Mysorean invasion of Kerala
Encyclopedia
The Mysorean invasion of Kerala (1763–1792) was the the military invasion
of parts of present day Kerala
, India
, by Hyder Ali
, the Muslim
de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore
and his successor and son Tipu Sultan
. Tipu Sultan's army is recorded to have forcefully converted over 400,000 Hindu
s to Islam
during this conquest. However, the Mysore invasion provided the English East India Company more chances to tight their grip on the ancient Nair
-Brahmin
feudal states of Malabar and converting Travancore
to a mere protected ally
Hyder Ali first marched
to present day Kerala in 1757 as per request of King of Palghat who was a long-time military foe of the Zamorin of nearby Calicut
. Hyder Ali, who at that time was the Faujdar
of Dindigul
under Kingdom of Mysore
, with a force of 2,500 horses and 7,500 men supported by Palghat troops, marched into Southern Malabar. The army defeated the Calicut army and reached as far as Arabian Sea
. The Calicut army failed because Hyder's troops were organised, armed and trained in the most modern fashion whereas Calicut army, like rest of armies of kings of Malabar
, relied on feudal levies. Zamorin eventually agreed to pay 1,200,000 as indemnity
to Hyder Ali and so Hyder Ali withdrew. King of Calicut, despite the invasion, did not modernise his army – a neglect for which he paid nine years later.
Soon Hyder Ali became the de facto head of Mysore Kingdom with the king a mere figure-head. Kingdom of Mysore
, a former vassal state of the Vijayanagara empire
, ruled by the Wodeyar
family was a powerful state in South India. In 1761, Hyder Ali seized control of all of the reins of power in Mysore. He turned his attention towards expansion which included the capture of the Kingdom of Bednur, Canara in 1763. In 1766, he descended into present day Kerala and, for the next 25 years, waged a futile and counter-productive struggle to subdue Malabar. Hyder occupied the Kingdoms of Chirakkal, Kottayam
, Kadathanad, Calicut, Valluvanad and Palghat and King of Cochin
accept his suzerainty and paid him tribute annually for from 1766 till 1790. Hyder Ali's attempt to defeat Travancore
, a British ally state south of Malabar, failed in 1767 and second effort by his son Tipu Sultan
in 1789–1790 also ended in failure. Moreover, Tipu Sultan provoked British invasion by attacking the Kingdom of Travancore in 1789. Thus Travancore
was only part of present day Kerala state that stood outside Mysore authority.
The army of Kolathiri Rajah failed to check or defeat Hyder's host. Ali Raja of Cannanore seized and set fire to the palace of Kolathiri Raja. The latter escaped with his followers to the then-British settlement of Thalasseri. After the victory, Hyder Ali entered the Kingdom of Kottayam in present-day North Malabar
and occupied it, with assistance from Kottayam Muslims, after some resistance by the Kottayam army.
The first serious resistance encountered by Hyder Ali's army was in Kadathanad. A broad picture of atrocities as described by a Muslim officer of Mysore army in his diary and as edited by Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib
, only surviving son of Tipu Sultan, is given as;
After the conquest of Kadathanad Hyder marched towards Calicut, the headquarters of Zamorin. Hyder claimed that his invasion was because Zamorin had failed to pay him the twelve lakhs as agreed in 1757. When Hyder approached Calicut, Zamorin sent his kin and kith to safehaven in Ponnani and Kottakkal. Zamorin himself was kept under house-arrest as he failed to pay Hyder's demanded sum and his finance minister was imprisoned and tortured to reveal any hidden treasures. Zamorin who was not permitted even to do his routine decided set fire to the gun-powder store of his palace and thus committed self-immolation.
Hyder marched south and then moved towards Coimbatore through Palghat. But before he left. he appointed Raza Ali as military viceroy and Madanna as civil viceroy of his newly acquired province of Malabar.
, Hindu
s hidden in the forests rebelled against him. They re-occupied forts and large portions of land with help of the monsoon
season. By June, Hyder Ali had returned and imposed his troops on the rebels, killing many and deported over 15,000 Nair
s to Kanara
. One of the most critical battles occurred in Bettett Pudiyangadi in Vettathunad where Hindus were defeated completely. The Mysore army stormed the village and re-occupied it.
The Gazetteers state that only 200 of 15,000 Nairs being deported to Kanara survived. Hyder's response was harsh, and after putting down the rebellion, many rebels were executed, and thousands of others were forcibly relocated to the Mysorean highlands. To prevent another armed uprising, Hyder Ali suggested anti-Nair laws to the district and levied additional taxes as punishment against rebellious Nair districts that had supported the English East India Company. Chaotically hundreds of Hindus escaped to the forest hideouts again.
In his book Tipu Sultan: As known in Kerala, Ravi Varma says: "Hyder Ali despatched his Brahmin messengers to woods and mountains, with the promise of pardon and mercy to the Hindus who had fled. However, as soon as the unfortunate Hindus returned on his promise, Hyder made sure that they were all hanged to death and their wives and children reduced to slavery."
Ravi Varma further states that:
After this events, an amnesty was proclaimed for the Nairs at Palghat. After the extinction of the Zamorin dynasty, second line successor to the thrown, the Eralppad, continued his attacks against the Mysore forces from South Malabar and eventually forced Hyder Ali to cede many parts of Malabar to local Hindu rulers, who were supported by the English East India Company.
At the start of 1767, the Mysore army unsuccessfully stormed the Kingdom of Travancore from the north.
In 1767, the whole of Malabar again revolted Hyder Ali's army of 4,000 men, who were defeated by 2,000 Kottayam Nairs in Northern Malabar. All baggage, arms and ammunition of army was looted by the Nair rebels. Mysorean garrisons were trapped by Nair rebels who seized the countryside and ambushed Mysore convoys and communications with great success.
The following year, the English East India Company, under Captain Thomas Henry, sieged the Sultan Bathery Fort (Avara fort) to interrupt the supply of arms to Kannur
of Ali Raja, with a promised help from local kingdoms. But the British were forced to retreat in the following war. Next year the Mysore forces retreated from Malabar to Coimbatore, successfully crushing the uprising and built the strategic Palakkad Fort
.
At the end of 1768, Hyder Ali surprised East India Company authorities by mobilizing 6,000 cavalry and a small number of infantry, and, in three days, marched 130 miles (210 km) to the gates of Madras. This show of force compelled the company to negotiate further. Hyder, who was seeking diplomatic leverage against the Maratha
s, wanted an alliance of mutual defence and offence. The company refused to accede to an offensive military treaty; the treaty signed at Madras on March 29, 1769, restored the status quo ante bellum
, except for Mysore's acquisition of Karur
, and also included language that each side would help the other defend its territory. As a result of this treaty and continued rebellions in Malabar, most of Nair kings got their kingdoms back as the ancient traditions of Kerala, but on high cost treaties, except the strategic Kolathunad and Palakkad
, the entries to Malabar. Years later, Kolathunad was given to Kolathiri through some negotiations. Skirmishes between Ali Raja and the company continued, and in 1770, the company reclaimed Randattara.
Pass and directly occupy the territories, claiming that Hindu Rajas had broke the ealier treaties. Hyder conducted a second invasion during 1774 as he saw the economical background of the Kingdom of Travancore. Slowly he moved southwards and reached Travancore in 1776 along with a huge army. Hyder Ali was negotiating with the Dutch
soon after conquering Malabar, but the Dutch, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel
to the Travancore Nair Army, decided to inform the King of Travancore of all developments.
Hyder wanted free passage to Travancore through Dutch territories, which was refused. Soon rumours of a proposed invasion of Travancore started developing after Travancore refused to stop the construction of Nedumkotta
fortification, which formed the Northern defences of Travancore. Also, Travancore has given refuge to the political foes of Hyder Ali from Malabar. Hyder Ali asked the Rajas of Cochin and of Travancore to compensate him for his Malabar campaign. Cochin was asked to pay a total of Rs.400,000 and ten elephants, while Travancore was asked to pay Rs.1,500,000 and thirty elephants. Although the Cochin Royals agreed to pay the amount and accepted the Mysore's superiority, King of Travancore replied, stating that it was "neither to please him nor in accordance with his advice that the invasion of Malabar was undertaken." But he stated that if Hyder Ali withdrew from Malabar with his forces and reinstated the local Rajas back in their kingdoms, he will provide some amount of money. Eventually the Mysore army began to move to Travancore from the north.
