
Santa Barbara Municipal Airport is municipally connected to the city of Santa Barbara, California
by a 7 miles (11 km) long, 300 feet (91.4 m) wide corridor, most of which lies under the Pacific Ocean
.
Omaha, Nebraska
The 2005 annexation of Elkhorn, Nebraska
by Omaha
.
City limits
The terms city limits and city boundary refer to the defined boundary or border of a city. The area within the city limits is sometimes called the city proper. The terms town limits/boundary and village limits/boundary mean the same as city limits/boundary, but apply to towns and villages...
into adjacent areas not already incorporated into cities
City
A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement. Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.For example, in the U.S...
, village
Village
A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet with the population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand , Though often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighbourhoods, such as the West Village in Manhattan, New...
s or other municipalities, and sometimes when they were. This is the usual response of a city to urbanization
Urbanization
Urbanization, urbanisation or urban drift is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of global change. The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008....
in neighboring areas which seek municipal services or a city which seeks control over its suburb
Suburb
The word suburb mostly refers to a residential area, either existing as part of a city or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city . Some suburbs have a degree of administrative autonomy, and most have lower population density than inner city neighborhoods...
s, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, although its use has been continued.
In the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, all local governments are considered "creatures of the state" according to Dillon's Rule, which resulted from the work of John Forrest Dillon
John Forrest Dillon
John Forrest Dillon was an American jurist who served on both federal and Iowa state courts, and who authored a highly influential treatise on the power of states over municipal governments.-Early life and career:...
on the law of municipal corporation
Municipal corporation
A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which...
s. Dillon's Rule implies, among other things, that the boundaries of any jurisdiction
Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a formally constituted legal body or to a political leader to deal with and make pronouncements on legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility...
falling under state government can be modified by state government action. For this reason, examples of municipal annexation are distinct from annexation
Annexation
Annexation is the de jure incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity . Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being annexed is the smaller, more peripheral, and weaker of the two merging entities, barring physical size...
s involving sovereign state
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
s.
Crossing County Lines: Atlanta example
In 1909 the city of AtlantaAtlanta, Georgia
Atlanta is the capital and most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia. According to the 2010 census, Atlanta's population is 420,003. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, which is home to 5,268,860 people and is the ninth largest metropolitan area in...
, Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
, then located only in Fulton County
Fulton County, Georgia
Fulton County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. Its county seat is Atlanta, the state capital since 1868 and the principal county of the Atlanta metropolitan area...
, annexed into part of neighboring DeKalb County
DeKalb County, Georgia
DeKalb County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. The population of the county was 691,893 at the 2010 census. Its county seat is the city of Decatur. It is bordered to the west by Fulton County and contains roughly 10% of the city of Atlanta...
(from which Fulton County had originally been divided). Because the original county borders retain legal significance, the expansion into two counties provides some problems such as when police arrest suspects on charges set forth in Georgia state
U.S. state
A U.S. state is any one of the 50 federated states of the United States of America that share sovereignty with the federal government. Because of this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of domicile. Four states use the official title of...
law and city police must determine to which county's jail they must be taken.
Merging by Referendum: New York
Following referenda in 1874 and 1895, the city of New YorkCity of Greater New York
The City of Greater New York was a term commonly used originally to refer to the expanded city created on January 1, 1898 by the incorporation into the city of Richmond County, Kings County, Queens County, and the eastern part of what is now called The Bronx...
annexed portions of southern Westchester County
Westchester County, New York
Westchester County is a county located in the U.S. state of New York. Westchester covers an area of and has a population of 949,113 according to the 2010 Census, residing in 45 municipalities...
and in 1898, after another referendum, the city annexed all of Kings
Brooklyn
Brooklyn is the most populous of New York City's five boroughs, with nearly 2.6 million residents, and the second-largest in area. Since 1896, Brooklyn has had the same boundaries as Kings County, which is now the most populous county in New York State and the second-most densely populated...
, Richmond
Staten Island
Staten Island is a borough of New York City, New York, United States, located in the southwest part of the city. Staten Island is separated from New Jersey by the Arthur Kill and the Kill Van Kull, and from the rest of New York by New York Bay...
, and most of Queens
Queens
Queens is the easternmost of the five boroughs of New York City. The largest borough in area and the second-largest in population, it is coextensive with Queens County, an administrative division of New York state, in the United States....
counties. (The annexed portion of Westchester County is now Bronx county; the unannexed portion of Queens County is now Nassau County. As a result, Westchester County does not currently include any portion of the city of New York and Queens County is entirely within the city of New York.)
Shoestring annexation
City
A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement. Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.For example, in the U.S...
, town
Town
A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size a settlement must be in order to be called a "town" varies considerably in different parts of the world, so that, for example, many American "small towns" seem to British people to be no more than villages, while...
or other municipality
Municipality
A municipality is essentially an urban administrative division having corporate status and usually powers of self-government. It can also be used to mean the governing body of a municipality. A municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district...
in which it acquires new territory that is contiguous to the existing territory but is only connected to it by a thin strip of land. It is sometimes called a "flagpole annexation" because the territory resembles a flagpole, in which the connection is the "pole" and the annexed territory the "flag".
