Native American mascot controversy
Encyclopedia
The propriety of using Native American mascots and images in sports has been a topic of debate in the United States
and Canada
since the 1960s.
Americans have had a history of drawing inspiration from native peoples and "playing Indian" that dates back at least to the 18th century. Many individuals admire the heroism and romanticism evoked by the classic Native American
image, but many too view the use of mascot
s as offensive, demeaning, or racist. The controversy has resulted in many institutions changing the names and images associated with their sports teams. Native American images and nicknames nevertheless remain fairly common in American sports, and may be seen in use by teams at all levels from elementary school to professional.
created a campaign to eliminate negative stereotyping of Native American people in the media. They focused mainly on cartoons and movies; however their protests of sports organizations garnered the most attention. The National Congress of American Indians has long been opposed to mascots that portray Native Americans in a negative light. They feel that teams with mascots such as the Braves and the Redskins
perpetuate negative stereotypes of Native American people, and demean their native traditions and rituals. Proponents of Native American mascots, however, believe that Native American mascots pay respect to these people and promote a better understanding of their cultures. Despite this issue emanating during the civil rights movement
, it still continues today as many teams continue to possess mascots with controversial names and images.
To further complicate this issue, many feel that there are varying levels of offensiveness with team names and mascots. Anil Adyanthaya from the Boston Globe writes on June 5, 2005:
According to polling results published in Sports Illustrated
in February 2002,
In 2004, a poll by the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania essentially confirmed the Sports Illustrated poll's findings, concluding that 91% of the American Indians surveyed in the 48 states on the mainland USA found the name "Redskins
" acceptable.
However, despite this varying degree of degradation, the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA), the ruling authority on college athletics, distributed a “self evaluation” in June 2005, for teams to examine the use of potentially offensive imagery with their mascot choice.
Some college teams, however, are changing their names and mascots without instruction of the NCAA. For example, Marquette University
changed their team name from the Warriors to the Golden Eagles in 1994. The school’s president stated:
Stonehill College
also changed their mascot from the Chieftain to the Skyhawk “out of respect to Native American culture.”
Additionally, teams that are not directly affected by this controversy have issued their opinions. The University of Wisconsin–Madison
and the University of Iowa
have both refused to schedule non-conference games against schools with Native American mascots. Ironically, the University of Iowa's own nickname, "Hawkeyes", has Native American origins (Iowa is the "Hawkeye State
"), although the team uses a hawk
as its symbol rather than an Indian.
The University of Oregon
, following suit by The Oregonian
newspaper, declined to refer to the University of Illinois team as the "Illini" in a basketball game in 2005.
The University of Utah
, Ute mascot:
In 1996 Swoop, a red tailed hawk, became the new mascot for the University of Utah. Swoop symbolizes the soaring spirit of the state of Utah and the institution itself.http://utahutes.cstv.com/trads/swoop.html
For many decades, the school did not have an official Western Athletic Conference mascot. As early as the 1950s, the University of Utah created a Ute Indian boy, named "Hoyo", as its mascot. The University of Utah club organizations, such as the Associated Students of the University of Utah, the University of Utah Alumni Association, the Daily Chronicle, and many other social organizations highly celebrated "Hoyo" at homecoming events, before and after football games events, and at other social events for many years.
Even though Swoop is now the University of Utah's official mascot, Utah fans and its clubs alike still use "Utes" as their nickname at sporting events. This is done with permission from the Ute Tribal Council.http://utahutes.cstv.com/trads/ute-trads-general.html
Some individuals who support the use of Native American mascots state that they are meant to be respectful, and to pay homage to Native American people. Many have made the argument that Native American mascots focus on bravery, courage and fighting skills rather than anything derogatory. Karl Swanson, vice-president of the Washington Redskins professional football team, declared in the magazine Sports Illustrated
that his team's name "symbolizes courage, dignity, and leadership," and that the "Redskins symbolize the greatness and strength of a grand people."
Others claim Native American mascots help promote the culture to those who might be unaware of its significance. Chief Illiniwek
, the former athletic symbol for the University of Illinois, has been another figure who has come under scrutiny. However, in 1990 the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois called the mascot a dignified symbol:
However, the tribal dance and costume was not of the Illini confederacy
, but that of the Lakota tribe. The Chief was retired on February 21, 2007, due in large part to the negative criticism.
Steven Denson, director of diversity for Southern Methodist University
and member of the Chickasaw
nation, while not issuing a blanket endorsement, has nevertheless stated that there are acceptable ways to use Native American mascots if it is done in a respectful and tasteful manner. He states,
’s “Fighting Irish
." and the University of Louisiana Lafayette
's "Ragin' Cajuns" are notable exceptions to the debate, as those schools selected symbols that represent themselves historically. Another exception is the "Braves" of the University of North Carolina at Pembroke
, a school originally created to educate Native Americans.
A big issue in the Native American mascot debate is the use of Indian mascots by elementary, middle and high school sports teams. Opponents of Native American mascots feel that children should be exposed to realistic and positive portrayals of American Indians during their educational years. Kathy Morning Star, director of the American Indian Cultural Support, states:
Many opponents also take offense to proponents of Native American mascots that claim they are simply paying tribute to native people. Considering many Native Americans’ stance on this issue, opponents of Native American mascots feel that the mascots should be deemed offensive by the people being imitated, not by those who are imitating.
Opponents also deem it insensitive when unconscious phrases like “Kill the Indians” or “Murder the Redskins” are yelled during sporting events (the latter of which is particularly yelled by Cowboys
, Eagles
, and Giants
fans, due to long-standing NFL rivalries), referring to the team playing, but also creating a negative view of Native Americans.
The Florida State University
's use of Seminole
imagery for its Florida State Seminoles
athletic teams makes an interesting case study because of the university's close ties to the Seminole Tribe of Florida
. The university has worn the nickname "Seminoles" since 1947 and annually crowns a Chief and Princess at Homecoming with Seminole tribe leaders participating as celebrants. Since 1978 home football games have been opened with the entrance of Chief Osceola and Renegade
. Florida State University officials disapprove of referring to human figures as 'mascots' and have asked sports writers to cease doing so. Official university statements speak only of using 'symbols', 'nicknames', and 'images' inspired by Seminole tradition.
