Omar Torrijos
Encyclopedia
Omar Efraín Torrijos Herrera (February 13, 1929 – July 31, 1981) was the Commander of the Panamanian and National Guard
and the de facto
leader of Panama
from 1968 to 1981. Torrijos was never officially the president of Panama, but instead held titles including "Maximum Leader of the Panamanian Revolution" and "Supreme Chief of Government." Although he was considered a leftist
dictator, he simultaneously had the support of the United States
as he opposed communism
. His politics were based instead on progressivism
.
Torrijos is best known for negotiating the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties that eventually gave Panama full sovereignty over the Panama Canal
, at noon on December 31, 1999. His son Martín Torrijos
was elected president and served from 2004 to 2009.
, and was employed as a teacher. He was educated at the local Juan Demóstenes Arosemena School and won a scholarship to the military academy in San Salvador
. He graduated with a commission as a second lieutenant. He joined the Panamanian army
, the National Guard (Guardia Nacional), in 1952. He was promoted to captain in 1956 and took a cadet course at the School of the Americas in 1965.
He had reached the rank of lieutenant colonel by 1966 and in 1968 he and Major Boris Martínez led a successful coup d'état
against the recently elected president of Panama, Arnulfo Arias
, after only eleven days in office, when he tried to order Torrijos to a foreign post. Although a two-man junta was appointed, Martinez and Torrijos were the true leaders from the beginning. Soon after the coup, Torrijos was promoted to full colonel and named commandant of the National Guard. They barred all political activity and shut down the legislature. They also seized control of three newspapers owned by Arias' brother, Harmodio and blackmailed the owners of the country's oldest newspaper, La Estrella de Panama, into becoming a government mouthpiece.
In the internal power struggle that followed Torrijos emerged victorious — he exiled Martínez in 1969 and promoted himself to brigadier general.
In 1972, the regime held a controlled election of an Assembly of Community Representatives, with a single opposition member. The new assembly approved a new Constitution and elected Demetrio Lakas
as president. However, the new document made Torrijos the actual head of government, with near-absolute powers for six years.
Torrijos was regarded by his supporters as the first Panamanian leader to represent the majority population of Panama, which is poor, Spanish-speaking, and of mixed heritage– as opposed to the light-skinned social elite
, often referred to as rabiblancos ("white-tails"), who had long dominated the commerce and political life of Panama. He opened many schools and opened job opportunities for the less fortunate. Torrijos instituted a range of social and economic reforms to improve the lot of the poor, redistributed agricultural land and persecuted the richest and most powerful families in the country, as well as independent student and labor leaders. The reforms were accompanied by an ambitious public works
program, financed by foreign banks.
Torrijos also negotiated the Torrijos-Carter Treaties
over the Panama Canal
, signed on September 7, 1977. These treaties passed United States
sovereignty over the canal zone to Panama, with a gradual increase in their control over it, leading to complete control on Dec 31, 1999. The United States however, retained the permanent right to protect what they see as the neutrality of the canal. The ratification ceremony at Fort Clayton
was somewhat of an embarrassment for Torrijos. He was noticeably drunk during the ceremony; his speech was badly slurred and he had to brace himself against the podium to keep from falling. {In 2006 Torrijos son President Martin Torrijos
passed the Panama Canal expansion project}
On the debit side, Torrijos was extremely intolerant of political opposition. Many opponents were imprisoned, exiled, killed, or "disappeared
". Also, the public works project was plagued by corruption and nepotism, which turned Panama into one of the countries with the highest per capita
ratio of public indebtedness.
In 1978, he stepped down as head of the government, but remained de facto ruler of the country while another one of his followers, Aristides Royo
was a figurehead president. He also restored some civil liberties; U.S. President
Jimmy Carter
had told him that the Senate would never approve the Canal treaties unless Torrijos made some effort to liberalize his rule. He planned to return the country to full civilian rule by 1984.
near Penonome
, in the Republic of Panama at Cerro Marta of the community of Coclesito. The aircraft disappeared from radar during severe weather, but due to the limited nature of Panama's radar coverage at the time, the plane was not reported missing for nearly a day. The crash site was located several days later, and the body of General Torrijos was recovered by a Special Forces team in the first few days of August. His death caused an national mourning around the country, especially in the poverty area. Following a large state funeral, Torrijos was briefly buried in a cemetery in Casco Viejo (the Old City of Panama), before being moved to a mausoleum in the former Canal Zone on Fort Amador
near Panama City
. He was succeeded as commander of the National Guard and de facto leader of Panama by Florencio Flores
, who later gave way to Rubén Darío Paredes
. Actually, the place where the plane crashed is a national park and his house in Coclesito is now a museum.