The Dutch military garrison at Cranganore Fort
tried to stall the movement of the Mysore to Travancore. So Hyder asked his commander Sardar Khan to take an army of 10,000 along the Cochin territory. In August 1776, Cochin were invaded from the north and the fort at Trichur
was captured. After the surrender of the Raja of Cochin, Hyder advanced to the Travancore Defence Lines. By this time Airoor and Chetuva Fort was ceded to Mysore. Meanwhile, the Dutch, with the help of the Travancore Nair Army, put down an attempt by the Mysore forces to capture the Cranganore Fort. The Raja of Cranganore, however surrendered to Hyder, though the Dutch stormed his palace and captured it in January 1778.
After this incident, Hyder's forces engaged in small scale attacks and ambushes throughout Malabar, with the Travancore, English and Dutch forces as well as with rooting Nair mutineers in North Malabar. By 1778, the Mysore allied themselves with the French
, who was at war with the British Empire
. In the same year, the English captured Mahe and Pondicherry. The newly-appointed king of Kolathunad was with the Mysore, providing crucial supplies to the war and by March, Kolathiri had occupied Randattara. Soon, Hyder Ali removed the kings of Kadathanad and Kottayam who were providing the English in their campaigns. However, after facing losses in Calicut, Palghat and Tinnevelly, Hyder retreated to Mysore before planning another attack on Travancore.
. By February 1782, Mahe, Dharpattom, Nitore, Calicut, and Palakkad Fort surrendered to the British under Major Abington followed by the death of Sardar Khan.
During the summer of 1782, East India Company officials in Bombay sent additional troops to Tellicherry, from whence they began operations against Mysorean holdings in the Malabar. Hyder Ali sent his elder Tipu Sultan and a strong force to counter this threat.
Tired of continues setbacks in Thalassery and other places, Hyder Ali then sent an army unit under Makhdoom Ali to Malabar to restrain the anti-Mysore rebellions. Meanwhile, Major Abington and Colonel Humberstone, who were in Calicut, were ordered to prevent the advance of Makhdoom Ali's army from the south. In the following battle in Tiroorangadi, more than 400 Mysore soldiers, including Makhdoom Ali, were killed. Colonel Humberstone chased the Mysore army to Ponnani, with the principal aim of capturing the Palakkad Fort. Due a thundering torrential storm in Ponnani River, however, Colonel Humberstone retreated to Calicut. Colonel Humberstone then moved his unit up to Trithala and the neighbourhoods of Mankeri Fort, but again retreated to Ponnani again due to the fear of a surprise attack from the Mysore-Ali Raja coalition forces intended to siege forces in the extreme conditions. Major Macleod subsequently reached Ponnani before taking over the command of British forces on the Malabar Coast.
Shortly, Tipu's forces stormed the English camped at Ponnani, but 200 of his men were killed so he temporarily retreated. Simultaneously, a naval force under Edward Hughes reached Ponnani, but the Mysore army threatened the struggling English with a dreadful attack at any time. But, when Tipu learned of Hyder Ali's sudden death on December 7, 1782, due to cancer. Tipu Sultan's precipitate departure from the scene provided some relief to the British force, but Bombay officials sent further reinforcements under General Matthews to Ponnani in late December to relieve before they learned of Hyder's passing.
The British captured Mangalore
in March 1783, but Tipu, now the ruler of Mysore, recaptured Bednorem before besieging and eventually capturing
Mangalore. At the same time, in the Tanjore region, Stuart's army joined with those of Colonel Fullarton before the latter marched along the Dindigul-Dharapuram-Palakkad route and sieged the Palakkad Fort
. Captain Midland and Sir Thomas under Colonel Fullarton successfully captured Palakkad Fort on November 14, 1783. During this time, company officials, having received orders from London to bring an end to the war, entered negotiations with Tipu Sultan. Pursuant to a preliminary ceasefire, Colonel Fullarton was ordered to abandon all of his recent conquests. However, due to allegations that Tipu violated terms of the ceasefire at Mangalore, Fullarton remained at Palakkad Fort. A prince from the Zamorin dynasty later emerged and the English retreated conferring the Fort to the prince. Tipu's forces marched to Palakkad fort and occupied it with the entire south Malabar.
In December 1783, General Macleod, with fresh support of the French, captured Cannanore from the Arakkal Beebi, who was a long time ally of Mysore in Malabar. This was followed by Beebi's failed negotiation attempt with the British.
The war was ended on March 11, 1784 with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore
, in which both sides agreed to restore the others' lands to the status quo ante bellum. Now by the treaty, the British (and the Nair kings) controlled the entire north Malabar, and Mysore ruled south Malabar. And by the treaty, General Macleod was forced to move back forces from Cannanore.
. Wilks further states that Tipu Sultan was jealous of and opposed Ayaz, since from the very beginning Hyder had considered the latter more intelligent. After the ascension of Tipu Sultan in 1782, Khan moved to the British side and lived rest of his life in Bombay.
In 1788, Ravi Varma
, a rebel hailed from the Zamorin dynasty, proclaimed his rule of the region and marched to Calicut with his Nair army. Though Tipu conferred on him a jagir, or vast area of tax-free land, to appease him, the Zamorin prince, after promptly taking charge of the jaghire, continued his rebellion against the Mysore power. The Nair army defeated under the superior Mysore lines lead by M. Lally and Mir Asar Ali Khan. However, during the above operations, Ravi Varma assisted not less than 30,000 Brahmins to flee the country and take refuge in Travancore.
Almost all female members and many male members of different Royal families such as Chirackal, Parappanad, and Calicut, and chieftains' families like Punnathoor, Nilamboor, Kavalapara and Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, fled to Travancore to escape from Tipu's army and temporarily settled down in different parts of Travancore. Even after the fall of Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatanam, many of these families preferred to remain in Travancore because of the Mappilas' atrocities in the past.
s against the heavy agricultural tax imposed by Mysore ruler. The rebels killed Manjeri Thampuran, a local Nair ruler, and captured Arshad Beg Khan. The rebellion was quickly crushed and Hassan, along with his son and his followers, were captured and taken as hostages to Srirangapatinam, where they remained until Tipu Sultan's death.
The kingdom of Travancore
had been a target of Tipu for acquisition or conquest since the end of the Second Anglo-Mysore War
. Indirect attempts to take over the kingdom failed had failed in 1788, and Archibald Campbell
, the Madras president at the time, had warned Tipu that an attack on Travancore would be treated as a declaration of war on the company. Initially Tipu Sultan tried to induce Travancore tactically with the help of the Kingdom of Cochin, but the King of Cochin refused and allied with Travancore.
Monitoring closely the invasion of Mysore on Malabar and Cochin, Travancore was prepared for a full scale military movement. The Rajah of Travancore also angered Tipu by extending Nedunkotta fortifications along the border with Mysore into territory claimed by Mysore, and by purchasing from the Dutch East India Company
the Cranganore and Pallippuram Forts, in the Kingdom of Cochin, a state paying tribute to Tipu.
In 1789, Tipu sent forces to the Malabar Coast to put down a rebellion; many fled to Travancore and Cochin in the wake of his advance. In late 1789, Tipu began to build up troops at Coimbatore
in preparation for an assault on the Nedumkotta
, a fortified line of defence built by Dharma Raja of Travancore to protect his domain. Cornwallis, observing this buildup, reiterated to Campbell's successor, John Holland, that an attack on Travancore should be considered a declaration of war, and be met with a strong British response. Tipu, aware that Holland was not the experienced military officer that Campbell was, and that he did not have the close relationship that Campbell and Cornwallis had (both had served in North America in the American War of Independence), probably decided that this was an opportune time to attack.
. Tipu reached Nedumkotta on December 28, 1789. Out of his army numbering several tens of thousands, about 14,000 along with 500 local Muslims marched towards the fortification. By 29 December, a large portion of the right flank of Nedumkotta was under the control of Mysore army. Only a 16 feet (4.9 m) wide and 20 feet (6.1 m) deep ditch separated the Kingdom of Travancore from Mysorean forces. Tipu commanded his soldiers to level up the ditch, so that his army can advance, while retreating Travancorean soldiers and militiamen regrouped on the other side of the ditch. Unable to fill the ditch under heavy fire from the Travancoreans, Tipu ordered his soldiers to march forward through a very narrow passage.[4] This move backfired on the Mysoreans, as a group of two dozen Nair militiamen from the Nandyat kalari under Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai ambushed their enemies half-way. A few dozen Mysorean soldiers died of direct gun-fire, and the commanding officer was killed. Many more panicked and in the ensuing chaos fell in to the ditch and died. The reinforcements sent by the Mysoreans were prevented from merging with the main contingent by a batch of the Travancore regular army. Tipu himself fell from his palanquin and was nearly stampeded. He was seriously wounded and was permanently lame.[5][6]
Afterwards, the Nairs of Travancore recovered the sword, the pallanquin, the dagger, the ring and many other personal effects of Tipu from the ditches of the Nedumkotta and presented them to the Maharajah of Travancore. Some of them were sent to the Nawab of Arcot (one of Tipu's archrivals) on his request. The Mysorean army suffered 2,000 deaths and many thousands were injured. Several high-ranking Mysorean officers were taken prisoner, including five Europeans and one Maratha. After the defea, Tipu regrouped and captured the Nedumkotta line several months later. His forces were once again defeated by the Travancoreans near the Alwaye River in 1790.