The question of a nickname for athletic teams arose in 1947 as the Florida State College for Women went co-ed (a status it had actually had before 1905) to become Florida State University
. Students voted overwhelmingly for "Seminoles" over alternatives such as "Statesmen" and "Crackers." For the first two decades Seminole athletic teams mostly used stock images based on Hollywood Westerns and American currency. The first human figures seen at games were a gymnastic, back-bending Sammy Seminole
(1958–1972) and, briefly and unofficially, a fraternity-house character named Chief Fullabull. Both were portrayed by Euro-American
undergraduate students dressed in faux American Indian
garb. Leaders of the Seminole Tribe of Florida
who attended a basketball game on the campus in 1972 expressed their concerns to university officials regarding the antics of Chief Fullabull. Seminole leaders and university officials agreed on the need for something dignified and more representative of authentic Seminole traditions. Both characters were retired that year.
1978 marked the first appearance of Chief Osceola and Renegade
, in which a student portrays the iconic 19th-century Seminole war leader Osceola
. Renegade was the name given to his Appaloosa
horse. The student, chosen for his horsemanship, wears clothing provided by the Seminole tribe but is not necessarily of native American descent himself. At the beginning of each home game Osceola plants a flaming spear at midfield. The image and actions of this figure were worked out in coordination with Florida Seminole leaders. Osceola never speaks or appears walking on foot. When the US national anthem is sung, Osceola simply waits with his spear across his lap. For the first three years of the tradition the figure actually went nameless; he was referred to as 'the Seminole warrior' because tribal leaders at the time preferred that the name of the actual historical figure not be used. The Florida State portrayal of Osceola romanticises tradition in some aspects. The historical Osceola, a war leader, did not actually live long enough to attain the rank of Seminole "chief", for example, and historians debate how much inclination or opportunity he had to ride horses in wartime
.
In August 2005 the NCAA granted a waiver to the Florida State University which removed it from the NCAA’s list of colleges using imagery “hostile or abusive” towards Native Americans. According to Bernard Franklin, senior vice president of the NCAA,
The Seminole Tribe of Florida officially sanctions the use of the Seminole as Florida State University’s nickname and of Chief Osceola as FSU's mascot. Max Osceola, the chief and general council president of the Seminole Tribe of Florida, has stated that he regards it as an “honor” to be associated with the university.
However, the Seminole Tribe of Florida is only one the tribal authorities representing Seminoles. Some members of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma
, among them activists David Narcomey
and Michael Haney, opposed FSU's use of the Seminoles mascot and name. In addition, general council member of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma David Narcomey
stated, speaking on his own behalf:
In 2005, Jennifer McBee, the Oklahoma Seminole tribe's attorney general, stated that the council had taken no official position on the FSU issue. Despite the individual comments of some members of the Oklahoma Seminoles, Ken Chambers, principal chief of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma told The Palm Beach (Florida) Post in August 2005 that he had no objection to Florida State University using the Seminoles as a nickname and symbol, reversing the earlier public position of the Oklahoma tribe's spokesperson. In July 2005, the Seminole Nation General Council, the legislative body for the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, voted 18-2 not to oppose the use of Native American names and mascots by college sports teams.
nickname, the Chippewas
, was originally placed on the “hostile or abusive” list but was removed when the Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Nation of Michigan gave its support to the nickname.
Stanford University
had The Stanford Indian, a Native American as mascot (1930–1972). Today, The Stanford Cardinal honors the color. The mascot of the Stanford Band
is a Tree.
Miami University
in 1996 changed its team nicknames from Redskins to Redhawks
at the request of the Miami tribe, for whom the school is named. Earlier, the tribe allowed the school to continue to use the name Redskins, but later demanded that the nickname be discontinued.
Seattle University
changed the nickname of their mascot from Chieftains to Redhawks in 2000.
Other Indian tribes have also supported the use of their tribal names as a tribute to their heritage. The Ute tribe
approved the use of the name "Utes" for the University of Utah
and the NCAA granted a waiver to allow the name to remain. Haskell Indian Nations Fighting Indians
continues to participate in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics
and the Midlands Collegiate Athletic Conference
.
The Sioux
tribe has failed unambiguously to approve the use of the name "Fighting Sioux
" in the name of the University of North Dakota
. UND has appealed several times to the NCAA and is currently under a championship host ban for not removing the moniker. When it moved in the fall of 2009 to change its nickname, one of the two Sioux tribal councils in the state sued to have the name retained.
The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
, however, is permitted to use the name "Illini" owing to the NCAA ruling that the name "is closely related to the name of the state and not directly associated with Native Americans." The term Fighting Illini is in fact a reference to veterans from Illinois who fought during World War I. The symbol Chief Illiniwek
was ruled "hostile and abusive" and was retired in 2007 to comply with the NCAA's ruling, and the following year, in compliance with a related NCAA ruling, both U of I and Northwestern University
retired their then-current rivalry trophy, the Sweet Sioux Tomahawk
.
The College of William & Mary, nicknamed the "Tribe"
, was forced to remove the two tribal feathers stemming from their logo in 2006 due to insensitivity towards Native Americans. Their adoption of the griffin mascot allowed the reestablishment of the feather logo in 2010.
Many high schools
across the country have encountered the same scenario. Frontier Regional School
, in Deerfield
, MA
was forced to remove its Redskin mascot in 2000. The school now goes by the moniker of the Redhawks
. Also, Turners Falls High School of Turners Falls, MA had to change its fight song, known as the tomohawk chop, but did not change its mascot. On the other hand, Union High School
in Tulsa, Oklahoma
, a high-profile high school athletic program, has consistently opposed protests and proposed legislation intended to change its "Redskins" nickname.
Opponents, however, are unconcerned with the cost of changing and view mascots as caricatures of real Indians that do not honor them, but rather trivialize and demean important Indian dances and traditions. Opponents feel that despite the cost of a change in team mascots, it should be done to prevent what they believe is racial stereotyping. Clyde Bellecourt
, the director of the American Indian Movement
, stated:
One attempt to affect the use of mascots financially began in 1992 when five Native Americans filed a petition to remove the trademark
status of the Washington Redskins
team name, which would have disallowed sales of branded merchandise without payment of royalties
. The Trademark Trial and Appeal Board
in 1999 ruled in favor of the petition and cancelled the trademarks. Following appeals, in 2005 the D.C. Court of Appeals
in Pro-Football, Inc. v. Harjo
reversed the cancellation, ruling that there had been insufficient evidence
to support the finding of disparagement
and holding that the majority of the petitioners were barred by laches
from maintaining the suit. On 16 November 2009, the U.S. Supreme Court
, refused to hear an appeal from Harjo, effectively ending the dispute started in 1992.