's attorney, Frank Rubino, was quoted as saying "General Noriega has in his possession documents showing attempts to assassinate General Noriega and Mr. Torrijos by agencies of the United States." Those documents were not allowed as evidence in trial, because the presiding judge agreed with the U.S. government's claim that their public mention would violate the Classified Information Procedures Act
. More recently, former businessman John Perkins alleges in his book Confessions of an Economic Hit Man
, that Torrijos was assassinated by American interests, who had a bomb planted aboard his aircraft (by CIA organized operatives). The alleged motive is that some American business leaders and politicians strongly opposed the negotiations between Torrijos and a group of Japanese businessmen led by Shigeo Nagano, who were promoting the idea of a new, larger, sea-level canal for Panama. Manuel Noriega
, in America's Prisoner, claims that these negotiations had evoked an extremely unfavorable response from American circles. However, the documents with the investigations about the cause of the accident were missing during the U.S. invasion in Panama on December 20, 1989 and never found. Torrijos died shortly after the inauguration of US President Ronald Reagan
, just two months after Ecuadorian president Jaime Roldós died in strikingly similar circumstances.
Military of Panama
The Panamanian Public Forces are the national defense forces of Panama. Panama is the second country in Latin America to permanently abolish standing armies, leaving it with only small para-military forces. This came as a result of a US invasion that overthrew a military dictatorship which ruled...
and the de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
leader of Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
from 1968 to 1981. Torrijos was never officially the president of Panama, but instead held titles including "Maximum Leader of the Panamanian Revolution" and "Supreme Chief of Government." Although he was considered a leftist
Left-wing politics
In politics, Left, left-wing and leftist generally refer to support for social change to create a more egalitarian society...
dictator, he simultaneously had the support of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
as he opposed communism
Communism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
. His politics were based instead on progressivism
Progressivism
Progressivism is an umbrella term for a political ideology advocating or favoring social, political, and economic reform or changes. Progressivism is often viewed by some conservatives, constitutionalists, and libertarians to be in opposition to conservative or reactionary ideologies.The...
.
Torrijos is best known for negotiating the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties that eventually gave Panama full sovereignty over the Panama Canal
Panama Canal
The Panama Canal is a ship canal in Panama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. Built from 1904 to 1914, the canal has seen annual traffic rise from about 1,000 ships early on to 14,702 vessels measuring a total of 309.6...
, at noon on December 31, 1999. His son Martín Torrijos
Martín Torrijos
Martín Erasto Torrijos Espino is a Panamanian politician and the former President of the Republic of Panama.Torrijos was elected President on May 2, 2004...
was elected president and served from 2004 to 2009.
Background
Torrijos was born in Santiago in the province of Veraguas, the sixth of twelve children. His father, José Maria Torrijos, was originally from ColombiaColombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
, and was employed as a teacher. He was educated at the local Juan Demóstenes Arosemena School and won a scholarship to the military academy in San Salvador
San Salvador
The city of San Salvador the capital and largest city of El Salvador, which has been designated a Gamma World City. Its complete name is La Ciudad de Gran San Salvador...
. He graduated with a commission as a second lieutenant. He joined the Panamanian army
Military of Panama
The Panamanian Public Forces are the national defense forces of Panama. Panama is the second country in Latin America to permanently abolish standing armies, leaving it with only small para-military forces. This came as a result of a US invasion that overthrew a military dictatorship which ruled...
, the National Guard (Guardia Nacional), in 1952. He was promoted to captain in 1956 and took a cadet course at the School of the Americas in 1965.
Career
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
against the recently elected president of Panama, Arnulfo Arias
Arnulfo Arias
Dr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid was president of Panama on three occasions: 1940–41, 1949–51, and for two weeks in October 1968.- Origins :...