Atrocities committed in Malabar during the days of Tipu Sultan's military regime have been described in great detail in the works of many reputed authors. Notable among them, Travancore State Manual of T.K. Velu Pillai and Kerala Sahitya Charitam of Ulloor Parameshwara Iyer.
In a letter dated January 18, 1790, to Syed Abdul Dulai, Tipu writes:
at Calicut in December, while a second under Robert Abercromby
routed the Mysoreans at Cannanore
a few days later.
patrols stopping and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port of Mangalore.
. The districts of Malabar
, Salem
, Bellary and Anantapur
were ceded to the Madras Presidency.
During the rule of Tipu Sultan tens of thousands of Nairs, besides about 30,000 Brahmins, fled Malabar to seek refuge in Travancore, leaving behind their wealth,. According to M. Gangadharan, there is evidence that many Hindus were converted into Islam. In one of the most widely documented cases, the army invaded Kadathanadu and forcibly converted the Nair soldiers, who was holding out for many weeks against the much army without adequate weapons or food.
Upper- and lower-caste Hindus suffered from the Mysore invasion. Almost a fourth of the Nair population was wiped out and many more were forcibly converted. The Nambuthiris (Brahmins) were also severely affected. According to various rough sources, about half the Hindu population of Malabar fled the country to the forests or Tellicherry and Travancore. They included most of the Hindu Rajas and chieftains who could not resist the invading Mysore army. The Chirackal, Parappanad, Ballussery, Kurumbranad, Kadathanad, Palghat and Calicut royal families migrated to Travancore. The chieftain families which did the same were those of Punnathur, Kavalappara and Azhvancherry Thamprakkal. Even the Cochin royal family moved to Vaikkom Palace near the famous Shiva Temple when Tipu Sultan's army reached Alwaye.
Many members of the royal families of Malabar who migrated to Travancore preferred to remain there despite the withdrawal of Tipu's army and restoration of peace due to the harsh experience and the peculiar "psyche" of Muslim population in Malabar. The prominent royal families were; (1) Neerazhi Kovilakam, (2) Gramathil Kottaram, (3) Paliyakkara, (4) Nedumparampu, (5) Chempra Madham, (6) Ananthapuram Kottaram, (7) Ezhimatoor Palace, (8) Aranmula Kottaram, (9) Varanathu Kovilakam, (10) Mavelikkara, (11) Ennakkadu, (12) Murikkoyikkal Palace, (13) Mariappilly, (14) Koratti Swaroopam, (15) Kaippuzha Kovilakam, (16) Lakshmipuram Palace, and (17) Kottapuram.
Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma, the King of Travancore earned the title was addressed as Dharma Raja on account of his strict adherence to Dharma Sastra, the principles of justice by providing asylum to the thousands of Hindus fleeing Malabar. He is also credited with beating back Tipu's assault on Kerala.
. In Cherunad, Vettathunad, Eranad, Valluvanad, Thamarassery and other interior areas, local Mappilas unleashed a reign of terror on the Hindu population, mainly to retain the occupied land of Hindu landlords and to establish their domination over Hindus. Fearing the organised robberies and violence, people could not even travel freely in the Malabar hinterland of predominantly Mappila population.
Writing on January 19, 1790, to Badroos Saman Khan, Tipu Sultan said;
Father Bartolomaco, a Portuguese traveller and historian, claims;
In a letter dated February 13, 1790, addressed to Budruz Zuman Khan, Tipu Sultan writes;
Many Hindus belonging to lower castes accepted conversion to Islam under the Mysore rule. However, many others, especially the Thiyyas, fled to Tellicherry and Mahe.
to Palghat". This incident is known as The Order of Extermination
of the Nayars by Tipu Sultan. After entrusting Calicut to a powerful army contingent, he instructed it "to surround the woods and seize the heads of all Nair factions".
A small army of 2,000 Nairs of Kadathanadu resisted the invasion of the huge army of Tipu Sultan from a fortress in Kuttipuram for a few weeks soon the rebels were reduced to starvation and death. Tipu Sultan entered the fort and offered to spare their lives, provided they accepted conversion to Islam. After several days of resistance, and finding it difficult to defend the fort any longer, the Nairs submitted to the usual terms of surrender – a voluntary profession of the Islam or a forced conversion with deportation from the land. The unhappy Nair captives gave a forced consent and on the next day, they were converted and at closing the ceremony every individual of both men and women was forced to eat beef, which was prohibited to them by faith.
All the members of one branch of Parappanad Royal Family were forcibly converted to Islam except for one or two who escaped from Tipu's army. Similarly, one Thiruppad belonging to Nilamboor Royal Family was also forcibly abducted and converted to Islam. Thereafter, it was reported that further conversions of Hindus were attempted through those converts.
When the Kolathiri Raja eventually surrendered and paid tribute, Tipu killed him, dragged his dead body tied to the feet of an elephant through the streets, and finally hanged him from a tree-top to show his contempt for Hindu Rajas. Palghat Raja, Ettipangi Achan, who had surrendered, was imprisoned on suspicion and later taken to Sreerangapatanam. Nothing was heard of him subsequently.
While escaping from Tipu's army, one of the princes of the Chirackal Royal family in North Malabar was captured and killed in an encounter after a chase of few days. As per the accounts of Tipu's own diary and as confirmed by the English Company records, the body of the unfortunate prince was treated with great indignities by Tipu Sultan. "He had the dead body of the prince dragged by elephants through his camp and it was subsequently hung up on a tree along with seventeen of his followers who had been captured alive". Another chieftain, Korangoth Nair, who had resisted Tipu, was finally captured with the help of the French and hanged.
Vatakkankoor Raja Raja Varma in his famous literary work, History of Sanskrit Literature in Kerala, has written the following about the loss and destruction faced by the Hindu temples in Kerala during the regime of Tipu Sultan:
Hyder Ali had exempted temples from the payment of land tax. But Tipu Sultan forced the temples to pay heavy taxes. The famous Hemambika Temple at Kalpathi of the Palghat Raja who had surrendered to Hyder Ali, the Kachamkurissi Temple of the Kollamkottu Raja who had deserted the Zamorin and sided with Hyder Ali, and also the Jain Temple at Palghat suffered serious damages during the rule of Tipu Sultan. Other famous temples were looted and desecrated.
According to certain personal diary notes of Tipu Sultan, the Chirackal Raja offered to pay over Rs. 4 lakh in gold and silver to save the destruction of the local Hindu temples by Tipu Sultan's army. But, Tipu replied that "Even if the entire world is offered to me, I will not desist from destroying Hindu temples"
Offensive (military)
An offensive is a military operation that seeks through aggressive projection of armed force to occupy territory, gain an objective or achieve some larger strategic, operational or tactical goal...
of parts of present day Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
, India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, by Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born Hyder Naik, he distinguished himself militarily, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's rulers...
, the Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire...
and his successor and son Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan , also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the son of Hyder Ali, at that time an officer in the Mysorean army, and his second wife, Fatima or Fakhr-un-Nissa...
. Tipu Sultan's army is recorded to have forcefully converted over 400,000 Hindu
Hindu
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
s to Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
during this conquest. However, the Mysore invasion provided the English East India Company more chances to tight their grip on the ancient Nair
Nair
Nair , also known as Nayar , refers to "not a unitary group but a named category of castes", which historically embody several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom bore the Nair title. These people historically live in the present-day Indian state of Kerala...
-Brahmin
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
feudal states of Malabar and converting Travancore
Travancore
Kingdom of Travancore was a former Hindu feudal kingdom and Indian Princely State with its capital at Padmanabhapuram or Trivandrum ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. The Kingdom of Travancore comprised most of modern day southern Kerala, Kanyakumari district, and the southernmost parts of...
to a mere protected ally
Hyder Ali first marched
Zamorin–Palakkad war of 1756–1757
The Zamorin–Palakkad war of 1756–1757 comprised the attacks of the Zamorin of Calicut on the Kingdom of Palakkad, situated east to Calicut. The attacks were a continuation of the attacks on the Kingdom of Valluvanad, the traditional rivals of Calicut. In the one sided Valluvanad attacks the Zamorin...
to present day Kerala in 1757 as per request of King of Palghat who was a long-time military foe of the Zamorin of nearby Calicut
Kozhikode
Kozhikode During Classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, Kozhikkode was dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role as the major trading point of eastern spices. Kozhikode was once the capital of an independent kingdom of the same name and later of the erstwhile Malabar District...