In April 2001 the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights called for an end to the use of Native American images and team names by non-Native schools, stating "the stereotyping of any racial, ethnic, religious or other group, when promoted by our public educational institutions, teaches all students that stereotyping of minority groups is acceptable, which is a dangerous lesson in a diverse society."
Though changes have been made at the high school and college levels, the professional sides have seen virtually no change. Several teams, such as the Washington Redskins
, Kansas City Chiefs
, Atlanta Braves
, Cleveland Indians
, and Edmonton Eskimos
still utilize Native American themed mascots, although the Golden State Warriors
have de-emphasized using a Native American mascot. In addition to the mascot controversy
, the Redskins were also the last NFL team to sign an African American
(then-owner George Preston Marshall
was a renowned racist
) and only did it after John F. Kennedy
threatened the Redskins would not be allowed to play at D.C. Stadium, which was directly owned by the federal government.
The NHL's Chicago Blackhawks
use an anthropomorphic hawk as their mascot character although a Native American's profile appears on their jerseys and the team was named in honor of the team's founder
's military unit
, which was named the "Blackhawk Division" after Black Hawk
, a Native American chief.
In 2010 a law was passed in Wisconsin
to eliminate race-based nicknames, logos and mascots in schools. Schools can argue to keep their race-based mascot if they have the permission of local Native American tribes. It's the first law of its kind in the country and during the same year a similar law was proposed in Colorado.
Websites
Articles
Parody
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
since the 1960s.
Americans have had a history of drawing inspiration from native peoples and "playing Indian" that dates back at least to the 18th century. Many individuals admire the heroism and romanticism evoked by the classic Native American
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
image, but many too view the use of mascot
Mascot
The term mascot – defined as a term for any person, animal, or object thought to bring luck – colloquially includes anything used to represent a group with a common public identity, such as a school, professional sports team, society, military unit, or brand name...
s as offensive, demeaning, or racist. The controversy has resulted in many institutions changing the names and images associated with their sports teams. Native American images and nicknames nevertheless remain fairly common in American sports, and may be seen in use by teams at all levels from elementary school to professional.
History
During the 1960s, the National Congress of American IndiansNational Congress of American Indians
The National Congress of American Indians is a American Indian and Alaska Native indigenous rights organization. It was founded in 1944 in response to termination and assimilation policies that the U.S. government forced upon the tribal governments in contradiction of their treaty rights and...
created a campaign to eliminate negative stereotyping of Native American people in the media. They focused mainly on cartoons and movies; however their protests of sports organizations garnered the most attention. The National Congress of American Indians has long been opposed to mascots that portray Native Americans in a negative light. They feel that teams with mascots such as the Braves and the Redskins
Redskins
Redskins may refer to:* Redskin , a controversial term referring to Native Americans* The Washington Redskins, a United States football team* Redskin , a socialist or communist skinhead...
perpetuate negative stereotypes of Native American people, and demean their native traditions and rituals. Proponents of Native American mascots, however, believe that Native American mascots pay respect to these people and promote a better understanding of their cultures. Despite this issue emanating during the civil rights movement
Civil rights movement
The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980. In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations it was...
, it still continues today as many teams continue to possess mascots with controversial names and images.
Varying degrees of offensiveness
According to polling results published in Sports Illustrated
Sports Illustrated
Sports Illustrated is an American sports media company owned by media conglomerate Time Warner. Its self titled magazine has over 3.5 million subscribers and is read by 23 million adults each week, including over 18 million men. It was the first magazine with circulation over one million to win the...
in February 2002,
In 2004, a poll by the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania essentially confirmed the Sports Illustrated poll's findings, concluding that 91% of the American Indians surveyed in the 48 states on the mainland USA found the name "Redskins
Washington Redskins
The Washington Redskins are a professional American football team and members of the East Division of the National Football Conference in the National Football League . The team plays at FedExField in Landover, Maryland, while its headquarters and training facility are at Redskin Park in Ashburn,...
" acceptable.
However, despite this varying degree of degradation, the National Collegiate Athletic Association
National Collegiate Athletic Association
The National Collegiate Athletic Association is a semi-voluntary association of 1,281 institutions, conferences, organizations and individuals that organizes the athletic programs of many colleges and universities in the United States...
(NCAA), the ruling authority on college athletics, distributed a “self evaluation” in June 2005, for teams to examine the use of potentially offensive imagery with their mascot choice.
Some college teams, however, are changing their names and mascots without instruction of the NCAA. For example, Marquette University
Marquette University
Marquette University is a private, coeducational, Jesuit, Roman Catholic university located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Founded by the Society of Jesus in 1881, the school is one of 28 member institutions of the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities...
changed their team name from the Warriors to the Golden Eagles in 1994. The school’s president stated:
Stonehill College
Stonehill College
Stonehill College is a private Roman Catholic college located in Easton, Massachusetts, United States, founded in 1948. Situated in North Easton, Massachusetts, a suburban community of 23,329 people, Stonehill is located south of Boston on a campus, the original estate of Frederick Lothrop Ames...
also changed their mascot from the Chieftain to the Skyhawk “out of respect to Native American culture.”
Additionally, teams that are not directly affected by this controversy have issued their opinions. The University of Wisconsin–Madison
University of Wisconsin–Madison
The University of Wisconsin–Madison is a public research university located in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. Founded in 1848, UW–Madison is the flagship campus of the University of Wisconsin System. It became a land-grant institution in 1866...
and the University of Iowa
University of Iowa
The University of Iowa is a public state-supported research university located in Iowa City, Iowa, United States. It is the oldest public university in the state. The university is organized into eleven colleges granting undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees...
have both refused to schedule non-conference games against schools with Native American mascots. Ironically, the University of Iowa's own nickname, "Hawkeyes", has Native American origins (Iowa is the "Hawkeye State
Hawkeye State
The Hawkeye State is a popular nickname for the state of Iowa. According to the Iowa State web site, "Two Iowa promoters from Burlington are believed to have popularized the name." The nickname was given approval by "territorial officials" in 1838, eight years before Iowa became a state.The two...
"), although the team uses a hawk
Hawk
The term hawk can be used in several ways:* In strict usage in Australia and Africa, to mean any of the species in the subfamily Accipitrinae, which comprises the genera Accipiter, Micronisus, Melierax, Urotriorchis and Megatriorchis. The large and widespread Accipiter genus includes goshawks,...
as its symbol rather than an Indian.
The University of Oregon
University of Oregon
-Colleges and schools:The University of Oregon is organized into eight schools and colleges—six professional schools and colleges, an Arts and Sciences College and an Honors College.- School of Architecture and Allied Arts :...
