Nidulariaceae
Encyclopedia
The Nidulariaceae are a family
of fungi in the order Nidulariales. Commonly known as the bird's nest fungi, their fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests. As they are saprobic, feeding on decomposing organic matter
, they are often seen growing on decaying wood and in soils enriched with wood chips or bark
mulch
; they have a widespread distribution in most ecological regions. The five genera within the family, namely, Crucibulum
, Cyathus
, Mycocalia
, Nidula
, and Nidularia
, are distinguished from each other by differences in morphology and peridiole structure; more recently, phylogenetic analysis and comparison of DNA sequences is guiding new decisions in the taxonomic organization of this family.
irregularly or by a circumscissile split, in a circular line around the circumference of the cup opening. Fruiting bodies (also called peridia) are small, generally between 5–15 mm wide and 4–8 mm high, urn- or vase-shaped, and contain one to several disc-shaped peridioles that resemble tiny eggs.
Peridiole structure
Peridioles contain glebal tissue, basidia
, and basidiospore
s, surrounded by a hardened wall. They are commonly lenticular in shape (like a biconvex lens), measuring 1–3 mm in diameter. The color of the peridioles is characteristic of the genera: Cyathus has black peridioles, Nidularia and Nidula have brown preidioles, Mycocalia has yellow- to red-brown peridioles, and Crucibulum has black peridioles that are surrounded by a whitish membrame called the tunica, which makes them appear white. In most species, the peridioles are dispersed by rain, but they may also be free in the peridium, surrounded by a jelly-like mucilage.
Microscopic characteristics
Basidiospore
s are oval or elliptical in shape, smooth, hyaline
, and thin-walled.
spores), or sexually (with meiosis
). Like other wood-decay fungi, this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases: the vegetative stage for the spread of mycelia, and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore-producing structures, the fruiting bodies.
The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination, spread, and survival of the mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called hypha
e, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood. These hyphae are homokaryotic
, containing a single nucleus in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell-wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis
and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups
fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic
mycelia in a process called plasmogamy
. Prerequisites for mycelial survival and colonization a substrate (like rotting wood) include suitable humidity and nutrient availability. The majority of Nidulariaceae species are saprobic, so mycelial growth in rotting wood is made possible by the secretion of enzyme
s that break down complex polysaccharide
s (such as cellulose
and lignin
) into simple sugars that can be used as nutrients.
After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions, the dikaryotic mycelia may enter the reproductive stage of the life cycle. Fruiting body formation is influenced by external factors such as season (which affects temperature and air humidity), nutrients and light. As fruiting bodies develop they produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce basidiospore
s, each containing a single haploid nucleus. The dikaryotic mycelia from which the fruiting bodies are produced is long-lasting, and will continue to produce successive generations of fruiting bodies as long as the environmental conditions are favorable.
Crucibulum
Fruiting bodies light tan to cinnamon-colored, cup- or crucible-shaped, and typically 1.5–10 mm wide by 5–12 mm tall.
Cyathus
Fruiting bodies vase-, trumpet- or urn-shaped with dimensions of 4–8 mm wide by 7–18 mm tall. Fruiting bodies are brown to gray-brown in color, and covered with small hair-like structures on the outer surface. Complex funicular cord.
Mycocalia
Small barrel- to lens-shaped fruiting bodies, usually 0.5–2 mm broad, that grow singly or in small groups.
Nidula
Fruiting bodies between 3–8 mm in diameter, 5–15 mm tall, and cup- or urn-shaped—having almost vertical sides with the lip flared outwards; color ranging from white, grey, buff, or tawny.
Nidularia
Typically 0.5–6 mm in diameter x 0.5–3 mm tall. They may be somewhat irregular in shape, or have a well-formed cup that is thin and fragile. No funicular cord.
has been shown to be polyphyletic, and an artificial assemblage of unrelated taxa that have independently evolved a gasteroid body type. A 2002 phylogenetic study of ribosomal DNA
from various gasteriod species, including Cyathus striatus
and Crucibulum laeve as representatives of the Nidulariaceae, were shown to belong to the euagarics clade, a monophyletic grouping of species from various genera: Hymenogaster
, Hebeloma
, Pholiota
, Psathyrellus, Agaricus campestris
, Amanita
, and Tulostoma
. The euagarics are mostly gilled mushrooms, but they do include two gasteroid lineages, including a puffball
lineage in the Lycoperdales
, and the bird's nest fungi in the Nidulariales.