. Hyder Ali, who at that time was the Faujdar
Faujdar
Faujdar/Fouzder/Fouzdar/Foujdar was a title awarded by Muslim rulers to people who had responsibility of protecting some territory.In pre-Mughal times, the term referred to a military officer but did not refer to a specific rank. With the administrative reforms performed by Mughal emperor Akbar,...
of Dindigul
Dindigul
Dindigul is a town and municipality in the Tamil Nadu state of southern India. The name Dindigul comes from the Portmanteau of “Thindu” meaning pillow and “kal” meaning Rock and refers to the bare hill dominating the city’s both land and skyscape...
under Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire...
, with a force of 2,500 horses and 7,500 men supported by Palghat troops, marched into Southern Malabar. The army defeated the Calicut army and reached as far as Arabian Sea
Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on the east by India, on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, on the south, approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui in northeastern Somalia and Kanyakumari in India...
. The Calicut army failed because Hyder's troops were organised, armed and trained in the most modern fashion whereas Calicut army, like rest of armies of kings of Malabar
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is a long and narrow coastline on the south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing mountain...
, relied on feudal levies. Zamorin eventually agreed to pay 1,200,000 as indemnity
Indemnity
An indemnity is a sum paid by A to B by way of compensation for a particular loss suffered by B. The indemnitor may or may not be responsible for the loss suffered by the indemnitee...
to Hyder Ali and so Hyder Ali withdrew. King of Calicut, despite the invasion, did not modernise his army – a neglect for which he paid nine years later.
Soon Hyder Ali became the de facto head of Mysore Kingdom with the king a mere figure-head. Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire...
, a former vassal state of the Vijayanagara empire
Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire , referred as the Kingdom of Bisnaga by the Portuguese, was an empire based in South Indian in the Deccan Plateau region. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of the Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts...
, ruled by the Wodeyar
Wodeyar
The Wodeyar dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Mysore from 1399 to 1947, until the independence of India from British rule and the subsequent unification of the Indian dominion and princely states into the Republic of India.The spelling Wodeyar/Wadiyar is found in most...
family was a powerful state in South India. In 1761, Hyder Ali seized control of all of the reins of power in Mysore. He turned his attention towards expansion which included the capture of the Kingdom of Bednur, Canara in 1763. In 1766, he descended into present day Kerala and, for the next 25 years, waged a futile and counter-productive struggle to subdue Malabar. Hyder occupied the Kingdoms of Chirakkal, Kottayam
Kottayam
Kottayam is a city in the Indian state of Kerala, spread over an area of 55.40 km2. It is the administrative capital of the Kottayam district. Kottayam Kottayam (Malayalam: കോട്ടയം) is a city in the Indian state of Kerala, spread over an area of 55.40 km2. It is the administrative...
, Kadathanad, Calicut, Valluvanad and Palghat and King of Cochin
Kingdom of Cochin
Kingdom of Cochin was a late medieval Hindu kingdom and later Princely State on the Malabar Coast, South India...
accept his suzerainty and paid him tribute annually for from 1766 till 1790. Hyder Ali's attempt to defeat Travancore
Travancore
Kingdom of Travancore was a former Hindu feudal kingdom and Indian Princely State with its capital at Padmanabhapuram or Trivandrum ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. The Kingdom of Travancore comprised most of modern day southern Kerala, Kanyakumari district, and the southernmost parts of...
, a British ally state south of Malabar, failed in 1767 and second effort by his son Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan , also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the son of Hyder Ali, at that time an officer in the Mysorean army, and his second wife, Fatima or Fakhr-un-Nissa...
in 1789–1790 also ended in failure. Moreover, Tipu Sultan provoked British invasion by attacking the Kingdom of Travancore in 1789. Thus Travancore
Travancore
Kingdom of Travancore was a former Hindu feudal kingdom and Indian Princely State with its capital at Padmanabhapuram or Trivandrum ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. The Kingdom of Travancore comprised most of modern day southern Kerala, Kanyakumari district, and the southernmost parts of...
was only part of present day Kerala state that stood outside Mysore authority.
Invasion by Hyder Ali
When news of Hyder's conquest of Bednur reached Ali Rajah of Cannanore in 1763, he promptly requested Hyder to invade Kerala and help him deal with Zamorin of Calicut. Hyder agreed and in 1766 he marched into Malabar with a force of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and a park of field guns.The army of Kolathiri Rajah failed to check or defeat Hyder's host. Ali Raja of Cannanore seized and set fire to the palace of Kolathiri Raja. The latter escaped with his followers to the then-British settlement of Thalasseri. After the victory, Hyder Ali entered the Kingdom of Kottayam in present-day North Malabar
North Malabar
North Malabar , is a historic as well as geographic distinction in India used to refer the area covering; present Kasaragod and Kannur Districts, Mananthavady taluk of Wayanad District and Koyilandy & Vatakara taluks of Kozhikode District in modern Kerala and the entire Mahé sub-Division of...
and occupied it, with assistance from Kottayam Muslims, after some resistance by the Kottayam army.
The first serious resistance encountered by Hyder Ali's army was in Kadathanad. A broad picture of atrocities as described by a Muslim officer of Mysore army in his diary and as edited by Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib
Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib
Shahzada Sir Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Khan Sahib, KCSI was the fourteenth son of Tipu Sultan, the Indian warrior-emperor of Mysore...
, only surviving son of Tipu Sultan, is given as;
After the conquest of Kadathanad Hyder marched towards Calicut, the headquarters of Zamorin. Hyder claimed that his invasion was because Zamorin had failed to pay him the twelve lakhs as agreed in 1757. When Hyder approached Calicut, Zamorin sent his kin and kith to safehaven in Ponnani and Kottakkal. Zamorin himself was kept under house-arrest as he failed to pay Hyder's demanded sum and his finance minister was imprisoned and tortured to reveal any hidden treasures. Zamorin who was not permitted even to do his routine decided set fire to the gun-powder store of his palace and thus committed self-immolation.
Hyder marched south and then moved towards Coimbatore through Palghat. But before he left. he appointed Raza Ali as military viceroy and Madanna as civil viceroy of his newly acquired province of Malabar.
Anti-Mysore Uprisings (Second half of 1766)
Shortly after Reza Sahib, who was Hyder Ali's lieutenant in command, returned to CoimbatoreCoimbatore
Coimbatore , also known as Kovai , is the second largest city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a major commercial centre in Tamil Nadu and is known as the "Manchester of South India"....
, Hindu
Hindu
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
s hidden in the forests rebelled against him. They re-occupied forts and large portions of land with help of the monsoon
Monsoon
Monsoon is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea...
season. By June, Hyder Ali had returned and imposed his troops on the rebels, killing many and deported over 15,000 Nair
Nair
Nair , also known as Nayar , refers to "not a unitary group but a named category of castes", which historically embody several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom bore the Nair title. These people historically live in the present-day Indian state of Kerala...
s to Kanara
Kanara
The Kanara or Canara region comprises three coastal districts of Karnataka, namely Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada and Kasaragod district of Kerala in southwestern India. Kanara forms the southern part of the Konkan coast...
. One of the most critical battles occurred in Bettett Pudiyangadi in Vettathunad where Hindus were defeated completely. The Mysore army stormed the village and re-occupied it.
In his book Tipu Sultan: As known in Kerala, Ravi Varma says: "Hyder Ali despatched his Brahmin messengers to woods and mountains, with the promise of pardon and mercy to the Hindus who had fled. However, as soon as the unfortunate Hindus returned on his promise, Hyder made sure that they were all hanged to death and their wives and children reduced to slavery."
Ravi Varma further states that:
After this events, an amnesty was proclaimed for the Nairs at Palghat. After the extinction of the Zamorin dynasty, second line successor to the thrown, the Eralppad, continued his attacks against the Mysore forces from South Malabar and eventually forced Hyder Ali to cede many parts of Malabar to local Hindu rulers, who were supported by the English East India Company.
At the start of 1767, the Mysore army unsuccessfully stormed the Kingdom of Travancore from the north.
In 1767, the whole of Malabar again revolted Hyder Ali's army of 4,000 men, who were defeated by 2,000 Kottayam Nairs in Northern Malabar. All baggage, arms and ammunition of army was looted by the Nair rebels. Mysorean garrisons were trapped by Nair rebels who seized the countryside and ambushed Mysore convoys and communications with great success.