, following suit by The Oregonian
The Oregonian
The Oregonian is the major daily newspaper in Portland, Oregon, owned by Advance Publications. It is the oldest continuously published newspaper on the U.S. west coast, founded as a weekly by Thomas J. Dryer on December 4, 1850...
newspaper, declined to refer to the University of Illinois team as the "Illini" in a basketball game in 2005.
The University of Utah
University of Utah
The University of Utah, also known as the U or the U of U, is a public, coeducational research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret, making it Utah's oldest...
, Ute mascot:
In 1996 Swoop, a red tailed hawk, became the new mascot for the University of Utah. Swoop symbolizes the soaring spirit of the state of Utah and the institution itself.http://utahutes.cstv.com/trads/swoop.html
For many decades, the school did not have an official Western Athletic Conference mascot. As early as the 1950s, the University of Utah created a Ute Indian boy, named "Hoyo", as its mascot. The University of Utah club organizations, such as the Associated Students of the University of Utah, the University of Utah Alumni Association, the Daily Chronicle, and many other social organizations highly celebrated "Hoyo" at homecoming events, before and after football games events, and at other social events for many years.
Even though Swoop is now the University of Utah's official mascot, Utah fans and its clubs alike still use "Utes" as their nickname at sporting events. This is done with permission from the Ute Tribal Council.http://utahutes.cstv.com/trads/ute-trads-general.html
Argument supporting the use of Native American mascots
Sports Illustrated
Sports Illustrated is an American sports media company owned by media conglomerate Time Warner. Its self titled magazine has over 3.5 million subscribers and is read by 23 million adults each week, including over 18 million men. It was the first magazine with circulation over one million to win the...
that his team's name "symbolizes courage, dignity, and leadership," and that the "Redskins symbolize the greatness and strength of a grand people."
Others claim Native American mascots help promote the culture to those who might be unaware of its significance. Chief Illiniwek
Chief Illiniwek
Chief Illiniwek was the mascot and the official symbol of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign associated with the University's intercollegiate athletic programs from 1926 to February 21, 2007. The mascot was portrayed by a student dressed in Sioux regalia to honor the Illiniwek, the...
, the former athletic symbol for the University of Illinois, has been another figure who has come under scrutiny. However, in 1990 the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois called the mascot a dignified symbol:
However, the tribal dance and costume was not of the Illini confederacy
Illiniwek
The Illinois Confederation, sometimes referred to as the Illiniwek or Illini, were a group of twelve to thirteen Native American tribes in the upper Mississippi River valley of North America...
, but that of the Lakota tribe. The Chief was retired on February 21, 2007, due in large part to the negative criticism.
Steven Denson, director of diversity for Southern Methodist University
Southern Methodist University
Southern Methodist University is a private university in Dallas, Texas, United States. Founded in 1911 by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, SMU operates campuses in Dallas, Plano, and Taos, New Mexico. SMU is owned by the South Central Jurisdiction of the United Methodist Church...
and member of the Chickasaw
Chickasaw
The Chickasaw are Native American people originally from the region that would become the Southeastern United States...
nation, while not issuing a blanket endorsement, has nevertheless stated that there are acceptable ways to use Native American mascots if it is done in a respectful and tasteful manner. He states,
Argument opposing the use of Native American mascots
Opponents of Native American mascots feel that the mascots breed insensitivity and misunderstanding about native people. Opponents also highlight the seeming double standard for racial mascots where there are no mascots based on African Americans, or Asian Americans depicted in sports. The University of Notre DameUniversity of Notre Dame
The University of Notre Dame du Lac is a Catholic research university located in Notre Dame, an unincorporated community north of the city of South Bend, in St. Joseph County, Indiana, United States...
’s “Fighting Irish
Notre Dame Fighting Irish
Notre Dame's nickname is inherited from Irish immigrant soldiers who fought in the Civil War with the Union's Irish Brigade, , recollected among other places in the poetry of Joyce Kilmer who served with one of the Irish Brigade regiments during World War I...
." and the University of Louisiana Lafayette
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
The University of Louisiana at Lafayette, or UL Lafayette, is a coeducational, public research university located in Lafayette, Louisiana, in the heart of Acadiana...
's "Ragin' Cajuns" are notable exceptions to the debate, as those schools selected symbols that represent themselves historically. Another exception is the "Braves" of the University of North Carolina at Pembroke
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
The University of North Carolina at Pembroke , also known as UNC Pembroke, is a public, co-educational, historically American Indian liberal arts university in the town of Pembroke in Robeson County, North Carolina....
, a school originally created to educate Native Americans.
A big issue in the Native American mascot debate is the use of Indian mascots by elementary, middle and high school sports teams. Opponents of Native American mascots feel that children should be exposed to realistic and positive portrayals of American Indians during their educational years. Kathy Morning Star, director of the American Indian Cultural Support, states:
Many opponents also take offense to proponents of Native American mascots that claim they are simply paying tribute to native people. Considering many Native Americans’ stance on this issue, opponents of Native American mascots feel that the mascots should be deemed offensive by the people being imitated, not by those who are imitating.
Opponents also deem it insensitive when unconscious phrases like “Kill the Indians” or “Murder the Redskins” are yelled during sporting events (the latter of which is particularly yelled by Cowboys
Dallas Cowboys
The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football franchise which plays in the Eastern Division of the National Football Conference of the National Football League . They are headquartered in Valley Ranch in Irving, Texas, a suburb of Dallas...
, Eagles
Philadelphia Eagles
The Philadelphia Eagles are a professional American football team based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They are members of the East Division of the National Football Conference in the National Football League...
, and Giants
New York Giants
The New York Giants are a professional American football team based in East Rutherford, New Jersey, representing the New York City metropolitan area. The Giants are currently members of the Eastern Division of the National Football Conference in the National Football League...
fans, due to long-standing NFL rivalries), referring to the team playing, but also creating a negative view of Native Americans.
Florida State Seminoles
Florida State University
The Florida State University is a space-grant and sea-grant public university located in Tallahassee, Florida, United States. It is a comprehensive doctoral research university with medical programs and significant research activity as determined by the Carnegie Foundation...
's use of Seminole
Seminole
The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida, who now reside primarily in that state and Oklahoma. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creeks from what is now Georgia and Alabama, who settled in Florida in...
imagery for its Florida State Seminoles
Florida State Seminoles
The Florida State Seminoles are the men's and women's sports teams of Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida. Florida State participates in the NCAA's Division I . FSU joined the Atlantic Coast Conference in 1991, and competes in the Atlantic Division in any sports split into a...
athletic teams makes an interesting case study because of the university's close ties to the Seminole Tribe of Florida
Seminole Tribe of Florida
The Seminole Tribe of Florida is a federally recognized Seminole tribe based in the U.S. state of Florida. Together with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida, it is one of three federally recognized Seminole entities...