Reasons
In some states (for example, Texas) municipalities are prohibited from annexing land not directly connected to their existing territory. A shoestring or flagpole annexation allows the municipality to do so.Such annexations are sometimes used when a municipality seeks to acquire unincorporated
Unincorporated area
In law, an unincorporated area is a region of land that is not a part of any municipality.To "incorporate" in this context means to form a municipal corporation, a city, town, or village with its own government. An unincorporated community is usually not subject to or taxed by a municipal government...
developed land, such as a newly built subdivision
Subdivision (land)
Subdivision is the act of dividing land into pieces that are easier to sell or otherwise develop, usually via a plat. The former single piece as a whole is then known in the United States as a subdivision...
separated from it by undeveloped open space. They may also be used when a municipality desires to annex a commercial or industrial area without taking over intervening residential areas, so as to collect tax revenues from the businesses or industry without having to provide services (such as electricity
Electricity
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire...
and garbage
Waste
Waste is unwanted or useless materials. In biology, waste is any of the many unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from living organisms, metabolic waste; such as urea, sweat or feces. Litter is waste which has been disposed of improperly...
collection) to residents. Such uses of the technique are often criticized and derided as a form of gerrymandering
Gerrymandering
In the process of setting electoral districts, gerrymandering is a practice that attempts to establish a political advantage for a particular party or group by manipulating geographic boundaries to create partisan, incumbent-protected districts...
, and have in fact been used for the purpose of manipulating vote distribution among election precincts and districts.
A related strategy is called strip annexation, which involves annexing a narrow strip that encloses a large block of unincorporated land. Strip annexation was widely used by the municipalities of the Phoenix metropolitan area
Phoenix Metropolitan Area
The Phoenix metropolitan area, often referred to as The Valley of the Sun, is a metropolitan area, centered on the city of Phoenix, that includes much of the central part of the US state of Arizona...
during the 1970s to preemptively gain control of large areas of land before other municipalities, without having to annex more than a thin strip surrounding a large so-called county island
County island
A county island is an unincorporated area within a county, usually, but not always, surrounded on all sides by another incorporated area, such as a city. On maps, these geopolitical anomalies will form jagged or complex borders and 'holes' in the city limits...
. The strip protected the county island from being annexed by other municipalities, thus giving the strip-annexing municipality the ability to slowly annex portions of the county island over time. One such annexation by Chandler
Chandler, Arizona
-Demographics:As of the Census of 2010, there were 236,123 people, 86,924 households, and 60,212 families residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 73.3% White, 4.8% Black or African American, 1.5% Native American, 8.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 21.9% Hispanic or Latino, and 8.3%...
in 1974 spurred nearby Gilbert
Gilbert, Arizona
-Demographics:As of July 1, 2009, Maricopa Association of Governments, Census 2000. United States Census Bureau. there were 217,521 people, 74,147 housing units, and 3.01 persons per household....
to create the largest county island to date by annexing a strip no more than 200 feet wide that enclosed 51 square miles of unincorporated Maricopa County
Maricopa County, Arizona
-2010:Whereas according to the 2010 U.S. Census Bureau:*73.0% White*5.0% Black*2.1% Native American*3.5% Asian*0.2% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander*3.5% Two or more races*12.7% Other races*29.6% Hispanic or Latino -2000:...
. The annexation was challenged in court and, although found legal, eventually led to new legislation outlawing strip annexation, in 1980. Some municipalities rushed to annex before the law took effect, such as Scottsdale
Scottsdale, Arizona
Scottsdale is a city in the eastern part of Maricopa County, Arizona, United States, adjacent to Phoenix. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2010 the population of the city was 217,385...
, which annexed a 10 foot wide strip enclosing an 86 square mile county island. The term "strip annexation" is sometimes also used in the "shoestring" or "flagpole" sense.
Examples
The Boston
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
neighborhoods of Allston
Allston
-People:* Aaron Allston , an American novelist* Johanna Allston , an Australian orienteer* Robert Francis Withers Allston , a Governor of South Carolina...
and Brighton were part of an independent town of Brighton before being annexed by Boston. However, at the time Brookline
Brookline, Massachusetts
Brookline is a town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States, which borders on the cities of Boston and Newton. As of the 2010 census, the population of the town was 58,732.-Etymology:...
extended to the Charles River
Charles River
The Charles River is an long river that flows in an overall northeasterly direction in eastern Massachusetts, USA. From its source in Hopkinton, the river travels through 22 cities and towns until reaching the Atlantic Ocean at Boston...
and separated Boston and Brighton. As a result, a shoestring annexation was obtained by Boston from Brookline when Brighton joined Boston. This was made necessary by Brookline's refusal to join Boston a year before Brighton's annexation.
Port of Los Angeles
The Port of Los Angeles
Port of Los Angeles
The Port of Los Angeles, also called Los Angeles Harbor and WORLDPORT L.A, is a port complex that occupies of land and water along of waterfront. The port is located on San Pedro Bay in the San Pedro neighborhood of Los Angeles, approximately south of downtown...
together with the San Pedro
San Pedro, Los Angeles, California
San Pedro is a port district of the city of Los Angeles, California, United States. It was annexed in 1909 and is a major seaport of the area...