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
of fungi in the order Nidulariales. Commonly known as the bird's nest fungi, their fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests. As they are saprobic, feeding on decomposing organic matter
Organic matter
Organic matter is matter that has come from a once-living organism; is capable of decay, or the product of decay; or is composed of organic compounds...
, they are often seen growing on decaying wood and in soils enriched with wood chips or bark
Bark
Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner...
mulch
Mulch
In agriculture and gardening, is a protective cover placed over the soil to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and seed germination. Mulching in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest floors....
; they have a widespread distribution in most ecological regions. The five genera within the family, namely, Crucibulum
Crucibulum
Crucibulum is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of falling drops of rain...
, Cyathus
Cyathus
Cyathus is a genus of fungi in the Nidulariaceae, a family collectively known as the bird's nest fungi. They are given this name since they resemble tiny bird's nests filled with "eggs", structures large enough to have been mistaken in the past for seeds. However, these are now known to be...
, Mycocalia
Mycocalia
Mycocalia is a genus of fungi in the family Nidulariaceae. Like other members of the Nidulariaceae, their fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests...
, Nidula
Nidula
Nidula is a genus of fungi in the family Nidulariaceae. Like other members of the Nidulariaceae, their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests, from which they derive their common name "bird's nest fungi"...
, and Nidularia
Nidularia
Nidularia is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird nests. The name comes from the Latin nidus meaning nest.-Description:...
, are distinguished from each other by differences in morphology and peridiole structure; more recently, phylogenetic analysis and comparison of DNA sequences is guiding new decisions in the taxonomic organization of this family.
History
Bird's nest fungi were first mentioned by Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius in Rariorum plantarum historia (1601). Over the next couple of centuries, these fungi were the subject of some controversy regarding whether the peridioles were seeds, and the mechanism by which they were dispersed in nature. For example, the French botanist Jean-Jacques Paulet, in his work Traité des champignons (1790–3), proposed the erroneous notion that peridioles were ejected from the fruiting bodies by some sort of spring mechanism.Description
The Nidulariaceae has a gasteroid fruiting body, meaning that the spores develop internally, in an angiocarp. Fruiting bodies are typically gregarious (growing together in groups, but not joined together). Young fruiting bodies are initially covered by a thin membrane that dehiscesDehiscence (botany)
Dehiscence is the opening, at maturity, in a pre-defined way, of a plant structure, such as a fruit, anther, or sporangium, to release its contents. Sometimes this involves the complete detachment of a part. Structures that open in this way are said to be dehiscent...
irregularly or by a circumscissile split, in a circular line around the circumference of the cup opening. Fruiting bodies (also called peridia) are small, generally between 5–15 mm wide and 4–8 mm high, urn- or vase-shaped, and contain one to several disc-shaped peridioles that resemble tiny eggs.
Peridiole structure
Peridioles contain glebal tissue, basidia
Basidium
thumb|right|500px|Schematic showing a basidiomycete mushroom, gill structure, and spore-bearing basidia on the gill margins.A basidium is a microscopic, spore-producing structure found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi. The presence of basidia is one of the main...
, and basidiospore
Basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are produced by specialized fungal cells called basidia. In grills under a cap of one common species in the phylum of...
s, surrounded by a hardened wall. They are commonly lenticular in shape (like a biconvex lens), measuring 1–3 mm in diameter. The color of the peridioles is characteristic of the genera: Cyathus has black peridioles, Nidularia and Nidula have brown preidioles, Mycocalia has yellow- to red-brown peridioles, and Crucibulum has black peridioles that are surrounded by a whitish membrame called the tunica, which makes them appear white. In most species, the peridioles are dispersed by rain, but they may also be free in the peridium, surrounded by a jelly-like mucilage.
Microscopic characteristics
Basidiospore
Basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are produced by specialized fungal cells called basidia. In grills under a cap of one common species in the phylum of...
s are oval or elliptical in shape, smooth, hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
, and thin-walled.