. The university has worn the nickname "Seminoles" since 1947 and annually crowns a Chief and Princess at Homecoming with Seminole tribe leaders participating as celebrants. Since 1978 home football games have been opened with the entrance of Chief Osceola and Renegade
Chief Osceola and Renegade
Chief Osceola and Renegade are the official symbols of the Florida State University Seminoles. During home football games at Florida State, Chief Osceola, portraying the Seminole leader Osceola, charges down the field at Bobby Bowden Field at Doak Campbell Stadium riding an appaloosa horse named...
. Florida State University officials disapprove of referring to human figures as 'mascots' and have asked sports writers to cease doing so. Official university statements speak only of using 'symbols', 'nicknames', and 'images' inspired by Seminole tradition.
The question of a nickname for athletic teams arose in 1947 as the Florida State College for Women went co-ed (a status it had actually had before 1905) to become Florida State University
Florida State University
The Florida State University is a space-grant and sea-grant public university located in Tallahassee, Florida, United States. It is a comprehensive doctoral research university with medical programs and significant research activity as determined by the Carnegie Foundation...
. Students voted overwhelmingly for "Seminoles" over alternatives such as "Statesmen" and "Crackers." For the first two decades Seminole athletic teams mostly used stock images based on Hollywood Westerns and American currency. The first human figures seen at games were a gymnastic, back-bending Sammy Seminole
Sammy Seminole
Sammy Seminole was the first mascot of the Florida State University Seminoles. He was introduced in 1958 and was retired in 1972 in an effort to find a less insensitive mascot.-History:...
(1958–1972) and, briefly and unofficially, a fraternity-house character named Chief Fullabull. Both were portrayed by Euro-American
White people
White people is a term which usually refers to human beings characterized, at least in part, by the light pigmentation of their skin...
undergraduate students dressed in faux American Indian
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
garb. Leaders of the Seminole Tribe of Florida
Seminole Tribe of Florida
The Seminole Tribe of Florida is a federally recognized Seminole tribe based in the U.S. state of Florida. Together with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida, it is one of three federally recognized Seminole entities...
who attended a basketball game on the campus in 1972 expressed their concerns to university officials regarding the antics of Chief Fullabull. Seminole leaders and university officials agreed on the need for something dignified and more representative of authentic Seminole traditions. Both characters were retired that year.
1978 marked the first appearance of Chief Osceola and Renegade
Chief Osceola and Renegade
Chief Osceola and Renegade are the official symbols of the Florida State University Seminoles. During home football games at Florida State, Chief Osceola, portraying the Seminole leader Osceola, charges down the field at Bobby Bowden Field at Doak Campbell Stadium riding an appaloosa horse named...
, in which a student portrays the iconic 19th-century Seminole war leader Osceola
Osceola
Osceola, also known as Billy Powell , became an influential leader with the Seminole in Florida. He was of Creek, Scots-Irish and English parentage, and had migrated to Florida with his mother after the defeat of the Creek in 1814.Osceola led a small band of warriors in the Seminole resistance...
. Renegade was the name given to his Appaloosa
Appaloosa
The Appaloosa is a horse breed best known for its colorful leopard-spotted coat pattern. There is a wide range of body types within the breed, stemming from the influence of multiple breeds of horses throughout its history. Each horse's color pattern is genetically the result of various spotting...
horse. The student, chosen for his horsemanship, wears clothing provided by the Seminole tribe but is not necessarily of native American descent himself. At the beginning of each home game Osceola plants a flaming spear at midfield. The image and actions of this figure were worked out in coordination with Florida Seminole leaders. Osceola never speaks or appears walking on foot. When the US national anthem is sung, Osceola simply waits with his spear across his lap. For the first three years of the tradition the figure actually went nameless; he was referred to as 'the Seminole warrior' because tribal leaders at the time preferred that the name of the actual historical figure not be used. The Florida State portrayal of Osceola romanticises tradition in some aspects. The historical Osceola, a war leader, did not actually live long enough to attain the rank of Seminole "chief", for example, and historians debate how much inclination or opportunity he had to ride horses in wartime
Seminole Wars
The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, were three conflicts in Florida between the Seminole — the collective name given to the amalgamation of various groups of native Americans and Black people who settled in Florida in the early 18th century — and the United States Army...
.
In August 2005 the NCAA granted a waiver to the Florida State University which removed it from the NCAA’s list of colleges using imagery “hostile or abusive” towards Native Americans. According to Bernard Franklin, senior vice president of the NCAA,
The Seminole Tribe of Florida officially sanctions the use of the Seminole as Florida State University’s nickname and of Chief Osceola as FSU's mascot. Max Osceola, the chief and general council president of the Seminole Tribe of Florida, has stated that he regards it as an “honor” to be associated with the university.
However, the Seminole Tribe of Florida is only one the tribal authorities representing Seminoles. Some members of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma
Seminole Nation of Oklahoma
The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma is a federally recognized Seminole tribe based in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. It is the largest of the three federally recognized Seminole organizations, which include the Seminole Tribe of Florida and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida...
, among them activists David Narcomey
David Narcomey
David Narcomey is a member of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and an activist who was the regional director of the North Florida chapter of the American Indian Movement or AIM....
and Michael Haney, opposed FSU's use of the Seminoles mascot and name. In addition, general council member of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma David Narcomey
David Narcomey
David Narcomey is a member of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and an activist who was the regional director of the North Florida chapter of the American Indian Movement or AIM....
stated, speaking on his own behalf:
In 2005, Jennifer McBee, the Oklahoma Seminole tribe's attorney general, stated that the council had taken no official position on the FSU issue. Despite the individual comments of some members of the Oklahoma Seminoles, Ken Chambers, principal chief of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma told The Palm Beach (Florida) Post in August 2005 that he had no objection to Florida State University using the Seminoles as a nickname and symbol, reversing the earlier public position of the Oklahoma tribe's spokesperson. In July 2005, the Seminole Nation General Council, the legislative body for the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, voted 18-2 not to oppose the use of Native American names and mascots by college sports teams.