, after only eleven days in office, when he tried to order Torrijos to a foreign post. Although a two-man junta was appointed, Martinez and Torrijos were the true leaders from the beginning. Soon after the coup, Torrijos was promoted to full colonel and named commandant of the National Guard. They barred all political activity and shut down the legislature. They also seized control of three newspapers owned by Arias' brother, Harmodio and blackmailed the owners of the country's oldest newspaper, La Estrella de Panama, into becoming a government mouthpiece.
In the internal power struggle that followed Torrijos emerged victorious — he exiled Martínez in 1969 and promoted himself to brigadier general.
In 1972, the regime held a controlled election of an Assembly of Community Representatives, with a single opposition member. The new assembly approved a new Constitution and elected Demetrio Lakas
Demetrio Lakas Bahas
Demetrio Basilio Lakas Bahas was president of Panama from December 19, 1969 to October 11, 1978. Lakas graduated from Texas Tech University in 1963 and was honored as a distinguished alumnus in 1970....
as president. However, the new document made Torrijos the actual head of government, with near-absolute powers for six years.
Torrijos was regarded by his supporters as the first Panamanian leader to represent the majority population of Panama, which is poor, Spanish-speaking, and of mixed heritage– as opposed to the light-skinned social elite
Elite
Elite refers to an exceptional or privileged group that wields considerable power within its sphere of influence...
, often referred to as rabiblancos ("white-tails"), who had long dominated the commerce and political life of Panama. He opened many schools and opened job opportunities for the less fortunate. Torrijos instituted a range of social and economic reforms to improve the lot of the poor, redistributed agricultural land and persecuted the richest and most powerful families in the country, as well as independent student and labor leaders. The reforms were accompanied by an ambitious public works
Public works
Public works are a broad category of projects, financed and constructed by the government, for recreational, employment, and health and safety uses in the greater community...
program, financed by foreign banks.
Torrijos also negotiated the Torrijos-Carter Treaties
Torrijos-Carter Treaties
The Torrijos–Carter Treaties are two treaties signed by the United States and Panama in Washington, D.C., on September 7, 1977, which abrogated the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty of 1903...
over the Panama Canal
Panama Canal
The Panama Canal is a ship canal in Panama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. Built from 1904 to 1914, the canal has seen annual traffic rise from about 1,000 ships early on to 14,702 vessels measuring a total of 309.6...
, signed on September 7, 1977. These treaties passed United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
sovereignty over the canal zone to Panama, with a gradual increase in their control over it, leading to complete control on Dec 31, 1999. The United States however, retained the permanent right to protect what they see as the neutrality of the canal. The ratification ceremony at Fort Clayton
Fort Clayton
Fort Clayton was a United States Army base in the former Panama Canal Zone, later part of the Republic of Panama. Fort Clayton was located northwest of Balboa, Panama, with the Panama Canal located nearby. It closed in 1999 pursuant to the Torrijos-Carter Treaties...
was somewhat of an embarrassment for Torrijos. He was noticeably drunk during the ceremony; his speech was badly slurred and he had to brace himself against the podium to keep from falling. {In 2006 Torrijos son President Martin Torrijos
Martín Torrijos
Martín Erasto Torrijos Espino is a Panamanian politician and the former President of the Republic of Panama.Torrijos was elected President on May 2, 2004...
passed the Panama Canal expansion project}
On the debit side, Torrijos was extremely intolerant of political opposition. Many opponents were imprisoned, exiled, killed, or "disappeared
Forced disappearance
In international human rights law, a forced disappearance occurs when a person is secretly abducted or imprisoned by a state or political organization or by a third party with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of a state or political organization, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the...
". Also, the public works project was plagued by corruption and nepotism, which turned Panama into one of the countries with the highest per capita
Per capita
Per capita is a Latin prepositional phrase: per and capita . The phrase thus means "by heads" or "for each head", i.e. per individual or per person...
ratio of public indebtedness.