Habitat and distribution
Species in this family are cosmopolitan in distribution, and are largely saprobic, obtaining nutrition from the decomposition of wood and plant organic matter.Life cycle
The life cycle of the Nidulariaceae, which contains both haploid and diploid stages, is typical of taxa in the basidiomycetes that can reproduce both asexually (via vegetativeVegetative reproduction
Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It is a process by which new individuals arise without production of seeds or spores...
spores), or sexually (with meiosis
Meiosis
Meiosis is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction. The cells produced by meiosis are gametes or spores. The animals' gametes are called sperm and egg cells....
). Like other wood-decay fungi, this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases: the vegetative stage for the spread of mycelia, and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore-producing structures, the fruiting bodies.
The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination, spread, and survival of the mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called hypha
Hypha
A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
e, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood. These hyphae are homokaryotic
Homokaryotic
Homokaryotic refers to multinucleate cells where all nuclei are genetically identical. It is the antonym of heterokaryotic....
, containing a single nucleus in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell-wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis
Mitosis
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly...
and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups
Mating type
Mating types occur in eukaryotes that undergo sexual reproduction via isogamy. Since the gametes of different mating types look alike, they are often referred to by numbers, letters, or simply "+" and "-" instead of "male" and "female." Mating can only take place between different mating...
fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic
Dikaryon
Dikaryon is from Greek, di meaning 2 and karyon meaning nut, referring to the cell nucleus.The dikaryon is a nuclear feature which is unique to some fungi, in which after plasmogamy the two compatible nuclei of two cells pair off and cohabit without karyogamy within the cells of the hyphae,...
mycelia in a process called plasmogamy
Plasmogamy
Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi. In this stage, the cytoplasm of two parent mycelia fuse together without the fusion of nuclei, as occurs in higher terrestrial fungi. After plasmogamy occurs, the secondary mycelium forms. The secondary mycelium consists of dikaryotic...
. Prerequisites for mycelial survival and colonization a substrate (like rotting wood) include suitable humidity and nutrient availability. The majority of Nidulariaceae species are saprobic, so mycelial growth in rotting wood is made possible by the secretion of enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
s that break down complex polysaccharide
Polysaccharide
Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules, of repeated monomer units joined together by glycosidic bonds. They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure,...
s (such as cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
and lignin
Lignin
Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae. The term was introduced in 1819 by de Candolle and is derived from the Latin word lignum, meaning wood...
) into simple sugars that can be used as nutrients.
After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions, the dikaryotic mycelia may enter the reproductive stage of the life cycle. Fruiting body formation is influenced by external factors such as season (which affects temperature and air humidity), nutrients and light. As fruiting bodies develop they produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce basidiospore
Basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are produced by specialized fungal cells called basidia. In grills under a cap of one common species in the phylum of...
s, each containing a single haploid nucleus. The dikaryotic mycelia from which the fruiting bodies are produced is long-lasting, and will continue to produce successive generations of fruiting bodies as long as the environmental conditions are favorable.
Spore dispersal
The nests are splash cups. When a raindrop hits one at the right angle, the walls are shaped such that the eggs are expelled a good distance from the nest. Some species have a sticky trailing thread, a funicular cord, attached to the peridiole. If that thread encounters a twig on its flight the egg will swing around and wrap itself around the twig. The spores can then germinate there and start the life cycle over again.Genera
There are five genera in the Nidulariaceae family.Crucibulum
Crucibulum
Crucibulum is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of falling drops of rain...
Fruiting bodies light tan to cinnamon-colored, cup- or crucible-shaped, and typically 1.5–10 mm wide by 5–12 mm tall.
Cyathus
Cyathus
Cyathus is a genus of fungi in the Nidulariaceae, a family collectively known as the bird's nest fungi. They are given this name since they resemble tiny bird's nests filled with "eggs", structures large enough to have been mistaken in the past for seeds. However, these are now known to be...
Fruiting bodies vase-, trumpet- or urn-shaped with dimensions of 4–8 mm wide by 7–18 mm tall. Fruiting bodies are brown to gray-brown in color, and covered with small hair-like structures on the outer surface. Complex funicular cord.