Other
The Central Michigan UniversityCentral Michigan University
Central Michigan University is a public research university located in Mount Pleasant in the U.S. state of Michigan...
nickname, the Chippewas
Central Michigan Chippewas
The Central Michigan Chippewas are the sixteen men's and women's athletics teams of Central Michigan University. CMU was a member of the Illinois Intercollegiate Athletic Conference from 1950-1970. The school's athletics programs are affiliated with the NCAA and compete in the Mid-American...
, was originally placed on the “hostile or abusive” list but was removed when the Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Nation of Michigan gave its support to the nickname.
Stanford University
Stanford University
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
had The Stanford Indian, a Native American as mascot (1930–1972). Today, The Stanford Cardinal honors the color. The mascot of the Stanford Band
Stanford Band
The Leland Stanford Junior University Marching Band is the student marching band of Stanford University. Billing itself as "The World's Largest Rock and Roll Band", the Stanford Band performs at sporting events, student activities, and other functions...
is a Tree.
Miami University
Miami University
Miami University is a coeducational public research university located in Oxford, Ohio, United States. Founded in 1809, it is the 10th oldest public university in the United States and the second oldest university in Ohio, founded four years after Ohio University. In its 2012 edition, U.S...
in 1996 changed its team nicknames from Redskins to Redhawks
Miami RedHawks
Miami University, in Oxford, Ohio, features 18 different varsity level sports teams for men and women, all of which are known as the Miami RedHawks...
at the request of the Miami tribe, for whom the school is named. Earlier, the tribe allowed the school to continue to use the name Redskins, but later demanded that the nickname be discontinued.
Seattle University
Seattle University
Seattle University is a Jesuit Catholic university located in the First Hill neighborhood of Seattle, Washington, USA.SU is the largest independent university in the Northwest US, with over 7,500 students enrolled in undergraduate and graduate programs within eight schools, and is one of 28 member...
changed the nickname of their mascot from Chieftains to Redhawks in 2000.
Other Indian tribes have also supported the use of their tribal names as a tribute to their heritage. The Ute tribe
Ute Tribe
The Ute are an American Indian people now living primarily in Utah and Colorado. There are three Ute tribal reservations: Uintah-Ouray in northeastern Utah ; Southern Ute in Colorado ; and Ute Mountain which primarily lies in Colorado, but extends to Utah and New Mexico . The name of the state of...
approved the use of the name "Utes" for the University of Utah
University of Utah
The University of Utah, also known as the U or the U of U, is a public, coeducational research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret, making it Utah's oldest...
and the NCAA granted a waiver to allow the name to remain. Haskell Indian Nations Fighting Indians
Haskell Indian Nations Fighting Indians
Haskell Indian Nations University athletic teams are known as the Fighting Indians. They participate in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics and the Midlands Collegiate Athletic Conference....
continues to participate in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics
National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics
The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics is an athletic association that organizes college and university-level athletic programs. Membership in the NAIA consists of smaller colleges and universities across the United States. The NAIA allows colleges and universities outside the USA...
and the Midlands Collegiate Athletic Conference
Midlands Collegiate Athletic Conference
The Midlands Collegiate Athletic Conference is an affiliate of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics . Its nine member institutions are located in Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma.-Members:...
.
The Sioux
Sioux
The Sioux are Native American and First Nations people in North America. The term can refer to any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or any of the nation's many language dialects...
tribe has failed unambiguously to approve the use of the name "Fighting Sioux
North Dakota Fighting Sioux
The North Dakota Fighting Sioux are the athletic teams of the University of North Dakota , which is located in the city of Grand Forks, North Dakota, in the United States. The logo is a Native American figure. The logo was designed by Bennett Brien, a local artist and UND graduate of Ojibwa...
" in the name of the University of North Dakota
University of North Dakota
The University of North Dakota is a public university in Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA. Established by the Dakota Territorial Assembly in 1883, six years before the establishment of the state of North Dakota, UND is the oldest and largest university in the state and enrolls over 14,000 students. ...
. UND has appealed several times to the NCAA and is currently under a championship host ban for not removing the moniker. When it moved in the fall of 2009 to change its nickname, one of the two Sioux tribal councils in the state sued to have the name retained.
The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign is a large public research-intensive university in the state of Illinois, United States. It is the flagship campus of the University of Illinois system...
, however, is permitted to use the name "Illini" owing to the NCAA ruling that the name "is closely related to the name of the state and not directly associated with Native Americans." The term Fighting Illini is in fact a reference to veterans from Illinois who fought during World War I. The symbol Chief Illiniwek
Chief Illiniwek
Chief Illiniwek was the mascot and the official symbol of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign associated with the University's intercollegiate athletic programs from 1926 to February 21, 2007. The mascot was portrayed by a student dressed in Sioux regalia to honor the Illiniwek, the...
was ruled "hostile and abusive" and was retired in 2007 to comply with the NCAA's ruling, and the following year, in compliance with a related NCAA ruling, both U of I and Northwestern University
Northwestern University
Northwestern University is a private research university in Evanston and Chicago, Illinois, USA. Northwestern has eleven undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools offering 124 undergraduate degrees and 145 graduate and professional degrees....
retired their then-current rivalry trophy, the Sweet Sioux Tomahawk
Sweet Sioux Tomahawk
The Sweet Sioux Tomahawk was presented to the winner of the annual college football game between Illinois rivals Northwestern University, located in the Chicago suburb of Evanston, and the University of Illinois, located on the border between the central Illinois cities of Champaign and Urbana...
.
The College of William & Mary, nicknamed the "Tribe"
William & Mary Tribe
The William & Mary Tribe are the athletic teams for the College of William & Mary. The name Tribe now refers to the unity and comradery that William & Mary student-athletes share when competing in the classroom and on the field. William & Mary has transitioned through several official nicknames...
, was forced to remove the two tribal feathers stemming from their logo in 2006 due to insensitivity towards Native Americans. Their adoption of the griffin mascot allowed the reestablishment of the feather logo in 2010.
Many high schools
Secondary education in the United States
In most jurisdictions, secondary education in the United States refers to the last six or seven years of statutory formal education. Secondary education is generally split between junior high school or middle school, usually beginning with sixth or seventh grade , and high school, beginning with...
across the country have encountered the same scenario. Frontier Regional School
Frontier Regional School
-Academics:Frontier Regional runs on a semester system. Students can take 4-5 courses per semester; either 4 semester courses that meet everyday, or 3 semester courses that meet everyday and 2 quarter courses that meet every-other day...
, in Deerfield
Deerfield, Massachusetts
Deerfield is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 4,750 as of the 2000 census. Deerfield is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area in Western Massachusetts, lying only north of the city of Springfield.Deerfield includes the...