, Wilmington
Wilmington, Los Angeles, California
Wilmington is a district of Los Angeles, with industry as its primary economic activity. It lies adjacent to the Port of Los Angeles, San Pedro, and Harbor City. Wilmington is the site of Banning House and Drum Barracks, or Camp Drum, the only major American Civil War landmark in California. The...
and Harbor City
Harbor City, Los Angeles, California
Harbor City is a community within Los Angeles, California, United States. As of the 2000 census, the community had a total population of 24,640. The ZIP Code which serves Harbor City Post is 90710.-Geography:...
neighborhoods of Los Angeles
Los Ángeles
Los Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the commune of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123,445 inhabitants...
, are connected to the main part of the city by what is called locally the "Shoestring Strip
Harbor Gateway, Los Angeles, California
The Harbor Gateway is a neighborhood in southern part of the city of Los Angeles, California. As of the 2000 census, the neighborhood had a population of 39,860.-Description:...
" between Figueroa Street
Figueroa Street
Figueroa Street is a street in Los Angeles County, California named for General José Figueroa , governor of Alta California from 1833 to 1835, who oversaw the secularization of the missions of California...
and Vermont Avenue
Vermont Avenue
Vermont Avenue is one of the longest running north/south streets in Los Angeles, California with a length of about . Located just west of the Harbor Freeway for the major portion south of Downtown Los Angeles, it starts in Griffith Park at the Greek Theatre in the Los Feliz neighborhood as a...
(and between Western and Normandie
Normandie Avenue
Normandie Avenue is one of Los Angeles County's longest north-south streets. With a stretch of about 22.5 miles , it lies between Vermont Avenue and Western Avenue, starting off north of Franklin Avenue. At Wilshire Boulevard, the Metro Purple Line intersects at an underground subway station. ...
avenues to the south).
San Ysidro
San Ysidro
San Ysidro, San Diego, California
San Ysidro is a community in the southern section of San Diego. It is located in the southernmost part of San Diego County, immediately north of the U.S.-Mexico border. It neighbors Otay Mesa West to the north, Otay Mesa to the east, and Nestor and the Tijuana River Valley to the west...
, part of the city of San Diego, is connected to the rest of the city by a narrow strip of land at the bottom of San Diego Bay
San Diego Bay
San Diego Bay is a natural harbor and deepwater port adjacent to San Diego, California. It is 12 mi/19 km long, 1 mi/1.6 km–3 mi/4.8 km wide...
.
O'Hare Airport
O'Hare Airport is municipally connected to the city of Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
via a narrow strip of land, approximately 200 feet wide, running along Foster Avenue from the Des Plaines river
Des Plaines River
The Des Plaines River is a river that flows southward for through southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois in the U.S. Midwest, eventually meeting the Kankakee River west of Channahon to form the Illinois River, a tributary of the Mississippi River....
to the airport. This land was annexed into the city limits in the 1950s to assure the airport was contiguous with the city to keep it under city control. The strip is bounded on the north by Rosemont
Rosemont, Illinois
Rosemont is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States located immediately northwest of Chicago. The village was incorporated in 1956, though it had been settled long before that...
and the south by Schiller Park
Schiller Park, Illinois
Schiller Park is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States. The population was 11,850 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Schiller Park is located at .According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land....
.
Santa Barbara Municipal Airport
Santa Barbara Municipal Airport is municipally connected to the city of Santa Barbara, California
Santa Barbara, California
Santa Barbara is the county seat of Santa Barbara County, California, United States. Situated on an east-west trending section of coastline, the longest such section on the West Coast of the United States, the city lies between the steeply-rising Santa Ynez Mountains and the Pacific Ocean...
by a 7 miles (11 km) long, 300 feet (91.4 m) wide corridor, most of which lies under the Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.At 165.2 million square kilometres in area, this largest division of the World...
.
Omaha, Nebraska
The 2005 annexation of Elkhorn, Nebraska
Elkhorn, Nebraska
Elkhorn was a city in Douglas County, Nebraska, United States and is a present-day neighborhood on the western edge of Omaha. The population was 6,062 at the 2000 census and was estimated by the Census Bureau at 8,192 in 2005...
by Omaha
Omaha, Nebraska
Omaha is the largest city in the state of Nebraska, United States, and is the county seat of Douglas County. It is located in the Midwestern United States on the Missouri River, about 20 miles north of the mouth of the Platte River...
.
Further reading
- Jackson,Kenneth T. Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United StatesCrabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United StatesCrabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States is a book written by Kenneth T. Jackson. Published in 1985, it analyzes the development of American suburbs from their origins in the early 19th century. Jackson examines how a high quality of life in America came to be equated with home...
(Oxford 1987), An historical discussion of municipal annexation. - Staff. MRSC PUBLICATIONS › Annexation Handbook Publication, Municipal Research & Services Center of Washington.