The following year, the English East India Company, under Captain Thomas Henry, sieged the Sultan Bathery Fort (Avara fort) to interrupt the supply of arms to Kannur
Kannur
Kannur , also known as Cannanore, is a city in Kannur district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of the District of Kannur and 518km north of state capital Trivandrum. During British rule in India, Kannur was known by its old name Cannanore, which is still in...
of Ali Raja, with a promised help from local kingdoms. But the British were forced to retreat in the following war. Next year the Mysore forces retreated from Malabar to Coimbatore, successfully crushing the uprising and built the strategic Palakkad Fort
Palakkad Fort
Palakkad Fort is an old granite fort situated in the heart of Palakkad town of Kerala state, southern India. It was built by Haider Ali in 1766 ACE and remains one of the best preserved forts in Kerala.-History:...
.
At the end of 1768, Hyder Ali surprised East India Company authorities by mobilizing 6,000 cavalry and a small number of infantry, and, in three days, marched 130 miles (210 km) to the gates of Madras. This show of force compelled the company to negotiate further. Hyder, who was seeking diplomatic leverage against the Maratha
Maratha
The Maratha are an Indian caste, predominantly in the state of Maharashtra. The term Marāthā has three related usages: within the Marathi speaking region it describes the dominant Maratha caste; outside Maharashtra it can refer to the entire regional population of Marathi-speaking people;...
s, wanted an alliance of mutual defence and offence. The company refused to accede to an offensive military treaty; the treaty signed at Madras on March 29, 1769, restored the status quo ante bellum
Status quo ante bellum
The term status quo ante bellum is Latin, meaning literally "the state in which things were before the war".The term was originally used in treaties to refer to the withdrawal of enemy troops and the restoration of prewar leadership. When used as such, it means that no side gains or loses...
, except for Mysore's acquisition of Karur
Karur
Karur is a large town and a municipality in Karur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu situated on the banks of Amaravati. Karur district was formed on 30 September 1995 by trifurcating Tiruchirappalli district. It is the administrative headquarters of Karur District. Karur has a very long...
, and also included language that each side would help the other defend its territory. As a result of this treaty and continued rebellions in Malabar, most of Nair kings got their kingdoms back as the ancient traditions of Kerala, but on high cost treaties, except the strategic Kolathunad and Palakkad
Palakkad
Palakkad , formerly known as Palghat, is a municipality and a town in the state of Kerala in southern India, spread over an area of 26.60 km2.The city is situated about north of state capital Thiruvananthapuram. It is the administrative headquarters of Palakkad District...
, the entries to Malabar. Years later, Kolathunad was given to Kolathiri through some negotiations. Skirmishes between Ali Raja and the company continued, and in 1770, the company reclaimed Randattara.
Hyder Ali's Second Invasion
In 1773, Mysore forces under Said Saheb and Srinivasarao marched to Malabar through the ThamarasseryThamarassery
Thamarassery is a picturesque town in Kozhikode district of Kerala, India, 30 km east of Kozhikode City. It lies on the Calicut - Wayanad route...
Pass and directly occupy the territories, claiming that Hindu Rajas had broke the ealier treaties. Hyder conducted a second invasion during 1774 as he saw the economical background of the Kingdom of Travancore. Slowly he moved southwards and reached Travancore in 1776 along with a huge army. Hyder Ali was negotiating with the Dutch
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
soon after conquering Malabar, but the Dutch, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel
Battle of Colachel
The Battle of Colachel was fought on between forces of the Indian kingdom of Travancore and the Dutch East India Company, during the Travancore-Dutch War...
to the Travancore Nair Army, decided to inform the King of Travancore of all developments.
Hyder wanted free passage to Travancore through Dutch territories, which was refused. Soon rumours of a proposed invasion of Travancore started developing after Travancore refused to stop the construction of Nedumkotta
Nedumkotta
Nedumkotta or Travancore lines was a wall built as a protection against consistent invasion and threats from northern kingdoms mainly Zamorins of Kozhikode...
fortification, which formed the Northern defences of Travancore. Also, Travancore has given refuge to the political foes of Hyder Ali from Malabar. Hyder Ali asked the Rajas of Cochin and of Travancore to compensate him for his Malabar campaign. Cochin was asked to pay a total of Rs.400,000 and ten elephants, while Travancore was asked to pay Rs.1,500,000 and thirty elephants. Although the Cochin Royals agreed to pay the amount and accepted the Mysore's superiority, King of Travancore replied, stating that it was "neither to please him nor in accordance with his advice that the invasion of Malabar was undertaken." But he stated that if Hyder Ali withdrew from Malabar with his forces and reinstated the local Rajas back in their kingdoms, he will provide some amount of money. Eventually the Mysore army began to move to Travancore from the north.
The Dutch military garrison at Cranganore Fort
Cranganore Fort
Cranganore Fort, otherwise known as Kodungallur Fort, was built by the Portuguese in 1523 A.D. and was called Fortaleza da Sao Tome. The Dutch took possession of it in 1661 and later it came under the control of Tipu Sultan. The Dutch wrested it back from Tipu Sultan, but the fort eventually came...
tried to stall the movement of the Mysore to Travancore. So Hyder asked his commander Sardar Khan to take an army of 10,000 along the Cochin territory. In August 1776, Cochin were invaded from the north and the fort at Trichur
Thrissur
This article is about the city in India. For the district, see Thrissur district. For the urban agglomeration area of Thrissur see Thrissur Metropolitan Area...
was captured. After the surrender of the Raja of Cochin, Hyder advanced to the Travancore Defence Lines. By this time Airoor and Chetuva Fort was ceded to Mysore. Meanwhile, the Dutch, with the help of the Travancore Nair Army, put down an attempt by the Mysore forces to capture the Cranganore Fort. The Raja of Cranganore, however surrendered to Hyder, though the Dutch stormed his palace and captured it in January 1778.
After this incident, Hyder's forces engaged in small scale attacks and ambushes throughout Malabar, with the Travancore, English and Dutch forces as well as with rooting Nair mutineers in North Malabar. By 1778, the Mysore allied themselves with the French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, who was at war with the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
. In the same year, the English captured Mahe and Pondicherry. The newly-appointed king of Kolathunad was with the Mysore, providing crucial supplies to the war and by March, Kolathiri had occupied Randattara. Soon, Hyder Ali removed the kings of Kadathanad and Kottayam who were providing the English in their campaigns. However, after facing losses in Calicut, Palghat and Tinnevelly, Hyder retreated to Mysore before planning another attack on Travancore.
Second Anglo-Mysore War
On 2 July 1780, Hyder Ali declared war against the English East India Company, signalling the start of what was later called the Second Anglo-Mysore WarSecond Anglo-Mysore War
The Second Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in Mughal India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, and the Franco-British conflict raging on account of the American Revolutionary War helped spark Anglo-Mysorean...
. By February 1782, Mahe, Dharpattom, Nitore, Calicut, and Palakkad Fort surrendered to the British under Major Abington followed by the death of Sardar Khan.
During the summer of 1782, East India Company officials in Bombay sent additional troops to Tellicherry, from whence they began operations against Mysorean holdings in the Malabar. Hyder Ali sent his elder Tipu Sultan and a strong force to counter this threat.
Tired of continues setbacks in Thalassery and other places, Hyder Ali then sent an army unit under Makhdoom Ali to Malabar to restrain the anti-Mysore rebellions. Meanwhile, Major Abington and Colonel Humberstone, who were in Calicut, were ordered to prevent the advance of Makhdoom Ali's army from the south. In the following battle in Tiroorangadi, more than 400 Mysore soldiers, including Makhdoom Ali, were killed. Colonel Humberstone chased the Mysore army to Ponnani, with the principal aim of capturing the Palakkad Fort. Due a thundering torrential storm in Ponnani River, however, Colonel Humberstone retreated to Calicut. Colonel Humberstone then moved his unit up to Trithala and the neighbourhoods of Mankeri Fort, but again retreated to Ponnani again due to the fear of a surprise attack from the Mysore-Ali Raja coalition forces intended to siege forces in the extreme conditions. Major Macleod subsequently reached Ponnani before taking over the command of British forces on the Malabar Coast.
Shortly, Tipu's forces stormed the English camped at Ponnani, but 200 of his men were killed so he temporarily retreated. Simultaneously, a naval force under Edward Hughes reached Ponnani, but the Mysore army threatened the struggling English with a dreadful attack at any time. But, when Tipu learned of Hyder Ali's sudden death on December 7, 1782, due to cancer. Tipu Sultan's precipitate departure from the scene provided some relief to the British force, but Bombay officials sent further reinforcements under General Matthews to Ponnani in late December to relieve before they learned of Hyder's passing.