, MA
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
was forced to remove its Redskin mascot in 2000. The school now goes by the moniker of the Redhawks
Red-tailed Hawk
The Red-tailed Hawk is a bird of prey, one of three species colloquially known in the United States as the "chickenhawk," though it rarely preys on standard sized chickens. It breeds throughout most of North America, from western Alaska and northern Canada to as far south as Panama and the West...
. Also, Turners Falls High School of Turners Falls, MA had to change its fight song, known as the tomohawk chop, but did not change its mascot. On the other hand, Union High School
Union Public Schools
Union Public Schools is a public school district located in southeast Tulsa, and northwest Broken Arrow, Oklahoma. The school district is the eleventh largest in Oklahoma. Union is notable among school districts in the area because Union does not encompass a particular city...
in Tulsa, Oklahoma
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Tulsa is the second-largest city in the state of Oklahoma and 46th-largest city in the United States. With a population of 391,906 as of the 2010 census, it is the principal municipality of the Tulsa Metropolitan Area, a region with 937,478 residents in the MSA and 988,454 in the CSA. Tulsa's...
, a high-profile high school athletic program, has consistently opposed protests and proposed legislation intended to change its "Redskins" nickname.
Financial impact of change
Many supporters of Native American mascots feel that the financial cost of changing mascots would far outweigh the benefits. Sales of merchandise with team mascots and nicknames ranging from t-shirts to beer cozies generate millions of dollars in sales each year, and teams contend that a change in team mascots would render this merchandise useless.Opponents, however, are unconcerned with the cost of changing and view mascots as caricatures of real Indians that do not honor them, but rather trivialize and demean important Indian dances and traditions. Opponents feel that despite the cost of a change in team mascots, it should be done to prevent what they believe is racial stereotyping. Clyde Bellecourt
Clyde Bellecourt
Clyde Howard Bellecourt is a White Earth Ojibwe civil rights organizer noted for co-founding the American Indian Movement in 1968 with Dennis Banks, Herb Powless, and Eddie Benton Banai, among others. His older brother, the late Vernon Bellecourt, was also active...
, the director of the American Indian Movement
American Indian Movement
The American Indian Movement is a Native American activist organization in the United States, founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota by urban Native Americans. The national AIM agenda focuses on spirituality, leadership, and sovereignty...
, stated:
One attempt to affect the use of mascots financially began in 1992 when five Native Americans filed a petition to remove the trademark
Trademark
A trademark, trade mark, or trade-mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to identify that the products or services to consumers with which the trademark appears originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or...
status of the Washington Redskins
Washington Redskins
The Washington Redskins are a professional American football team and members of the East Division of the National Football Conference in the National Football League . The team plays at FedExField in Landover, Maryland, while its headquarters and training facility are at Redskin Park in Ashburn,...
team name, which would have disallowed sales of branded merchandise without payment of royalties
Royalties
Royalties are usage-based payments made by one party to another for the right to ongoing use of an asset, sometimes an intellectual property...
. The Trademark Trial and Appeal Board
Trademark Trial and Appeal Board
The Trademark Trial and Appeal Board is a body within the United States Patent and Trademark Office responsible for hearing and deciding certain kinds of cases involving trademarks. These include appeals from decisions by USPTO Examiners denying registration of marks, and opposition proceedings...
in 1999 ruled in favor of the petition and cancelled the trademarks. Following appeals, in 2005 the D.C. Court of Appeals
United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit known informally as the D.C. Circuit, is the federal appellate court for the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. Appeals from the D.C. Circuit, as with all the U.S. Courts of Appeals, are heard on a...
in Pro-Football, Inc. v. Harjo
Pro-Football, Inc. v. Harjo
Pro-Football, Inc. v. Harjo, 415 F.3d 44 , is a case in which the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia considered the decision of the United States Patent and Trademark Office's Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to cancel the registration of the Washington Redskins football team,...
reversed the cancellation, ruling that there had been insufficient evidence
Evidence (law)
The law of evidence encompasses the rules and legal principles that govern the proof of facts in a legal proceeding. These rules determine what evidence can be considered by the trier of fact in reaching its decision and, sometimes, the weight that may be given to that evidence...
to support the finding of disparagement
Disparagement
Disparagement, in United States trademark law, is a statutory cause of action that permits a party to petition the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board of the Patent and Trademark Office to cancel a trademark registration that "may disparage or falsely suggest a connection with persons, living or...
and holding that the majority of the petitioners were barred by laches
Laches (equity)
Laches is an "unreasonable delay pursuing a right or claim...in a way that prejudices the [opposing] party" When asserted in litigation, it is an equitable defense, or doctrine...
from maintaining the suit. On 16 November 2009, the U.S. Supreme Court
Supreme Court of the United States
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all state and federal courts, and original jurisdiction over a small range of cases...
, refused to hear an appeal from Harjo, effectively ending the dispute started in 1992.
Current status
The Native American mascot issue remains fiercely contested because of the many Native American mascots still currently used in sports. According to the American Indian Cultural Support, as of 2006, at least 2,498 kindergarten, elementary, middle and high schools use Native American Indian mascots throughout the country.In April 2001 the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights called for an end to the use of Native American images and team names by non-Native schools, stating "the stereotyping of any racial, ethnic, religious or other group, when promoted by our public educational institutions, teaches all students that stereotyping of minority groups is acceptable, which is a dangerous lesson in a diverse society."
Though changes have been made at the high school and college levels, the professional sides have seen virtually no change. Several teams, such as the Washington Redskins
Washington Redskins
The Washington Redskins are a professional American football team and members of the East Division of the National Football Conference in the National Football League . The team plays at FedExField in Landover, Maryland, while its headquarters and training facility are at Redskin Park in Ashburn,...
, Kansas City Chiefs
Kansas City Chiefs
The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. They are a member of the Western Division of the American Football Conference in the National Football League . Originally named the Dallas Texans, the club was founded by Lamar Hunt in 1960 as a...
, Atlanta Braves
Atlanta Braves
The Atlanta Braves are a professional baseball club based in Atlanta, Georgia. The Braves are a member of the Eastern Division of Major League Baseball's National League. The Braves have played in Turner Field since 1997....
, Cleveland Indians
Cleveland Indians
The Cleveland Indians are a professional baseball team based in Cleveland, Ohio. They are in the Central Division of Major League Baseball's American League. Since , they have played in Progressive Field. The team's spring training facility is in Goodyear, Arizona...