Mycocalia
Mycocalia
Mycocalia is a genus of fungi in the family Nidulariaceae. Like other members of the Nidulariaceae, their fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests...
Small barrel- to lens-shaped fruiting bodies, usually 0.5–2 mm broad, that grow singly or in small groups.
Nidula
Nidula
Nidula is a genus of fungi in the family Nidulariaceae. Like other members of the Nidulariaceae, their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests, from which they derive their common name "bird's nest fungi"...
Fruiting bodies between 3–8 mm in diameter, 5–15 mm tall, and cup- or urn-shaped—having almost vertical sides with the lip flared outwards; color ranging from white, grey, buff, or tawny.
Nidularia
Nidularia
Nidularia is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird nests. The name comes from the Latin nidus meaning nest.-Description:...
Typically 0.5–6 mm in diameter x 0.5–3 mm tall. They may be somewhat irregular in shape, or have a well-formed cup that is thin and fragile. No funicular cord.
Phylogenetics
The Nidulariaceae were formerly classified in the class Gasteromycetes, but this classClass (biology)
In biological classification, class is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, order, family, genus, and species, with class fitting between phylum and order...
has been shown to be polyphyletic, and an artificial assemblage of unrelated taxa that have independently evolved a gasteroid body type. A 2002 phylogenetic study of ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA codes for ribosomal RNA. The ribosome is an intracellular macromolecule that produces proteins or polypeptide chains. The ribosome itself consists of a composite of proteins and RNA. As shown in the figure, rDNA consists of a tandem repeat of a unit segment, an operon, composed of...
from various gasteriod species, including Cyathus striatus
Cyathus striatus
Cyathus striatus, commonly known as the fluted bird's nest, is a common saprobic bird's nest fungus with a widespread distribution throughout temperate regions of the world. This fungus resembles a miniature bird's nest with numerous tiny "eggs"; the eggs, or peridioles, are actually lens-shaped...
and Crucibulum laeve as representatives of the Nidulariaceae, were shown to belong to the euagarics clade, a monophyletic grouping of species from various genera: Hymenogaster
Hymenogaster
Hymenogaster is a genus of fungi in the Hymenogastraceae family. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in temperate regions, and contains about 100 species. The taxonomy of the European species has recently been revised, and twelve species were recognized, for which an identification...
, Hebeloma
Hebeloma
Hebeloma is a genus of fungi. Found worldwide, it contains the poison pie or fairy cakes and the ghoul fungus Hebeloma is a genus of fungi. Found worldwide, it contains the poison pie or fairy cakes (Hebeloma crustuliniforme) and the ghoul fungus Hebeloma is a genus of fungi. Found worldwide, it...
, Pholiota
Pholiota
Pholiota is a genus of small to fleshy mushrooms in the family Strophariaceae. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in temperate regions, and contains about 150 species....
, Psathyrellus, Agaricus campestris
Agaricus campestris
Agaricus campestris is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom. It is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated button mushroom Agaricus bisporus.-Taxonomy:...
, Amanita
Amanita
The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own...
, and Tulostoma
Tulostoma
Tulostoma is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae.-External links:* at Index Fungorum...
. The euagarics are mostly gilled mushrooms, but they do include two gasteroid lineages, including a puffball
Puffball
A puffball is a member of any of several groups of fungus in the division Basidiomycota. The puffballs were previously treated as a taxonomic group called the Gasteromycetes or Gasteromycetidae, but they are now known to be a polyphyletic assemblage. The distinguishing feature of all puffballs is...
lineage in the Lycoperdales
Lycoperdales
The Lycoperdales are a now outdated order of fungi. The order included some well-known types such as the giant puffball, the earthstars, and other tuberous fungi...
, and the bird's nest fungi in the Nidulariales.
Further reading
- Mushrooms of Northeastern North America (1997) ISBN 0-8156-0388-6
- Alexopolous, C.J., Charles W. Mims, M. Blackwell et al., Introductory Mycology, 4th ed. (John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken NJ, 2004) ISBN 0-471-52229-5
- Arora, David. (1986). "Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi". 2nd ed. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0898151694
External links
- MushroomExpert.com Nidulariaceae