The British captured Mangalore
Mangalore
Mangalore is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located about west of the state capital, Bangalore. Mangalore lies between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghat mountain ranges, and is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada district in south western...
in March 1783, but Tipu, now the ruler of Mysore, recaptured Bednorem before besieging and eventually capturing
Siege of Mangalore
The Siege of Mangalore was conducted during the Second Anglo-Mysore War by Tipu Sultan and forces of the Kingdom of Mysore against a British East India Company garrison led by Colonel Campbell...
Mangalore. At the same time, in the Tanjore region, Stuart's army joined with those of Colonel Fullarton before the latter marched along the Dindigul-Dharapuram-Palakkad route and sieged the Palakkad Fort
Palakkad Fort
Palakkad Fort is an old granite fort situated in the heart of Palakkad town of Kerala state, southern India. It was built by Haider Ali in 1766 ACE and remains one of the best preserved forts in Kerala.-History:...
. Captain Midland and Sir Thomas under Colonel Fullarton successfully captured Palakkad Fort on November 14, 1783. During this time, company officials, having received orders from London to bring an end to the war, entered negotiations with Tipu Sultan. Pursuant to a preliminary ceasefire, Colonel Fullarton was ordered to abandon all of his recent conquests. However, due to allegations that Tipu violated terms of the ceasefire at Mangalore, Fullarton remained at Palakkad Fort. A prince from the Zamorin dynasty later emerged and the English retreated conferring the Fort to the prince. Tipu's forces marched to Palakkad fort and occupied it with the entire south Malabar.
In December 1783, General Macleod, with fresh support of the French, captured Cannanore from the Arakkal Beebi, who was a long time ally of Mysore in Malabar. This was followed by Beebi's failed negotiation attempt with the British.
The war was ended on March 11, 1784 with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore
Treaty of Mangalore
The Treaty of Mangalore was signed between Tippu Sultan and the British East India Company on 11 March 1784. It was signed in Mangalore and brought an end to the Second Anglo-Mysore War.-Background:...
, in which both sides agreed to restore the others' lands to the status quo ante bellum. Now by the treaty, the British (and the Nair kings) controlled the entire north Malabar, and Mysore ruled south Malabar. And by the treaty, General Macleod was forced to move back forces from Cannanore.
Muhammad Ayaz Khan (Hyat Saheb)
Muhammad Ayaz Khan (born Kumaran Nambiar), a convert to Islam, was one of the hundreds of Nair boys deported to Mysore after the 1766 invasion of Hyder Ali. Ayaz slowly rose as to the Nawab of Bednore. In 1779, Hyder conquered Chitaldurg in retaliation for not having supported him in his war against the Marathas, and following its subjugation, had it placed under the command of Ayaz. According to historian Mark Wilks, 20,000 Bedars were carried away to Seringapatam, and from the boys deemed to be of proper age, Hyder formed the first regular military establishment of captive converts, in imitation of the Turkish JanissariesJanissary
The Janissaries were infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops and bodyguards...
. Wilks further states that Tipu Sultan was jealous of and opposed Ayaz, since from the very beginning Hyder had considered the latter more intelligent. After the ascension of Tipu Sultan in 1782, Khan moved to the British side and lived rest of his life in Bombay.
More anti-Mysore uprisings
After the war, the Mysore ruled part of Malabar which experienced numerous anti-Mysore uprisings, even by the local Mappila population, mostly against the new land taxes. Tipu Sultan therefore appointed the officer Arshad Beg Khan as the Civil Governor of Malabar. Khan soon retired from service and advised to Tipu to visit the region on his own. In 1788, Tipu paid an official visit to Malabar and talked with the Resident Gribble about the construction of new city near Beypore.Rebellion by Ravi Varma
The forced conversion of Hindus resulted in widespread protests in Malabar. In August 1788, the Raja of Parappanad, a chieftain of Nilamboor, Trichera Thiruppad, and many other Hindu nobles who had been carried away earlier to Coimbatore by Tipu Sultan, were forcibly converted to Islam. Nairs rose up against their the Muslims under Mysore rule.In 1788, Ravi Varma
Ravi Varma of Padinjare Kovilakam
Ravi Varma Raja was a Nair warrior prince from Calicut who fought a two decade long revolt against the Mysore Sultanate under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan between 1766–1768 and 1774–1791, and the British East India Company in 1793....
, a rebel hailed from the Zamorin dynasty, proclaimed his rule of the region and marched to Calicut with his Nair army. Though Tipu conferred on him a jagir, or vast area of tax-free land, to appease him, the Zamorin prince, after promptly taking charge of the jaghire, continued his rebellion against the Mysore power. The Nair army defeated under the superior Mysore lines lead by M. Lally and Mir Asar Ali Khan. However, during the above operations, Ravi Varma assisted not less than 30,000 Brahmins to flee the country and take refuge in Travancore.
Almost all female members and many male members of different Royal families such as Chirackal, Parappanad, and Calicut, and chieftains' families like Punnathoor, Nilamboor, Kavalapara and Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, fled to Travancore to escape from Tipu's army and temporarily settled down in different parts of Travancore. Even after the fall of Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatanam, many of these families preferred to remain in Travancore because of the Mappilas' atrocities in the past.
Rebellion by Manjeri Hassan
Manjeri Hassan, a native Moslem, led an unsuccessful rebellion of MappilaMappila
Mappila or Moplah refers to a Muslim community of Kerala, primarily in the northern region called Malabar, which arose in Malabar as a result of the pre and post Islamic Arab contacts. Significant numbers of the community are also present in the southern districts of Karnataka and western parts of...
s against the heavy agricultural tax imposed by Mysore ruler. The rebels killed Manjeri Thampuran, a local Nair ruler, and captured Arshad Beg Khan. The rebellion was quickly crushed and Hassan, along with his son and his followers, were captured and taken as hostages to Srirangapatinam, where they remained until Tipu Sultan's death.
Invasions by Tipu Sultan
In 1787, the Mysore captured Iruvazhinadu by murdering Kurungothu Nair, the ruler of Iruvazhinadu and an old ally of the French. The French then became the closest ally of Mysore, continuing to supply arms to the kingdom. Tipu Sultan decided to invade Malabar as he saw the control of ports and access of routs to them highly strategic. In the meantime, Arakkal Beebi allied with the English and Kolathiri replaced them as the ally of Mysore. Kolathiri captured Randattara and Darmadom from the English. Later in 1789, however, the company recaptured Darmadom. Tipu Sultan received invitations from some kings of Malabar, especially from the ruler of Cannanore, and soon the Mysore forces were in Malabar.The kingdom of Travancore
Travancore
Kingdom of Travancore was a former Hindu feudal kingdom and Indian Princely State with its capital at Padmanabhapuram or Trivandrum ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. The Kingdom of Travancore comprised most of modern day southern Kerala, Kanyakumari district, and the southernmost parts of...
had been a target of Tipu for acquisition or conquest since the end of the Second Anglo-Mysore War
Second Anglo-Mysore War
The Second Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in Mughal India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, and the Franco-British conflict raging on account of the American Revolutionary War helped spark Anglo-Mysorean...
. Indirect attempts to take over the kingdom failed had failed in 1788, and Archibald Campbell
Archibald Campbell (British Army officer)
General Sir Archibald Campbell KB served as Governor of Jamaica and Madras. He was a major Scottish landowner, Heritable Usher of the White Rod for Scotland and a Member of Parliament for the Stirling Burghs.-Birth:...
, the Madras president at the time, had warned Tipu that an attack on Travancore would be treated as a declaration of war on the company. Initially Tipu Sultan tried to induce Travancore tactically with the help of the Kingdom of Cochin, but the King of Cochin refused and allied with Travancore.
Monitoring closely the invasion of Mysore on Malabar and Cochin, Travancore was prepared for a full scale military movement. The Rajah of Travancore also angered Tipu by extending Nedunkotta fortifications along the border with Mysore into territory claimed by Mysore, and by purchasing from the Dutch East India Company
Dutch East India Company
The Dutch East India Company was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia...
the Cranganore and Pallippuram Forts, in the Kingdom of Cochin, a state paying tribute to Tipu.
Coimbatore
Coimbatore , also known as Kovai , is the second largest city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a major commercial centre in Tamil Nadu and is known as the "Manchester of South India"....
in preparation for an assault on the Nedumkotta
Nedumkotta
Nedumkotta or Travancore lines was a wall built as a protection against consistent invasion and threats from northern kingdoms mainly Zamorins of Kozhikode...