In 1978, he stepped down as head of the government, but remained de facto ruler of the country while another one of his followers, Aristides Royo
Aristides Royo
Aristides Royo Sánchez was President of Panama from October 11, 1978 to July 31, 1982.-History of Panama Presidents:...
was a figurehead president. He also restored some civil liberties; U.S. President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
Jimmy Carter
Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office...
had told him that the Senate would never approve the Canal treaties unless Torrijos made some effort to liberalize his rule. He planned to return the country to full civilian rule by 1984.
Death
General Torrijos died at the age of 52 when his aircraft, a DeHavilland Twin Otter (DHC-6), registered as FAP-205 of the Panamanian Air Force, crashedPanamanian Air Force FAP-205 crash
The Panamanian Air Force FAP-205 crash occurred in July 31, 1981 when a DeHavilland Twin Otter, owned by the Panamanian Air Force and registered as FAP-205, crashed in the Marta Hill, in the community of Coclesito in very bad weather while on final approaching to the airport and killing all 7...
near Penonome
Penonomé
Penonomé is the capital of the Panamanian province of Coclé. The town is located along the Inter-American Highway in the wide, flat lowlands of central Coclé....
, in the Republic of Panama at Cerro Marta of the community of Coclesito. The aircraft disappeared from radar during severe weather, but due to the limited nature of Panama's radar coverage at the time, the plane was not reported missing for nearly a day. The crash site was located several days later, and the body of General Torrijos was recovered by a Special Forces team in the first few days of August. His death caused an national mourning around the country, especially in the poverty area. Following a large state funeral, Torrijos was briefly buried in a cemetery in Casco Viejo (the Old City of Panama), before being moved to a mausoleum in the former Canal Zone on Fort Amador
Panama Canal Zone
The Panama Canal Zone was a unorganized U.S. territory located within the Republic of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending 5 miles on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have been partly within the limits of...
near Panama City
Panama City
Panama is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Panama. It has a population of 880,691, with a total metro population of 1,272,672, and it is located at the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal, in the province of the same name. The city is the political and administrative center of the...
. He was succeeded as commander of the National Guard and de facto leader of Panama by Florencio Flores
Florencio Flores Aguilar
Colonel Florencio Flores Aguilar was a Panamanian army officer.Flores served as Commander of Panamanian Guardia Nacional following the death of General Omar Torrijos in July 1981. Colonel Florencio Flores Aguilar assumed command of the Military of Panama, and was displaced on year later by General...
, who later gave way to Rubén Darío Paredes
Rubén Darío Paredes
Rubén Darío Paredes del Río was a Panamanian army officer and the military ruler of Panamafrom 1982 to 1983.Colonel Paredes came to power following the coup against Colonel Florencio Flores. Paredes' tenure was from March 1982 to August 1983. Paredes was promoted to the rank of general on March 3...
. Actually, the place where the plane crashed is a national park and his house in Coclesito is now a museum.
Speculations on cause of crash
Torrijos' death generated charges and speculation that he was the victim of an assassination plot. For instance, in pre-trial hearings in Miami in May 1991, Manuel NoriegaManuel Noriega
Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno is a Panamanian politician and soldier. He was military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989.The 1989 invasion of Panama by the United States removed him from power; he was captured, detained as a prisoner of war, and flown to the United States. Noriega was tried on...
's attorney, Frank Rubino, was quoted as saying "General Noriega has in his possession documents showing attempts to assassinate General Noriega and Mr. Torrijos by agencies of the United States." Those documents were not allowed as evidence in trial, because the presiding judge agreed with the U.S. government's claim that their public mention would violate the Classified Information Procedures Act
Classified Information Procedures Act
The Classified Information Procedures Act or , is codified as the third appendix to Title18 of the U.S. Code, the title concerning crimes and criminal procedures. The U.S. Code citation is .-Legislative Revision History:...
. More recently, former businessman John Perkins alleges in his book Confessions of an Economic Hit Man
Confessions of an Economic Hit Man
Confessions of an Economic Hit Man is a book written by John Perkins and published in 2004. It provides Perkins' account of his career with consulting firm Chas. T. Main in Boston. Before employment with the firm, he interviewed for a job with the National Security Agency...