, and Edmonton Eskimos
Edmonton Eskimos
The Edmonton Eskimos are a Canadian football team based in Edmonton, Alberta. They currently play in the West Division of the Canadian Football League . Edmonton is currently the third-youngest franchise in the CFL, although there were clubs with the name Edmonton Eskimos as early as 1895...
still utilize Native American themed mascots, although the Golden State Warriors
Golden State Warriors
The Golden State Warriors are an American professional basketball team based in Oakland, California. They are part of the Pacific Division of the Western Conference in the National Basketball Association...
have de-emphasized using a Native American mascot. In addition to the mascot controversy
Washington Redskins mascot controversy
The Washington Redskins Mascot Controversy involves the logo and name of the Washington Redskins, and has been a source of controversy between its owners, certain Indian groups, fans, and the United States government...
, the Redskins were also the last NFL team to sign an African American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
(then-owner George Preston Marshall
George Preston Marshall
George Preston Marshall was the owner and president of the Washington Redskins of the National Football League from 1932 until his death in 1969.-Contributions:...
was a renowned racist
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
) and only did it after John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy , often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963....
threatened the Redskins would not be allowed to play at D.C. Stadium, which was directly owned by the federal government.
The NHL's Chicago Blackhawks
Chicago Blackhawks
The Chicago Blackhawks are a professional ice hockey team based in Chicago, Illinois. They are members of the Central Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League . They have won four Stanley Cup championships since their founding in 1926, most recently coming in 2009-10...
use an anthropomorphic hawk as their mascot character although a Native American's profile appears on their jerseys and the team was named in honor of the team's founder
Frederic McLaughlin
Frederic McLaughlin was the first owner of the Chicago Black Hawks.Born in Chicago, Illinois, McLaughlin inherited a successful coffee business from his father, who died in 1905. McLaughlin was a graduate of Harvard University and served in the United States Army during World War I...
's military unit
U.S. 86th Infantry Division
The 86th Infantry Division was a unit of the United States Army in World War I and World War II.-World War I:*Combat: Saw no combat; was activated 25 August 1917 at Camp Grant in Rockford, Illinois, went overseas in August 1918, returned to United States in November 1918, and was inactivated in...
, which was named the "Blackhawk Division" after Black Hawk
Black Hawk (chief)
Black Hawk was a leader and warrior of the Sauk American Indian tribe in what is now the United States. Although he had inherited an important historic medicine bundle, he was not one of the Sauk's hereditary civil chiefs...
, a Native American chief.
In 2010 a law was passed in Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
to eliminate race-based nicknames, logos and mascots in schools. Schools can argue to keep their race-based mascot if they have the permission of local Native American tribes. It's the first law of its kind in the country and during the same year a similar law was proposed in Colorado.
Films
- In Whose Honor? (1997). Written and produced by Jay Rosenstein. Ho-Ho-Kus, New JerseyHo-Ho-Kus, New JerseyHo-Ho-Kus is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 census, the borough population was 4,078. It is the home of several historical landmarks, including the Ho-Ho-Kus Inn and The Hermitage....
: New Day Films.
See also
- Charlene TetersCharlene TetersCharlene Teters is a Native American artist, educator, and lecturer. Her paintings and art installations have been featured in over 21 major exhibitions, commissions, and collections. She is a member of the Spokane Tribe, and her Spokane name is Slum Tah...
- Chief IlliniwekChief IlliniwekChief Illiniwek was the mascot and the official symbol of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign associated with the University's intercollegiate athletic programs from 1926 to February 21, 2007. The mascot was portrayed by a student dressed in Sioux regalia to honor the Illiniwek, the...
- Chief WahooChief WahooChief Wahoo is a trademarked logo for the Cleveland Indians baseball team. The illustration is a Native American cartoon caricature.Although the club had adopted the name "Indians" starting with the 1915 season, there was no acknowledgment of this nickname on their uniforms until 1928...
- Chief Noc-A-HomaChief Noc-A-HomaChief Noc-A-Homa was the original mascot of the Milwaukee and Atlanta Braves from 1950s until 1986. The name was used for the "screaming Indian" sleeve patch worn on Braves jerseys...
- Washington Redskins mascot controversyWashington Redskins mascot controversyThe Washington Redskins Mascot Controversy involves the logo and name of the Washington Redskins, and has been a source of controversy between its owners, certain Indian groups, fans, and the United States government...
- List of sports team names and mascots derived from Indigenous peoples
- Occurrence of Religious Symbolism in U.S. Sports Team Names and MascotsOccurrence of Religious Symbolism in U.S. Sports Team Names and MascotsThe following is a list of American sports team names and mascots that draw upon religious symbolism. Given the prevalence of Christian groups and institutions in the United States, the vast majority of these symbols, though basically generic, can be assumed to come from Christian sources...
- List of ethnic sports team and mascot names (all ethnicities)
- MascotMascotThe term mascot – defined as a term for any person, animal, or object thought to bring luck – colloquially includes anything used to represent a group with a common public identity, such as a school, professional sports team, society, military unit, or brand name...
- National Congress of American IndiansNational Congress of American IndiansThe National Congress of American Indians is a American Indian and Alaska Native indigenous rights organization. It was founded in 1944 in response to termination and assimilation policies that the U.S. government forced upon the tribal governments in contradiction of their treaty rights and...
- SeminoleSeminoleThe Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida, who now reside primarily in that state and Oklahoma. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creeks from what is now Georgia and Alabama, who settled in Florida in...
- Vernon BellecourtVernon BellecourtVernon Bellecourt, Indian name WaBun-Inini, was a member of the White Earth Band of Ojibwe , and a Native American rights activist, one of the highest leaders in the American Indian Movement...
External links
OrganizationsWebsites
- The Mascot Issue. Lisa Mitten. February 17, 1999 (last updated May 20, 2008)
Articles
- "Crimes Against Humanity" by Ward ChurchillWard ChurchillWard LeRoy Churchill is an author and political activist. He was a professor of ethnic studies at the University of Colorado at Boulder from 1990 to 2007. The primary focus of his work is on the historical treatment of political dissenters and Native Americans by the United States government...
- Keen, Judy. "Controversial mascot ejected: Wis. community to choose name after dropping 'Indians' name used since 1936" (Kewaunee High School). USA TodayUSA TodayUSA Today is a national American daily newspaper published by the Gannett Company. It was founded by Al Neuharth. The newspaper vies with The Wall Street Journal for the position of having the widest circulation of any newspaper in the United States, something it previously held since 2003...
, October 7, 2010, page 3A. - Summary of the Resolution Recommending Retirement of American Indian Mascots from American Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological AssociationThe American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
Parody