, a fortified line of defence built by Dharma Raja of Travancore to protect his domain. Cornwallis, observing this buildup, reiterated to Campbell's successor, John Holland, that an attack on Travancore should be considered a declaration of war, and be met with a strong British response. Tipu, aware that Holland was not the experienced military officer that Campbell was, and that he did not have the close relationship that Campbell and Cornwallis had (both had served in North America in the American War of Independence), probably decided that this was an opportune time to attack.
Battle of the Nedumkotta (Travancore-Mysore War)
On December 20, 1789, Tipu Sultan attacked the Nedunkotta from the north, signalling the start of the Battle of the Nedumkotta. Before completing the battle, however, Tipu retreated due to the damp weather and the simultaneous attacks by the English against Mysore. Virtually, Battle of the Nedumkotta was the event lead to the Third Anglo-Mysore WarThird Anglo-Mysore War
The Third Anglo-Mysore War was a war in South India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company and its allies, including the Mahratta Empire and the Nizam of Hyderabad...
. Tipu reached Nedumkotta on December 28, 1789. Out of his army numbering several tens of thousands, about 14,000 along with 500 local Muslims marched towards the fortification. By 29 December, a large portion of the right flank of Nedumkotta was under the control of Mysore army. Only a 16 feet (4.9 m) wide and 20 feet (6.1 m) deep ditch separated the Kingdom of Travancore from Mysorean forces. Tipu commanded his soldiers to level up the ditch, so that his army can advance, while retreating Travancorean soldiers and militiamen regrouped on the other side of the ditch. Unable to fill the ditch under heavy fire from the Travancoreans, Tipu ordered his soldiers to march forward through a very narrow passage.[4] This move backfired on the Mysoreans, as a group of two dozen Nair militiamen from the Nandyat kalari under Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai ambushed their enemies half-way. A few dozen Mysorean soldiers died of direct gun-fire, and the commanding officer was killed. Many more panicked and in the ensuing chaos fell in to the ditch and died. The reinforcements sent by the Mysoreans were prevented from merging with the main contingent by a batch of the Travancore regular army. Tipu himself fell from his palanquin and was nearly stampeded. He was seriously wounded and was permanently lame.[5][6]
Afterwards, the Nairs of Travancore recovered the sword, the pallanquin, the dagger, the ring and many other personal effects of Tipu from the ditches of the Nedumkotta and presented them to the Maharajah of Travancore. Some of them were sent to the Nawab of Arcot (one of Tipu's archrivals) on his request. The Mysorean army suffered 2,000 deaths and many thousands were injured. Several high-ranking Mysorean officers were taken prisoner, including five Europeans and one Maratha. After the defea, Tipu regrouped and captured the Nedumkotta line several months later. His forces were once again defeated by the Travancoreans near the Alwaye River in 1790.
Fall of Calicut
In 1789, Tipu marched to Kozhikode with a 60,000-strong army, destroyed the fort, and razed the town to the ground. Gunddart said in his Kerala Pazhama that it is just not possible to describe the cruel atrocities perpetrated by Tipu Sultan in Kozhikode. William Logan gives in his Malabar Manual a long list of temples destroyed by Tipu Sultan and his army. Elankulam Kunjan Pillai has recorded the situation in Malabar as follows:Atrocities committed in Malabar during the days of Tipu Sultan's military regime have been described in great detail in the works of many reputed authors. Notable among them, Travancore State Manual of T.K. Velu Pillai and Kerala Sahitya Charitam of Ulloor Parameshwara Iyer.
In a letter dated January 18, 1790, to Syed Abdul Dulai, Tipu writes:
British take the Malabar
In late 1790, British forces took control of the Malabar Coast. A force under Colonel Hartley gained a decisive victoryBattle of Calicut
The Battle of Calicut was a series of engagements that took place between 7 and 12 December 1790 near the port of Calicut on the Malabar Coast of India, during the Third Anglo-Mysore War...
at Calicut in December, while a second under Robert Abercromby
Robert Abercromby of Airthrey
General Sir Robert Abercromby GCB , the youngest brother of Sir Ralph Abercromby, was a general in the army, a knight of the Bath, and at one period the governor of Bombay and commander-in-chief of the British forces in India.-Military career:...
routed the Mysoreans at Cannanore
Capture of Cannanore
The Capture of Cannanore during the Third Anglo-Mysore War took place on 17 December 1790. Forces of the British East India Company, led by General Robert Abercromby, began besieging Cannanore , held by troops of Mysore and of the Rajah of Cannanore on 14 December. After gaining control of the...
a few days later.
Battle of Calicut (1790)
The Battle of Calicut (also called the "Battle of Thiroorangadi") was a series of engagements that took place between December 7 and 12, 1790, at Thiroorangadi. Three regiments from the British East India Company, consisting of 1,500 men, led by Lieutenant Colonel James Hartley, decisively defeated a 9,000-man Mysorean army, killing or wounding about 1,000, and taking a large number of prisoners, including the commander, Hussein Ali.Capture of Cannanore
The Capture of Cannanore took place on December 17, 1790. Forces of the British East India Company, led by General Robert Abercromby, began besieging Cannanore, held by troops of Mysore and of the Rajah of Cannanore on December 14. After gaining control of the high ground commanding the city's main fort, the defenders surrendered. The British victory, along with the taking of Calicut by a separate force a few days earlier, secured their control over the Malabar Coast.Battle of Tellicherry
The Battle of Tellicherry was a naval action between British and French warships. Britain and France were not at war at the time of the engagement, but French support for the Kingdom of Mysore in the conflict with the British East India Company had led to Royal NavyRoyal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
patrols stopping and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port of Mangalore.
End of Mysore rule
By the Treaty of Seringapatam signed in 1792, Malabar ceded to the English East India Company. The treaty resulted in a sharp curtailment of Mysore's borders to the advantage of the Mahrattas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Madras PresidencyMadras Presidency
The Madras Presidency , officially the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India...
. The districts of Malabar
Malabar District
Malabar District was an administrative district of Madras Presidency in British India and independent India's Madras State. The British district included the present-day districts of Kannur, Kozhikode, Wayanad, Malappuram, Palakkad , and Chavakad Taluk of Thrissur District in the northern part of...
, Salem
Salem District
Salem District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. The city of Salem is the district headquarters. Other major towns in the district are Mettur, Omalur and Attur...
, Bellary and Anantapur
Anantapur district
Anantapur District , ) is one of the 23 districts in Andhra Pradesh, India. The district headquarters is Anantapur City. It is currently a part of the Red Corridor.- Geography :...
were ceded to the Madras Presidency.
Changes in Malabar
Sultans of Mysore changed the ancient landlord system in Malabar just like the changes which took place in Kingdom of Cochin and Travancore. To control the region, Tipu Sultan adopted strong measures against Nair nobles of Malabar and established a centralised administrative system. This was not totally beneficial for the local Muslims, who were mostly traders. The changes in Malabar due to the Mysore invasions were as follows:- Due to the fleeing of the local Nair chieftains and landlords to Travancore lead to a redistribution of landed wealth. However, for revenues, Tipu introduced the "Jamabandi" system to collect taxes directly from peasants.
- Land was surveyed extensively and classified. Taxes were fixed considering difference of land and crops and for some crops taxes were reduced.
- Tipu introduced monopoly in products like pepper, coconut, tobacco, sandalwood, teak etc. This was a change from the time of the Zamorins where the muslim merchants were free to trade in the above commodities, and "Kozhikode Angadi" was known for its prosperity. Under the circumstances, the muslim merchants had no other choice but to become peasants.
- The roads developed by Tipu for military purposes were helpful for the development of trade
During the rule of Tipu Sultan tens of thousands of Nairs, besides about 30,000 Brahmins, fled Malabar to seek refuge in Travancore, leaving behind their wealth,. According to M. Gangadharan, there is evidence that many Hindus were converted into Islam. In one of the most widely documented cases, the army invaded Kadathanadu and forcibly converted the Nair soldiers, who was holding out for many weeks against the much army without adequate weapons or food.
Upper- and lower-caste Hindus suffered from the Mysore invasion. Almost a fourth of the Nair population was wiped out and many more were forcibly converted. The Nambuthiris (Brahmins) were also severely affected. According to various rough sources, about half the Hindu population of Malabar fled the country to the forests or Tellicherry and Travancore. They included most of the Hindu Rajas and chieftains who could not resist the invading Mysore army. The Chirackal, Parappanad, Ballussery, Kurumbranad, Kadathanad, Palghat and Calicut royal families migrated to Travancore. The chieftain families which did the same were those of Punnathur, Kavalappara and Azhvancherry Thamprakkal. Even the Cochin royal family moved to Vaikkom Palace near the famous Shiva Temple when Tipu Sultan's army reached Alwaye.