, that Torrijos was assassinated by American interests, who had a bomb planted aboard his aircraft (by CIA organized operatives). The alleged motive is that some American business leaders and politicians strongly opposed the negotiations between Torrijos and a group of Japanese businessmen led by Shigeo Nagano, who were promoting the idea of a new, larger, sea-level canal for Panama. Manuel Noriega
Manuel Noriega
Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno is a Panamanian politician and soldier. He was military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989.The 1989 invasion of Panama by the United States removed him from power; he was captured, detained as a prisoner of war, and flown to the United States. Noriega was tried on...
, in America's Prisoner, claims that these negotiations had evoked an extremely unfavorable response from American circles. However, the documents with the investigations about the cause of the accident were missing during the U.S. invasion in Panama on December 20, 1989 and never found. Torrijos died shortly after the inauguration of US President Ronald Reagan
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan was the 40th President of the United States , the 33rd Governor of California and, prior to that, a radio, film and television actor....
, just two months after Ecuadorian president Jaime Roldós died in strikingly similar circumstances.
Famous quotes
Omar Torrijos is well known in Panama for his famous quotes. Here are some examples:- "I don't like Communism because it hands out wealth through rationing books.”
- "You may rest assured that in our negotiations with the U.S. you will always find us standing on our feet or dead, but never on our knees. Never!"
- "I don't want to go into history; I want to go into the Canal Zone.”
- "If I fall, pick up the flag, kiss it, and keep on going.”
- "Those that consult more, make fewer mistakes."
- "In the foolishness lies the danger."
- "The (Panama Canal) treaty is like a little pebble which we shall be able to carry in our shoe for 23 years, and that is better than the stake we have had to carry in our hearts."
- The Canal Zone is "a tumor that must go through the operating room."
- Satisfying all parties (on a new Panama Canal Treaty) would be about as difficult as pleasing the "princess who had big feet and asked a shoemaker to find her a shoe small on the outside and large inside."
- Telling the Panamanian poor people "Here are the children of the revolution!"
- Addressing Panamanian peasants "Very foolish you will be if you let them take away the rights I have given you", referring to the landowners.
- "We would always be under The PentagonThe PentagonThe Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, located in Arlington County, Virginia. As a symbol of the U.S. military, "the Pentagon" is often used metonymically to refer to the Department of Defense rather than the building itself.Designed by the American architect...
's protective umbrella", referring to the Panama Canal Treaty.
See also
- Martín TorrijosMartín TorrijosMartín Erasto Torrijos Espino is a Panamanian politician and the former President of the Republic of Panama.Torrijos was elected President on May 2, 2004...
- Manuel NoriegaManuel NoriegaManuel Antonio Noriega Moreno is a Panamanian politician and soldier. He was military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989.The 1989 invasion of Panama by the United States removed him from power; he was captured, detained as a prisoner of war, and flown to the United States. Noriega was tried on...
- Torrijos-Carter TreatiesTorrijos-Carter TreatiesThe Torrijos–Carter Treaties are two treaties signed by the United States and Panama in Washington, D.C., on September 7, 1977, which abrogated the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty of 1903...
- Panama Canal ZonePanama Canal ZoneThe Panama Canal Zone was a unorganized U.S. territory located within the Republic of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending 5 miles on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have been partly within the limits of...
- Tocumen International AirportTocumen International AirportTocumen International Airport is an international airport located from Panama City, Panama. In 2006, it underwent a major expansion and renovation program in order to modernize and improve its facilities...
External links
- "Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Panama", by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 1978, describes human rights violations by the Torrijos regime.
- An assessment of the career of Omar Torrijos in the context of Panamanian history
- Web Site of author John Perkins.
- http://www.nytimes.com/books/00/02/20/specials/greene-general.htmlNew York Times book review from 1984 of Graham GreeneGraham GreeneHenry Graham Greene, OM, CH was an English author, playwright and literary critic. His works explore the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world...
's Getting to Know the General.] - http://as.americas-society.org/areas.php?k=upcoming_exhibitionTorrijos: The Man and the Myth, Americas Society exhibition in NYC of photos of Graciela IturbideGraciela Iturbide- Biography :Graciela Iturbide was born in Mexico in 1942, the eldest of thirteen children. She then married the architect Manuel Rocha Díaz in 1962 and had three children over the next eight years. Iturbide's six year old daughter died in 1970; after this death she turned to photography...
, Jan. 31 - May 5, 2008.]