Many members of the royal families of Malabar who migrated to Travancore preferred to remain there despite the withdrawal of Tipu's army and restoration of peace due to the harsh experience and the peculiar "psyche" of Muslim population in Malabar. The prominent royal families were; (1) Neerazhi Kovilakam, (2) Gramathil Kottaram, (3) Paliyakkara, (4) Nedumparampu, (5) Chempra Madham, (6) Ananthapuram Kottaram, (7) Ezhimatoor Palace, (8) Aranmula Kottaram, (9) Varanathu Kovilakam, (10) Mavelikkara, (11) Ennakkadu, (12) Murikkoyikkal Palace, (13) Mariappilly, (14) Koratti Swaroopam, (15) Kaippuzha Kovilakam, (16) Lakshmipuram Palace, and (17) Kottapuram.
Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma, the King of Travancore earned the title was addressed as Dharma Raja on account of his strict adherence to Dharma Sastra, the principles of justice by providing asylum to the thousands of Hindus fleeing Malabar. He is also credited with beating back Tipu's assault on Kerala.
Shifting of the idol of Sree Guruvayoorappan
In 1766, Hyder Ali of Mysore captured Calicut and then Guruvayur. To spare the template, Ali demanded 10,000 fanams (a form of currency), which was paid, but due to insecurity, pilgrims receded, the supply of rice was stopped and the tenants stopped annual dues. On the request of the Malabar Governor, Shrinivasa Rao, Hyder Ali granted a devadaya (free gift) and the temple was saved from destruction. In 1789, Tipu Sultan invaded Zamorin's province. Apprehending the destruction, the idol was hidden underground and the Utsava vigraha was taken to Ambalapuzha by Mallisseri Namboodiri and Kakkad Othikkan. Later the idol shifted from Ambalappuzha to Mavelikkara. Tipu destroyed the smaller shrines and set fire to the Temple, but it was saved due to timely rain. Tipu lost to the Zamorin and the English in 1792. The hidden idol and the Utsava vigraha were re-installed on September 17, 1792. But the daily poojas and routines were seriously affected.[10]Ethnic cleansing
Tipu Sultan "Islamized" the place names across Malabar; Mangalapuram (Mangalore) was changed to Jalalabad, Cannanore (Kanwapuram) to Kusanabad, Beypore (Vaippura) to Sultanpatanam or Faruqui, and Calicut (Kozhikode) to Islamabad. It was only after the death of Tipu Sultan that the local people reverted to old names; however, only one of the names is intact, FerokeFeroke
Feroke is a census town and a part of Calicut metropolitan area under Kozhikode Development Authority in the Kozhikode district of the Indian state of Kerala.-Name:...
. In Cherunad, Vettathunad, Eranad, Valluvanad, Thamarassery and other interior areas, local Mappilas unleashed a reign of terror on the Hindu population, mainly to retain the occupied land of Hindu landlords and to establish their domination over Hindus. Fearing the organised robberies and violence, people could not even travel freely in the Malabar hinterland of predominantly Mappila population.
Writing on January 19, 1790, to Badroos Saman Khan, Tipu Sultan said;
Father Bartolomaco, a Portuguese traveller and historian, claims;
In a letter dated February 13, 1790, addressed to Budruz Zuman Khan, Tipu Sultan writes;
Many Hindus belonging to lower castes accepted conversion to Islam under the Mysore rule. However, many others, especially the Thiyyas, fled to Tellicherry and Mahe.
Extermination of Nairs
In 1788, Tipu Sultan gave strict orders to his army under M. Lally and Mir Asrali Khan to "surround and extricate the whole race of Nairs from KottayamKottayam (Malabar)
Kottayam is a former Hindu vassal feudal city-state in the erstwhile province of Malabar in present day Kerala, in the Indian subcontinent. Kottayam is famed for Pazhassi Raja , one of principle leaders of Wynaad Insurrection .-Geography:The Kingdom of Kottayam covered what is today Talassery...
to Palghat". This incident is known as The Order of Extermination
Genocide
Genocide is defined as "the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group", though what constitutes enough of a "part" to qualify as genocide has been subject to much debate by legal scholars...
of the Nayars by Tipu Sultan. After entrusting Calicut to a powerful army contingent, he instructed it "to surround the woods and seize the heads of all Nair factions".
A small army of 2,000 Nairs of Kadathanadu resisted the invasion of the huge army of Tipu Sultan from a fortress in Kuttipuram for a few weeks soon the rebels were reduced to starvation and death. Tipu Sultan entered the fort and offered to spare their lives, provided they accepted conversion to Islam. After several days of resistance, and finding it difficult to defend the fort any longer, the Nairs submitted to the usual terms of surrender – a voluntary profession of the Islam or a forced conversion with deportation from the land. The unhappy Nair captives gave a forced consent and on the next day, they were converted and at closing the ceremony every individual of both men and women was forced to eat beef, which was prohibited to them by faith.
All the members of one branch of Parappanad Royal Family were forcibly converted to Islam except for one or two who escaped from Tipu's army. Similarly, one Thiruppad belonging to Nilamboor Royal Family was also forcibly abducted and converted to Islam. Thereafter, it was reported that further conversions of Hindus were attempted through those converts.
When the Kolathiri Raja eventually surrendered and paid tribute, Tipu killed him, dragged his dead body tied to the feet of an elephant through the streets, and finally hanged him from a tree-top to show his contempt for Hindu Rajas. Palghat Raja, Ettipangi Achan, who had surrendered, was imprisoned on suspicion and later taken to Sreerangapatanam. Nothing was heard of him subsequently.
While escaping from Tipu's army, one of the princes of the Chirackal Royal family in North Malabar was captured and killed in an encounter after a chase of few days. As per the accounts of Tipu's own diary and as confirmed by the English Company records, the body of the unfortunate prince was treated with great indignities by Tipu Sultan. "He had the dead body of the prince dragged by elephants through his camp and it was subsequently hung up on a tree along with seventeen of his followers who had been captured alive". Another chieftain, Korangoth Nair, who had resisted Tipu, was finally captured with the help of the French and hanged.
Destruction of Hindu temples
According to the Malabar Manual of William Logan, Thrichambaram and Thalipparampu temples in Chirackal Taluk, Thiruvangatu Temple (Brass Pagoda) in Tellicherry, and Ponmeri Temple near Badakara were all destroyed by the Mysore forces of Tipu Sultan. The Malabar Manual mention that the Maniyoor mosque was once a Hindu temple. The local belief is that it was converted to a mosque during the days of Mysore rule of Tipu Sultan.Vatakkankoor Raja Raja Varma in his famous literary work, History of Sanskrit Literature in Kerala, has written the following about the loss and destruction faced by the Hindu temples in Kerala during the regime of Tipu Sultan:
Hyder Ali had exempted temples from the payment of land tax. But Tipu Sultan forced the temples to pay heavy taxes. The famous Hemambika Temple at Kalpathi of the Palghat Raja who had surrendered to Hyder Ali, the Kachamkurissi Temple of the Kollamkottu Raja who had deserted the Zamorin and sided with Hyder Ali, and also the Jain Temple at Palghat suffered serious damages during the rule of Tipu Sultan. Other famous temples were looted and desecrated.
According to certain personal diary notes of Tipu Sultan, the Chirackal Raja offered to pay over Rs. 4 lakh in gold and silver to save the destruction of the local Hindu temples by Tipu Sultan's army. But, Tipu replied that "Even if the entire world is offered to me, I will not desist from destroying Hindu temples"
See also
- Pazhassi RajaPazhassi RajaKerala Varma Pazhassi Raja , popularly known as Kerala Simham or Lion of Kerala, was the Hindu Nair King of Kottayam , which was based in modern Kannur District, North Malabar zone of Kerala State in...
- Ravi Varma of Padinjare KovilakamRavi Varma of Padinjare KovilakamRavi Varma Raja was a Nair warrior prince from Calicut who fought a two decade long revolt against the Mysore Sultanate under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan between 1766–1768 and 1774–1791, and the British East India Company in 1793....
- Siege of TellicherrySiege of TellicherryThe Siege of Tellicherry was an event during the Second Anglo-Mysore War.Tellicherry [Thalasseri] rose to become a fortified coastal harbor and major town under English East India Company control. British got this site in 1705 from Kolathiri Raja of Northern Malabar.Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore had...